threats and challenges posed by their environment, The cultural evolution of ‘humans also included the social and political evolution of modern man (Fig. the hunting and gathering stage up to the agricultural, industrial, cuvrer | 73What do you see in the picture? Describe their appearance and expressions. © What is happening in the photo? List three things you ‘might infer from this picture. What questions does this photograph raise in your ming? ‘Where could you find the answers to them? Ot ACQUISITION of Knowledge Cong) BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION ey) origins of modern humans. Biological evolution refers to the changes, modifications, and variations in the genetics and inherited traits of biological populations from one generation to another. Evolution is diverse and it ‘occurs in different levels of the biological population. It can occur in the level of species or organisms and even in the molecular level. Physical body of humans, the changes in the shape and size of their bones, brain, dentition, and fingers for instance. Included in the study of biological ‘evolution are the changes in posture, movement, and the development of bipedalism or walking on two feet in an upright position, to the changes or development in cultures from a simple form to a more Biological and cultural evolutions are key concepts in the study of the In studying biological evolution, scientists study the changes in the Cultural evolution or sociocultural evolution, on the other hand, refers UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, alo POLITICSSmall teeth similar to other hominids; and had After he Sahelanthropus ichadensis cams the million years ago) and the Ardipithecus fami Ramey the Ardipithecus kacabba (6,6 million yeans ag alpithe ramidus (4.4 million years ago). Ardipithecus means ape-on the ground,"while ramidus means “root” The Ardipithecus had the following characteristics: 1. Height of about 4 fest 2. Weight of about 120 pounds 8. Skull size similar to an ape 4. Small brain 5 6. Biped (walked on two legs or feet) Lived in jungles and forests like the chimpanzees of thelr characteristics include the following: 1. Brain size of 500 cubic centimeters (ec) or almost Fof the size of the modern human brain 2. Upright 3. Biped 4. Tool users only and not tool makers 5. Used sticks and stones for digging 6. Lived in smait social groups 7- Distance of movement was estimated tobe 15 klometere (9.3 miles) or more to search for stones to be used as tools 8. Food scavengers 8. Ate insects, eggs, plants, fruits, and sometimes meat Carrer | ae1. Every species is made up of a variety of individuals wherein some are better adapted to their environments compared to others. 2. Organisms produce progeny with different sets of traits that can be inherited. 3. Organisms that have traits most suitable to their environment will survive and transfer these variations to their offspring in subsequent generations. From Hominips to Homo sAPieNs SAPIENS: Bondoc A Tae Brovocicat ano Curruray Even ana, For many generations, scientists:b humans follows an evolutionary ladder. al e apelike ancestors of modern humans at# humans: (Homo sapiens sapiens) at the top. The Sanaa ioeke greece to modern humans occurred after millions of years of biological and cultural evolution. in this long process of evolution, our apelike ancestors developed and eventually became modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens). In order to understand the development of humans, archaeologists or social scientists who study the ancient and recent past of humans conduct excavations to search for fossils and artifacts that can provide information about the origins of humans. For archaeologists, arfifacts and fossils are important sources of information in the reconstruction of human evolution. Fossils refer to the human, plant, and animal remains that have been preserved through time like human or animal teeth, skull, and bone fragments. Artifacts refer to objects that were made and used by humans. Examples of artifacts include stone tools, metal tools, ceramics, earthenware, burial Jars, and ornaments. Hominid is the general term used by scientists to categorize the group of early humans and other humaniike creatures that can walk erect during the prehistoric times. There are four categories of hominids based on the age of the artifacts and fossils that were found. These are Sahelanthropus, Atdipithecus, Australopithecus, and Homo. Among the four, it was the ‘Australopithecus and the Homo that had the most number of species based on the fossils and artifacts that were excavated by archaeologists. Many scholars consider the Australopithecus as the first stage of human evolution and the Homo as the last stage. ‘The Australopithecus, together with the Sahelanthropus and Ardipithecus, are considered as the prehuman stage of evolution, while the Homo is 82 | wnocrsmione cure socer ao roUTes | | -_ |RW At present, there are six species of the Australopithecus and they are divided into two major categories: the gracile and the robust. The gracile australopithecine had small teeth and jaw. Included in this group ate the Australopithecus anamensis, Australopithecus afarensis, and the Australopithecus africanus. The robust Australopithecus group, on the other hand, include the Australopithecus aethiopicus, Australopithecus robustus, and the Australopithecus boisei. These Australopithecines had large teeth and jaws and muscular built (for the Australopithecus boise). ‘The Australopithecus afarensis is considered as the common ancestor of the Australopithecus species, a the Sierras africanus, modern huran's earliest ancestors and fossil discovered. Lucy was discovered in Australopithecus species (A. africanus, A. robustus, A. boisel) and their excavation sites ‘Sourco: University of Texas at Austin. 7.) item sbs.utexas. edullevinvbio21Vhumanevolhumanevol.him. Reconstruction of the Australopithecus afarensis ‘Source: Univesity of Texas a! Austin, (rc). hitpiwn.sbs utes. ‘edulevinbie2X3/humanevolhumanevoL htm. ‘B4 | unnenstanoine cucTune, society, ano Poumics:O% The Australopithecus disappeared in the evolutionary map after almost pow inilion years. They were replaced by a much More intelligent group of hominids that belonged toa new genus- the Homo. The Homo are classified &s humans and not humanfike creaiures because they had bigger brains and about 2.4 millon years ago. The Homo species included the Homo habilis (handy man), ‘Homo erectus (upright man), ‘andthe Homo sapiens (wise man). ‘en te an) Time Line of the Develooment of Hominids ounce: University of Taras at Austin. (rc) pion sbe unas edutertMbee ainaneainone eke here found—in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania) which were used as cutting fools and made from volcanic stones 4° Used toois for hunting and food gathering The Homo ergaster (1.8 million years Ago) was the next Homo species flourish. It was from this species where Momo erectus came from. The ‘Gupren iesPs r : Homo erectus was estimated to have lived from 1.8 milion to 300,000 years ago. It had the following characteristics: 1. Brain size of 1,000 cc or about 2 of the modern human brain size 2. Height of about five feet 8. Walks upright In terms of cultural development, the Homo erectus is belleved to be ‘more intelligent and more adaptable compared to the Homo habilis. The Homo erectus also manifested cultural evolution because they used thelr inteligence to invent and develop different technologies to respond to their Needs. They are known for making complex tools used for digging, cutting, and scraping. They are also famous for making and. using hand axe tools for slicing, chopping, and digging, Because of their tools, the Homo erectus are considered as ao Based on artifacts excavated, the Homo erectus was the first Homo Species to use fire and to live in caves and small houses made of tree branches. Through the use of fire, they were able to live in cold and dark Places lke caves. Fire also allowed them to cook food and meat, They also Used fire to protect them from attacking wild animals, Fire also provided the Homo erectus @ much bigger area available for habitation. it was also believed that the Homo erectus was the first Homo to use spoken language. Because of language, the Homo The skull remains of the @7ectus controlled their environment, Austraiopithecus and the Homo @xchanged ideas with each other, planned Sounss:Lnwersty of Texas et Austin, COOPErative hunting, and helped others in (nai htp:lwvausbs.uexas.edulevin’ doing different activities. Because of the So EIEN IAIN language, the Homo erectus was able to give names to different objects, places, animals, and plants. They were also able to develop diferent religious rituals particularly burial practices, The Homo erectus fossil was first discovered in Arica. Later, Homo erectus started to travel outside of the African continent. It reached as far as Asia and Southern Europe. Because of this, scientists believed that the Homo erectus were the first Homo to leave Africa and travel to other continents. ‘They are also regarded as the first Homo to live and survive in Asia. Based on archaeological evidences, the first fossil of the Homo erectus in Asia was found in the Longgupo Cave in China. It was believed to have lived around 1.9 million years ago. Another evidence of the Homo erectus 86 | voeismons cure socery ann umesDae avated in Trini, Java, Indonesia by Eugene Dubois (1848-1940), @ Dutch, anatomist and geologist, in 1811. The fossil became known as the dave Man and It was dated to be 1.8 milion years of age, In 1920, another Homo erectus skull was excavated seane Peking Man and it was estimated to have iived about 1.1 milion to 4 milion years of ago, The last genus in the evolution ladder ofthe Homo Eugene Dubois family was the Homo sapiens (thinking Man). Included in this species are the archale Homo sapiens of Africa, Homo heidelbergensts, Homo neanderthalensis and the Homo Sapiens sapiens. The Homo sapiens are Considered as modern humans. Their physical a ‘similar to the modem human beings that is why itis considered as ies where all ‘modem humans belong to. The characteristios of the Homo sapiens include the following: 1. Large brain size (1,400.c0) thats almost similarto the brain of modern humans 2. Lived in shelters, @ 8. Food gatherers 4. Ate plants and fruits 5. Hunted animals 8. Learned to gather and cook sheliish (164,000 years ago) 7. Used fire 8. Crafted metalsSOCIOCULTURAL AND POLITICAL EVOLUTION: THE DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIETIES FROM THE HUNTING AND GATHERING TO THE AGRICULTURAL, INDUSTRIAL, AND POST-INDUSTRIAL STAGES INTRODUCTION Yaya ‘As societies respond to the threats and challenges posed by the environment, they develop culture. The development of culture through time, called as cultural evolution, led to the transformation of different societies and political systems, a process called sociopolitical evolution. Sociopolitical evolution happens when societies develop new forms of economic subsistence, acquire knowledge, and apply new technology. This transformation produces major levels of sociocultural and political developments, namely, hunting and gathering, horticultural and pastoral, agricultural, industrial and post-industrial societies. This lesson studies how hunting and gathering societies developed step by step to become agricultural, industrial, and then post-industrial ‘societies. It examines how cultura! evolution affected the development of each stage of society. The lesson also analyzes how political evolution was. clearly shown in the development of the four major cradles of civilizations. OT SUGILe CMs == How did societies transform through time? = How does cultural evolution affect the transformation of societies? ‘= What are the significant social developments that happen as societies and their culture evolve? ‘What are the major political developments of the early civilizations? FOL roves 4 + Sociocultural revolution and the development of societies + Political evolution and the development of the early civilizations 92 | wnoerstanowes cunrune, socery, ano PoLMsACQUISITION _ * of Knowledge Ge) THE SOCIAL AS “DRIVER OF INTERACTION” axl, ‘The process of sociocultural evolution ‘explains why human societies change through time. in this process, societies produce new forms of subsistence, acquire more knowledge, develop different levels of innovation, and apply new forms of technology as a response to the challenges posed by the environment. Gerhard Lenski (1824-2015), an American sociologist, argued that human society undergoes transformation and evolution and in the process develops technological advancement. This is called sociocultural evolution. For Lenski, the development of technology, the information acquired by humans on how to apply societal resources as a response to humans needs and wants, leads to the evolution and transformation of society (Macionis, 2006, p. 44-45). Societies are of different types and their types depend on their level of development. These include the following: Hunting and gathering Horticultural Pastoral Dicewss Agricultural ony industrial Post-industrial rood Soros Huwrine ano Gartening Socieries © —, Valenaa | The oldest and most basic way of economic subsistence is-hunting and gathering. Hunting and gathering societies produce simple forms of tools Used to hunt for animals and gather plants and vegetation for food. In this Society, the men are tasked to hunt large animal game like deer, elk, moose, and other animals available in their areas. The women, on the other hand, are responsible for the collection of vegetation, berries, and small edible crops. Because of this setup, scientists describe the relationship between men and women as being equal. During the time of the early humans around 3,000,000 years ago, most People were hunters and food gatherers. Since hunting and gathering societies rely on nature for their food, they frequently move and do not have Permanent settlements. Hence, they are nomadic societies. Most of the time, 94 | woeestwone curure,sociery ano poumes Ficsf (Gk hunters and gatherers lve in caves and pit or Underground houses that are Gug and covered with tree branches and leaves. Hunting and gathering Societies spend most of their time hunting animal game and collecting edible mobs and vegetation. During the Paleolithic period (2,500,000-1 0,000 BCE), members become priests. Pastoral societies developed around 10,000 years ago, The principal means of subsistence of pastoralists is animal domestication. Pastoralist couerenn | 95 sieiii "3500 BCE, During this time, humans began to farm and domesticate animals, ass thelr form of subsistence. By 7000 BCE, Neolithic people produced tultivation tools and developed farming skils that can support and sustain 4 town with a population of over a thousand people. This was evident in ‘Jeticho located inthe Jordan River Valley and Catal Huyuk locatedin Turkey ‘agriculture developed in Western Asia (Middle East) by 2500 BCE and the ‘abundant supply of resources produced through plant cultivation led to the rise of the early civilizations. This new form of economic subsistence evertually spread Indifferent parts ofthe world and it became known as the Neolithic Revolution, which transformed societies into agricuitural societies. “The Agricultural Revolution that started inWest Asia (Middle Eas!) moved to the east of India. The cultivation of wheat and barley crops also spread orthward to Europe where people also developed the cuttivation of oats and rye. Plant cultivation also spread in northern China during the Neolithic period. A mille-based system of agriculture developed. along the Fluarng” He River basin. Later, the agricultural revolution based on rice cultivation developed in mainland Southeast Asia before 6000 BCE. "animal domestication provided important contributions to the Neolithic people. Sheep, goats, and pigs were the first animals domesticated in West cia between 8800 and 7000 BCE Homed cattle, on the other hand, were only domesticated around 6500 BCE. The domestication of cattle and Shes? provided the Neolithic people with additional sources of nution. Animal reat. for example, provided them with more sources of protein while animal hides and skin served as materials for clothes. Animal horns and bones were also utilized for making needles and other utensils while animal manure was used as soil fertilizers. During the Neolithic Revolution, agricultural societies developed and their population increased into milions. They also settled permanently ‘and improved the. technology for farming, Through agricultural revolution, members of society produced surplus of food supply that were transported py animal-powered wagons. As the society developed and its members developed specialization, money became a form of exchange replacing the barter system. The development of agriculture also led to an Increase in social inequality because most people in society acted as serfs and slaves senile a few members became elites and acted as owners of lands and ofne! resources. Inmusraint Socerus ~Fesnandsa.(Reetmnch Industrial societies began when the industrial Revolution swept ‘through Europe during the late eighteenth century and the first half of the nineteen! 96 | wioerswmions curr, soo1, nw PoLICSCentury (from 1780s to 1850s). During the Industrial Revolution, new sources : of energy were harnessed, advanced forms of technology were applied, and machineries were invented, These changes led to industrialization or the transformation of an agricultural society into a production- and manufacturing- ~ based one. This was made possible by the use of advanced sources of energy that operated factory machineries. Industrialization produced a number of changes in society. It created centralized workplaces, economic interdependence, formal education, and complex social systems. During this time, people left their farm lands and transferred to the urban areas to ‘work in factories, Post-moustaiat Socierés. Bonney [Demayelea With the development of information technology and computers, many Societies transformed into post-industrial societies. The United States, like many other developed countries, have reached the post-industrial era and undergone a post-industrial revolution. The Post-Industrial Revolution is an important development from the Industrial Revolution as economic production focused on the use and application of new information technology rather than factories (Macionis, 2002, p. 46). In the post-industrial era, Macionis (2002) writes that production “centers on computers and other electronic devices that create, process, and apply ideas and information. Daniel Bell, an American sociologist at Harvard University, introduced the rise of the Post-industrial society. According to Bell (1999), post-industrial societies are characterized by the following: 1. Transfer of labor workforce from manufacturing to service : 2. A significant increase in the number of professional and technical : ‘employment and a decline in the number of skilled and semiskilled | workers 3. Education as the basis of social mobility 4. Human capital a8 an essential aspect of understanding the strength of society 5. Application of “intellectual technology” which is based on the application of mathematics and linguistics and the use of algorithms. and software programming models 6. Focus on communication infrastructure. 7. Knowledge as source of invention and innovation cnapre w | OF= POLITICAL EVOLUTION => Alncasaryuum | AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF EARLY CIVILIZATION ‘The development of the early civilizations showed the polltical evolution * of society. A civilization develops because of a society's highly advanced level of culture, social organization, political developments, judicial system, arts, and other forms of culture at @ particular time. The four major civilizations in the world flourished along the rich river plains orriver valleys. These included the Sumerian civilization that developed along the Tigris and Euphrates River in West Asia; the indus Valley civilization that started along the indus River Valley in India; the Shang civilization of China that, developed near the Huang Ho/Huang He River; and the Egyptian civilization that started along the Nile River. These river valley civilizations are considered the cradles of human civilization because it was in these river valley systems where the Chinese, indian, Egyptian, and Sumerian civilizations developed and flourished. What are the characteristics of these civilizations? Below are their important characteristics: 1. Developed and highly advanced cities Well-defined city centers Complex and systematic institutions Organized and centralized system of government Formalized and complex form of religion Job specialization Development of social classes Implementation of large-scale public works and infrastructure like defense walls, monuments, temples, mausoleums, government edifices, trading centers, and markets 9. Sophisticated and detailed forms of arts and architecture 10. Advanced technology 11. System of writing and recording SNORE ep Political systems of civilizations have a highly centralized and well organized form of government whose leaders are powerful enough to order the building of massive infrastructure and implement new policies for citizens. The political system of the earry civilizations had a clear hierarchy of officials with specific functions and responsibilities. They also had codified laws and rules that were obeyed and followed by the people, The early civilizations also developed an organized, stable, and effective government to ensure the safety of the people and supervise the production and distribution of 98 | wreesiancws culture, soovery ano PoUTICs