See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/283305843

Religiousness, spirituality, and coping with stress among late adolescents: A

meaning-making perspective

Article  in  Journal of Adolescence · October 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.004

CITATIONS READS

23 829

1 author:

Dariusz Krok
Opole University
44 PUBLICATIONS   314 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Predictors and outcomes of religious struggle View project

Cognitive and affective processes in cancer and cardiac patients View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Dariusz Krok on 27 October 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Adolescence
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jado

Religiousness, spirituality, and coping with stress among late

adolescents: A meaning-making perspective
Dariusz Krok*
Institute of Family Sciences, Opole University, Opole, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The purpose of this study was to examine the associations between religiousness, spiri-
Available online xxx tuality (R/S), and coping among late adolescents within a meaning-making perspective.
Specifically, global meaning and situational meaning were examined as potential media-
Keywords: tors. Two hundred and twenty one Polish participants (115 women and 106 men)
Religiousness completed the Religious Meaning System Questionnaire, the Self-description Question-
Spirituality
naire of Spirituality, the Meaning in Life Questionnaire, and the Situational Meaning Scale.
Coping
Results of SEM analysis showed that R/S had both direct and indirect effects on coping,
Late adolescents
The meaning-making model
suggesting that global meaning and situational meaning served as partial mediators
among late adolescents. The mediating role of global meaning and situational meaning
may be more fully understood within the framework of the meaning-making model.
Consistent with the model, individuals with higher levels of R/S had a propensity to
experience stronger global meaning in life and situational meaning, which in turn
contributed to more frequent using coping styles.
© 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier
Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction

In two recent decades, extensive research has demonstrated relationships between religiousness, spirituality, and coping
with stress (Pargament, 2010; Pargament, Falb, Ano, & Wachholtz, 2013; Park, 2013a). In general, the results tend to reveal
positive effects of religious and spiritual factors on coping styles and strategies. However, there are some studies which did
not find significant relationships between religiousness, spirituality, and indicators of coping (Wasteson, Nordin, Hoffman,
Glimelius, & Sjo€ de
n, 2002) or produced mixed evidence (Alferi, Culver, Carver, Arena, & Antoni, 1999). In addition, the un-
derlying mechanisms of how religiousness and spirituality (R/S) are related to coping have not been well-established. The
meaning-making model proposed by Park (2010, 2013b) has been a useful theoretical framework for understanding the
relationships between R/S factors and coping, and their potential mediators. The purpose of this study is to investigate the
associations between R/S and coping among late adolescents within a meaning-making perspective. Specifically, global
meaning and situational meaning were examined as potential mediators.

Complexity of the associations between religiousness, spirituality and coping

Empirical research has demonstrated that religion is not a mere defensive mechanism, but it can affect individuals'
cognitive and emotional processes underlying coping with stressful events (Pargament et al., 2013). Although there is a

* Institute of Family Sciences, Opole University, ul. Drzymały 1a, 35-342 Opole, Poland. Tel.: þ48 606473086.
E-mail address: dkrok@uni.opole.pl.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2015.10.004
0140-1971/© 2015 The Foundation for Professionals in Services for Adolescents. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203 197

conceptual difference between religiousness and spirituality, both concepts appear to share the common feature: the search
for the sacred, which represents human endeavours to achieve significant goals and ultimate concerns (Hill & Edwards, 2013;
Zinnbauer & Pargament, 2005). Religiousness and spirituality are multidimensional, complex constructs, which overlap and
can be regarded as related but not identical. As a consequence, researchers have often examined them together as supple-
mentary constructs, especially in the field of personality and mental health (Gall & Guirguis-Younger, 2013; Paloutzian & Park,
2014; Park, 2007). It allows us to investigate more deeply a wider spectrum of religious and spiritual experiences, which have
undergone substantial changes and acquired new meanings in recent years.
The search for the sacred is a dynamic process that involves efforts to pursue and discover important values, purposes, and
principles. R/S beliefs and behaviour play an important role in the period of late adolescence during which young people
strive to achieve an integrated view of themselves, including their own pattern of beliefs, goals, and motivations (Boyd & Bee,
2012). R/S structures undergo rapid and extensive changes in young people, becoming often a vital part of their efforts to find
meaning in life. The search for meaning takes place in various domains of individual and social life, and is frequently char-
acterised by dynamic changes in cognitive and motivational processes.
In recent years, researchers have often examined R/S in relation to coping processes, incorporating religious dimensions
such as service attendance, religious behaviour, and prayer as well as spiritual dimensions in the form of individual expe-
riences, ultimate goals, and inner harmony (Gall & Guirguis-Younger, 2013; Park, 2013b). They appear to be effective in
dealing with personal situations and problems. The main reason lies in the well-established observation that R/S dimensions
are central to the global meaning systems of many people, because they provide individuals with an integrated set of beliefs,
goals and meanings which can be used in explaining intricacies of the world and promoting positive reinterpretations of
negative events through the sacred lens. This perspective is clearly visible in the concept of the religious meaning system
which is understood as an idiosyncratic system of concepts related to the sacred and having references to self, other people
and the world (Krok, 2009, 2014). Emphasising the fact that the search for meaning plays a vital role in human functioning,
the religious meaning system encompasses two dimensions: (1) orientation that evaluates the extent to which religion can
help individuals comprehend their lives and the world, and (2) meaningfulness that represents the ability of religion to enable
individuals to discover purpose and meaning in their lives.
Research has shown that R/S is associated with positive outcomes in coping processes among late adolescents. Reli-
giousness was beneficial in coping with the stress of difficult situations social-psychologically and processing difficult
emotions among American adolescents (Smith, 2003), reduced the impact of life stress on adolescent substance use (Wills,
Yaeger, & Sandy, 2003), and enabled young mothers to deal with daily problems (Bert, 2011). Some authors suggest that
religion may play a positive role especially on a basis emotion-focused coping (Horwitz, Hill, & King, 2011). One of the po-
tential explanations may lie in the fact that young people often derive positive emotions from private prayers and religious
services. Positive reinterpretations of negative events were especially noticeable for religious and spiritual coping. Results
demonstrated that religious self-directed coping was related to increased hopelessness, depression, and suicide attempts,
while collaborative coping was related to increased reasons for living among African American adolescents (Molock, Puri,
Matlin, & Barksdale, 2006). Spiritual coping and religious decision-making were also generally positively associated with
health outcomes (Cotton, Zebracki, Rosenthal, Tsevat, & Drotar, 2006).
Yet there are also studies which do not confirm positive relations between R/S and coping. Examining the psychological
effects of spirituality on managing stress by adolescents, Carlozzi et al. (2010) revealed that contrary to expectations, spiri-
tuality was significantly and positively related to anger and stress. Negative religious and spiritual coping was also associated
with increased psychological distress and decreased coping abilities (Bryant-Davis & Wong, 2013). This ambiguity suggests
that the character of relations between R/S and coping can depend on the way in which R/S is conceptualized and measured.
The findings also imply that relationships between R/S and coping are rather indirect, and depend on the occurrence of
potential mediators.

A meaning-making perspective as a mediational factor

The intricacies of the associations between R/S and coping, and their underlying mechanisms can be examined in the
context of the meaning-making model, which has been successfully applied in the field of coping and health (Park,
Edmondson, Hale-Smith, & Blank, 2009; Park & George, 2013). The model posits that individuals possess orienting sys-
tems which provide them with cognitive frameworks enabling them to interpret their experiences and with motivation
strengthening personal resources. When encountering difficult or challenging situations, individuals appraise the situations
and assign meaning to them. The model proposes two levels of meaning: global and situational (Park, 2013b). Global meaning
reflects individuals' general orienting systems and perception of various situations, and consists of beliefs, goals, and sub-
jective feelings. It is constructed early in life and modified on the basis of personal experiences. Being strongly connected to
motivation global meaning can influence individuals' thoughts, actions, and emotional responses. Global meaning is often
presented as meaning in life. Situational meaning relates to meaning in the context of specific environmental events. It
comprises initial appraisals of the situation and the outcomes of revising global and appraised meanings. Situational meaning
is generated on the onset of a potentially stressful event and influences the ways in which individuals deal with their stress.
According to the model, individuals' perception of discrepancies between their appraised meaning of a specific situation
and their global meaning generates distress, which entails efforts to reduce the discrepancy and ensuing stress (Park, 2010;
Park & George, 2013). Meaning making represents processes in which people engage to reduce the discrepancy between
198 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203

appraised and global meaning. The processes may involve: (1) changing either situational appraised meaning or global beliefs
and goals, (2) searching for a more favourable understanding of the situation and its implications, and (3) reconsidering global
beliefs and revising one's meaning in life.
There is strong evidence that meaning in life being an integral part of one's meaning structures is connected with both R/S
and coping. Meaning in life can be conceptualized as “the extent to which people comprehend, make sense of, or see sig-
nificance in their lives, accompanied by the degree to which they perceive themselves to have a purpose, mission, or over-
arching aim in life” (Steger, 2009, p. 682). Research showed that meaning in life was positively related to intrinsic
religiousness, but not extrinsic one in adult women (Chamberlain & Zika, 1988) and older adults (Ardelt, 2003), as well as
religious beliefs among Chinese adolescents (Shek, 2001) and religious activity, i.e. prayer and meditation (Steger & Frazier,
2005). Investigating college students within the meaning-making model, Park (2005) demonstrated that they were able to
derive comprehensive frameworks of personal meaning from religious beliefs, which in turn influenced their abilities to cope
with adversity and life stress. Meaning in life was also linked to different forms of spiritual experiences e spiritual satisfaction
among the elderly (Gerwood, LeBlanc, & Piazza, 1998), spiritual well-being and the importance of spirituality among college
students (Harris & Standard, 2001), and sense of universality and spiritual transcendence (Piedmont & Leach, 2002). The
presence of theistic spiritual goals, which are “building blocks” of meaning in life was associated with greater levels of goal
integration (Emmons, 2005). Yet, other aspects of spirituality, e.g. inner harmony or ethical standards have not been
examined.
Many studies found that meaning in life was a beneficial factor in coping processes. Meaning in life acted as a buffer
between coping style and suicidal manifestations among university undergraduates (Edwards & Holden, 2001), and was
helpful in the context of dealing with a chronic, life-threatening illness (Park, Malone, Suresh, Bliss, & Rosen, 2008). Analysing
empirical findings on meaning in life and coping, Park (2013b) stated that meaning structures play an essential role in the
ways in which individuals deal with stressful situations, influencing their adjustment and coping strategies. Through meaning
making processes, people may experience reductions or increases in their sense of meaning in life.
Although empirical studies have examined the relationships between meaning in life, R/S, and coping, little attention has
been paid to the systematic study of the underlying mechanisms and potential mediators. Previous research demonstrated
that meaning in life plays a mediating role between R/S and several variables associated with mental health. Ardelt (2003)
revealed that intrinsic religious orientation and religious involvement had an indirect effect, mediated by meaning in life,
on subjective well-being in older adults. Meaning in life was also a mediator between religious activities and life satisfaction
in a university student sample (Steger & Frazier, 2005), and the religious meaning system and subjective well-being (Krok,
2014). Examining coping with stress among bereaved college students, Park (2005) demonstrated that the relationship be-
tween religion and stress-related growth was mediated through meaning-making coping. However, those studies did not
examine whether meaning structures understood in terms of global meaning and situational meaning could mediate re-
lationships between R/S and coping styles.

The present study

In summary, this research evidence to date provides the rationale for the model proposed in the present study, in which
we examine the mediating effects of global meaning and situational meaning on the relationship between R/S and coping
styles in a sample of Polish late adolescents. Central to this prospective study is an estimation of the mediation concerning the
religious meaning system and spirituality in relation to coping styles. Based on the current research, the following hypotheses
are thus formulated: (1) R/S would be positively associated with meaning in life and coping, (2) Global meaning in life would
mediate the relation between R/S and coping styles as a source of universal values and goals, (3) Situational meaning would
be a mediator between R/S and coping styles provided that it does not differ from individuals' global meaning in life.

Method

Participants and procedure

Two hundred and twenty one late adolescents (115 women and 106 men) participated in this study. The age of the
participants ranged from 16 to 20, with a mean age of 18.48 years (SD ¼ 1.16). The data were collected from a stratified sample
of 15 colleges and 11 workplaces in southern parts of Poland based on the characteristics of these institutions (e.g. geographic
location, schools' academic standing, socio-cultural and socio-economic backgrounds). The inclusion criteria were to collect
data on a group which would be a representative sample of Polish late adolescents in terms of religion, social status, gender,
and age. Therefore, different colleges and workplaces were chosen in order to ensure that our sample would be representative
of the population we wished to investigate. The participants were selected at random in proportions equivalent to the
population of late adolescents.
The vast majority of participants were Christians (93.5%), with only 6.5% describing themselves as non-believers. The
sample reflects a social structure of Polish population which is predominately Christian. The study was anonymous and all the
participants were invited to participate in the study on a voluntary basis. They were asked to complete a questionnaire packet
either in the classroom (students) or at home (those in jobs). To encourage honest and objective responding, the participants
 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203 199

were told their responses were anonymous and there were no right or wrong answers to any of the questions. After
completing the questionnaires the participants were informed about the aim of the study.

Measures

Religiousness
The Religious Meaning System Questionnaire (Krok, 2009, 2014) was used to assess participants' religiousness in terms of
a comprehensive system for understanding and evaluating people's religious experiences and behaviour. It describes reli-
giousness as a cognitive and motivational system which enables individuals to explain and interpret their life and the world in
the categories of significance and purpose. The questionnaire consists of two subscales: (1) orientation (e.g. “While thinking
about my life I draw on religious norms”), and (2) meaningfulness (e.g. “My religious beliefs help me find goals and meaning
in difficult and complicated situations”). Respondents were asked to rate each of the questions on a 7-point Likert scale
(1 ¼ strongly disagree and 7 ¼ strongly agree). The Cronbach alpha coefficients for the subscales were .92 and .89, respec-
tively. A total score can be was computed by summing the two subscale scores (Cronbach-a ¼ .91). The test-retest correlations
show considerable stability, e.g. .81 over a 2-week period.

Spirituality
The Self-description Questionnaire of Spirituality (Heszen-Niejodek, Gruszczyn  ska, & Metlak, 2003) was applied to assess
different aspects of spiritual activities. The questionnaire consists of 20 items divided into three subscales: (1) religious at-
titudes which assess religious beliefs and behaviour (e.g. “I tend to connect my faith with daily life”); (2) ethical sensitivity
which measures prosocial beliefs about the world and humanity (e.g. “While making a decision I deliberately consider moral
values”), and (3) harmony which reflects the experience of inner peace and personal connection with the world (e.g. “I feel I
am united with the world and other people”). People respond to items on 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ¼ not at all to
5 ¼ very much. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for the subscales were .90, .83, and .82, respectively. Their sum gives the
overall spirituality (Cronbach-a ¼ .86). The test-retest correlations show considerable stability, e.g. .88 over a 2-week period.

Global meaning
The Meaning in Life Questionnaire (Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006) measures two dimensions of meaning in life:
presence and search. The presence subscale measures the extent to which participants perceive their lives as meaningful (e.g.,
“I understand my life's meaning” and “My life has no clear purpose”). The search subscale measures the extent to which
respondents are actively seeking meaning or purpose in their lives (e.g., “I am searching for meaning in my life” and “I am
looking for something that makes my life feel meaningful”). Each subscale consists of 5 items rated on a 7-point Likert scale,
ranging from 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 7 ¼ strongly agree. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for the presence and search
subscales were .82 and .83, respectively.

Situational meaning
Situational meaning refers to meaning which is experienced in the context of a particular environmental encounter (Park,
2010). In the present study, situational meaning was assessed on a basis of the method used by Park (2005), using 4 rating
scales that asked the participants about their level of meaning in current situations (e.g. “Now, how much do you draw
meaning from current life events”, “Now, how much do pursue your daily goals and values”). The participants responded to
items on 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ¼ not at all to 5 ¼ very much. The Cronbach alpha coefficients for the scale was
.88.

Coping
The Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (Endler & Parker, 1999) is a widely used 48-item self-report inventory
measuring ways in which people respond to difficult, upsetting, or stressful situations. Participants were asked to rate items
on a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 ¼ not at all to 5 ¼ very much. The inventory contains three scales representing
different coping styles: task-oriented coping (e.g. “I try to plan my time”), emotion-oriented coping (e.g. “I accuse myself of
delays”), and avoidance-oriented coping (e.g. “I try to fall asleep”). The avoidance scale has two subscales: distraction and
social diversion. The Cronbach alpha coefficients range from .72 to .92.
The Polish adaptations of the measures were used, and therefore the alpha reliabilities and test-retest correlations are all
their psychometric characteristics.

Results

Correlational analyses

First, initial correlational analysis was used to examine the relationships between the religious meaning system, spiri-
tuality, meaning in life, and coping. The results are displayed in Table 1.
Most of the correlations between the examined variables turned out to be statistically significant. The religious meaning
system was positively related to spirituality, presence of meaning, search for meaning, situational meaning, emotion-oriented
200 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203

Table 1
Correlations among the religious meaning system, spirituality, meaning in life, and coping styles.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Religious meaning system e
2. Spirituality .74*** e
3. Presence of meaning in life .28*** 31.*** e
4. Search for meaning in life .21*** .27*** .09 e
5. Situational meaning .24*** .26*** .64*** .17* e
6. Task-oriented coping .13 .22*** .25*** .13 .29*** e
7. Emotion-oriented coping .30*** .26*** .21*** .22*** .24*** .20*** e
8. Avoidance-oriented coping .22*** .18** .24*** .28*** .21*** .21*** .23*** e

***p < .001; **p < .01; *p < .05.

coping, and avoidance-oriented coping. Spirituality was positively associated with presence of meaning, search for meaning,
situational meaning, task-oriented coping, emotion-oriented coping, and avoidance-oriented coping. As regards meaning in
life scales, presence of meaning was positively linked to situational meaning, task-oriented coping, avoidance-oriented
coping, and negatively related to emotion-oriented coping. Search for meaning showed positive associations with situa-
tional meaning, emotion-oriented coping, and avoidance-oriented coping. Finally, situational meaning was positively related
to task-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping, and negatively linked to emotion-oriented coping.

Structural model

In order to analyse the mediational effects of meaning in life in the relationship between R/S and coping styles the two-
step procedure recommended by Anderson and Gerbing (1988) was used. First, the measurement model was verified to
assess the extent to which each of the latent variables was represented by its indicators. Second, then the structural model
using the maximum likelihood estimation in AMOS 17.0 program was tested.
The measurement model included three latent factors (religiousness/spirituality, coping, global meaning) and eight
observed variables. An initial test of the measurement model revealed a satisfactory fit to the data: c2 (19, N ¼ 221) ¼ 132.48,
p < .001; GFI ¼ .96; CFI ¼ .94; RMSEA ¼ .04. All the factor loadings for the indicators on the latent variables turned out to be
significant (p < .001), which implies that all the latent factors were well represented by their respective indicators.
Then, SEM analysis was employed to test the structural relationships among all constructs. The mediation model of
meaning (global and situational) in the relationship between R/S and coping demonstrated a satisfactory fit to the data, with
c2 (24, N ¼ 221) ¼ 204.47, p < .001; GFI ¼ .97; CFI ¼ .94; RMSEA ¼ .04. The SEM results showed a significant direct effect of R/S
on coping (.43, p < .001), global meaning (.36, p < .01), and situational meaning (.34, p < .01). The SEM results also
demonstrated a significant effect of global meaning on coping (.47, p < .01), and a significant effect of situational meaning on
coping (.42, p < .01). There was a significant drop in the total effect of R/S on coping after controlling for global and situational
meaning (.22, p < .05), indicating a significant indirect effect of R/S. The result also shows that meaning structures (global
meaning and situational meaning) partially mediated the relationship between R/S and coping styles. In particular, the
predictive power of R/S on coping after taking into account the mediational effect of global meaning and situational meaning
was stronger for emotion-oriented coping (.35, p < .05) than task-oriented coping (.21, p < .05) and avoidance-oriented coping
(.24, p < .05) (Fig. 1).
The Bootstrap estimation procedure (a bootstrap sample of 1000 was specified) was used to test the significance of the
mediation effects of both global meaning and situational meaning on the association between R/S and coping. As shown in
Table 2, R/S exerted significant indirect effects on coping via global meaning and situational meaning. Effect contrasts showed
that the specific indirect effect through global meaning was comparable to that through situational meaning.
To cross-validate the results of the mediation model of global and situational meaning, multigroup analyses were used to
test for equivalence of the mediation model between boys and girls. The results showed that the path coefficients for coping
styles were non-statistical across gender, which implies that the mediating role of meaning structures did not differ across
gender in the adolescent sample.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to examine the role of meaning structures (global and situational) in the relationship between R/
S and coping among late adolescents. Using SEM analysis, the present study takes a more comprehensive approach to un-
derstanding theoretical relationships between religious/spiritual factors and coping styles than did previous studies in this
population. The key finding lies in the evident mediation through global and situational meaning, which explains the role of
meaning-oriented structures to anticipate the influence of religious and spiritual behaviour in the sphere of coping with
difficult situations and life challenges.
As expected, correlational results demonstrated that the religious meaning system and spirituality had a significant
relationship with both meaning in life and coping styles among late adolescents. These results are consistent with previous
studies that reported relationships between R/S factors and global meaning and situational meaning (Park, 2007; Steger &
 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203 201

Presence of Search for

meaning meaning

.72 .67
The religious
meaning system Global meaning Task-
.36 .47 oriented
.59
.77

Religiousness/ Coping .62 Emotion-

Spirituality oriented

.79
.51
.34 Avoidance
.42
Spirituality Situational meaning -oriented

.43
Fig. 1. The mediational model of global meaning and situational meaning in the relation between religiousness/spirituality (R/S) and coping.

Table 2
Standardized indirect effects and 95% confidence intervals.

Model pathways Estimated 95% CI

Lower Upper
R/S / Global meaning / Coping .25a .18 .34
R/S / Situational meaning / Coping .23a .16 .31
IE (Global meaning) minus IE (Situational meaning) .02a .006 .09
a
Empirical 95% confidence interval does not overlap with zero. IE ¼ Indirect effect.

Frazier, 2005), and coping styles (Bert, 2011; Smith, 2003). These findings confirm the first hypothesis that assumed such
relationships. All the associations between R/S and coping were of a positive character, which is in line with previous re-
searchers stating that religious and spiritual resources are connected to positive outcomes in coping processes among late
adolescents (Carpenter, Laney, & Mezulis, 2012; Cotton et al., 2006; Molock et al., 2006). They appear to be effective tools for
young individuals that enable them to deal with personal situations and problems.
Yet, the current study expands the existing findings by demonstrating that spirituality was more strongly associated with
task-oriented coping than religiousness. This result is clearly visible in the correlational analyses in which religiosity and
spirituality were treated as independent constructs. The result may suggest that spirituality is a broader construct than
religiousness as regards an active problem-solving approach to stressful situations (e.g., solving the problem, cognitively
restructuring the problem, or attempts to alter the situation). In addition to the belief in a transcendent reality, spirituality
also includes feelings of inner harmony, ethical standards, and moral guidelines, which have the capacity to influence task-
oriented strategies aimed at taking action to modify the situation or generating alternative solutions (Gall & Guirguis-
Younger, 2013; Park, 2013b). Late adolescents are particularly sensitive to searching for inner harmony and ethical guide-
lines. As a consequence, spiritual beliefs and behaviour can affect using task-coping style among young people more effi-
ciently than religious ones. As regards emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented coping, there were no differences between
religiousness and spirituality.
This study empirically verifies prior theoretical speculations regarding the mediating role of meaning in life in the rela-
tionship between R/S and coping styles. Although previous research stated that meaning in life played a mediational role in
coping processes, it did not specify the character of those relations (Park, 2005; Pargament, 2010). The results of SEM analysis
obtained in the current study demonstrated that R/S had both direct and indirect effects on coping, suggesting that global
meaning and situational meaning served as partial mediators. Being deeply embedded in the people's cognitive and moti-
vational processes, global and situational meaning were able to influence their psychological adjustment and redirect coping
strategies used in stressful situations. These findings confirm the second and third hypotheses that assumed those media-
tional relationships.
Religious and spiritual factors often serve as a framework of meaning which can strongly influence individuals' initial
appraisals of particular events (Bryant-Davis & Wong, 2013; Park, 2013b). Following stressful events, individuals have a
202 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203

number of ways of making meaning and coping with undesirable, negative thoughts and emotions. One of the possible ways
involves religious and spiritual motivations that can offer a basis for global meaning and provide means of understanding and
reinterpreting current events. Therefore, for people facing stressful situations, religious and spiritual systems may be a
valuable source to make meaning from their experiences. Meaning structures form a functional basis on which individuals
can develop stronger connections between their religious and spiritual beliefs and psychological factors that are beneficial in
effective dealing with challenging life events.
Extending the existing literature, the findings of this study reveal that meaning in life can serve as a mediator not only
between religiousness and stress-related growth (Park, 2005) and well-being (Ardelt, 2003; Krok, 2014), but also between R/S
and coping styles among late adolescents. The findings imply that religious and spiritual resources do not operate in ‘a
vacuum’. Instead, they are strongly embedded in meaning structures which enable young people to connect personal ex-
periences of the sacred to different existential and psychological problems. Containing meaning structures, religious and
spiritual beliefs play an important role in coping processes as they can more deeply inform general beliefs and provide ul-
timate motivation and primary goals for living as well as guidelines for achieving those goals (Park, 2013a, 2013b).
The ability to derive meaning from religious and spiritual behaviour seems to be very important as the period of
adolescence is associated with significant changes in decision-making processes regarding religion and meaning in life, and
with establishing a coherent philosophy of life that contributes to further development (Erikson, 1982; Levenson, Aldwin, &
Igarashi, 2013). Through religious and spiritual interpretations late adolescents can acquire comprehensive and integrated
frameworks of meaning that enable them to constructively apply coping styles and strategies to stressful situations. The
mediating role of global and situational meaning found in this study expands on Park's (2005) research on the role of meaning
in life in relations of R/S and coping by using a sample of Polish late adolescents.
Another interesting result of this study is to demonstrate that global meaning and situational meaning acted as partial
mediators of the association between R/S and coping in late adolescents. It suggests that those with higher levels of R/S had a
propensity to experience stronger global meaning in life and situational meaning, which in turn contributed to more frequent
using coping styles. Moreover, effect contrasts indicated that the specific indirect effects of global meaning and situational
meaning were comparable. The finding sheds new light on the meaning-making model (Park, 2010, 2013b) as it implies that
in the situation in which there is no discrepancy between global meaning and situational meaning, both meaning structures
can function as partial mediators of the relationship between R/S and coping styles. Thus, global meaning and situational
meaning play a similar mediational role in late adolescents who do not experience highly stressful events at the moment.
The current study has several limitations that should be noted. First, the study was a cross-sectional design, which does
not allow us to draw any conclusion about a causal relationship. Explanation of the results of mediation analyses based on
cross-sectional data must proceed with caution. Given theory and past empirical research, the proposed model was
confirmed, yet future research may test the mediating models using longitudinal studies or a log linear approach. Second,
only one measure of coping was used. In addition to the three main coping styles examined in the current study, people use
many specific coping strategies which refer to both behavioural and psychological efforts employed to tolerate, reduce, or
minimize stressful events (Pargament, 2010; Park & George, 2013). Multiple methods for the evaluation of individuals'
specific strategies to deal with stressful situations should be used to provide a more accurate view of coping mechanisms. A
third limitation was that the group was mainly composed of Christians, which limits the generalizability of the findings of the
current study on other religions. Although the sample reflects a social structure of Polish population which is predominately
Christian, similar studies should be conducted in different cultures and religions.
Despite these limitations, the present study highlights the important mediational role of meaning structures in the
relationship between R/S and coping. Global meaning and situational meaning were shown to partially mediate the asso-
ciation between religious and spiritual factors and coping styles. Effect contrasts revealed that the specific indirect effect
through global meaning was comparable to that of situational meaning. Those pathways appear to be the key to under-
standing how R/S factors may be helpful or harmful to coping styles. Examining the mechanisms, this study provides valuable
guidance for mental health professionals who could use psychological interventions based on faith resources and meaning
structures in enhancing individuals' coping abilities.

References

Alferi, S. M., Culver, J. L., Carver, C. S., Arena, P. L., & Antoni, M. H. (1999). Religiosity, religious coping, and distress: a prospective study of Catholic and
Evangelical Hispanic women in treatment for early stage breast cancer. Journal of Health Psychology, 4, 343e356.
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice. A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103,
411e423.
Ardelt, M. (2003). Effects of religion and purpose in life on elders' subjective well-being and attitudes toward death. Journal of Religious Gerontology, 14,
55e77.
Bert, S. C. (2011). The influence of religiosity and spirituality on adolescent mothers and their teenage children. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(1),
72e84.
Boyd, D., & Bee, H. (2012). Lifespan development. Boston: Pearson.
Bryant-Davis, T., & Wong, E. C. (2013). Faith to move mountains: religious coping, spirituality, and interpersonal trauma recovery. The American Psychologist,
68(8), 675e684.
Carlozzi, B. L., Winterowd, C., Harrist, R. S., Thomason, N., Bratkovich, K., & Worth, S. (2010). Spirituality, anger, and stress in early adolescents. Journal of
Religion and Health, 49(4), 445e459.
Carpenter, T. P., Laney, T., & Mezulis, A. (2012). Religious coping, stress, and depressive symptoms among adolescents: a prospective study. Psychology of
Religion and Spirituality, 4(1), 19e30.
 D. Krok / Journal of Adolescence 45 (2015) 196e203 203

Chamberlain, K., & Zika, S. (1988). Religiosity, life meaning, and wellbeing: some relationships in a sample of women. Journal for the Scientific Study of
Religion, 27, 411e420.
Cotton, S., Zebracki, K., Rosenthal, S. L., Tsevat, J., & Drotar, D. (2006). Religion/spirituality and adolescent health outcomes: a review. Journal of Adolescent
Health, 38(4), 472e480.
Edwards, M. J., & Holden, R. R. (2001). Coping, meaning in life, and suicidal manifestations: examining gender differences. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
57(12), 1517e1534.
Emmons, R. A. (2005). Striving for the sacred: personal goals, life meaning, and religion. Journal of Social Issues, 61, 731e745.
Endler, N. S., & Parker, J. D. A. (1999). Coping inventory for stressful situations (CISS): Manual (2nd ed.). Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.
Erikson, E. H. (1982). The life cycle completed. New York: W.W. Norton.
Gall, T. L., & Guirguis-Younger, M. (2013). Religious and spiritual coping: current theory and research. In K. I. Pargament, J. J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.),
Context, theory, and research. APA handbooks in psychology: vol. 1. APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (pp. 349e364). Washington, DC:
American Psychological Association.
Gerwood, J. B., LeBlanc, M., & Piazza, N. (1998). The Purpose-in-Life Test and religious denomination: protestant and Catholic scores in an elderly population.
Journal of Clinical Psychology, 54, 49e53.
Harris, A. H. S., & Standard, S. (2001). Psychometric properties of the Life Regard Index e revised: a validation study of a measure of personal meaning.
Psychological Reports, 89, 759e773.
Heszen-Niejodek, I., Gruszczyn  ska, E., & Metlak, A. (2003). Kwestionariusz Samoopisu. [The self-description questionnaire]. Katowice: Uniwersytet Sla  ˛ ski.
Hill, P. C., & Edwards, E. (2013). Measurement in the psychology of religiousness and spirituality: existing measures and new frontiers. In K. I. Pargament, J.
J. Exline, & J. W. Jones (Eds.), Context, theory, and research. APA handbooks in psychology: vol. 1. APA handbook of psychology, religion, and spirituality (pp.
51e77). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Horwitz, A. G., Hill, R. M., & King, C. A. (2011). Specific coping behaviors in relation to adolescent depression and suicidal ideation. Journal of Adolescence,
34(5), 1077e1085.
Krok, D. (2009). Religijnosc a jakosc z_ ycia w perspektywie mediatorow psychospołecznych [Religiousness and quality of life in the perspective of psychosocial
mediators]. Opole: Redakcja Wydawnictw WT UO.
Krok, D. (2014). The religious meaning system and subjective well-being: the mediational perspective of meaning in life. Archive for the Psychology of
Religion, 36(2), 253e273.
Levenson, M. R., Aldwin, C. R., & Igarashi, H. (2013). Religious development from adolescence to middle adulthood. In R. F. Paloutzian, & C. L. Park (Eds.),
Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 183e196). New York: The Guilford Press.
Molock, S. D., Puri, R., Matlin, S., & Barksdale, C. (2006). Relationship between religious coping and suicidal behaviors among African American adolescents.
Journal of Black Psychology, 32(3), 366e389.
Paloutzian, R. F., & Park, C. L. (2014). Religiousness and spirituality: the psychology of multilevel meaning-making behavior. Religion, Brain & Behavior,
49e61.
Pargament, K. I. (2010). Religion and coping: the current state of knowledge. In S. Folkman (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of stress, health, and coping (pp.
269e287). New York: Oxford University Press.
Pargament, K. I., Falb, M. D., Ano, G. G., & Wachholtz, A. B. (2013). The religious dimension of coping: advances in theory, research, and practice. In R. F.
Paloutzian, & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 560e579). New York: Guilford Press.
Park, C. L. (2005). Religion as a meaning-making framework in coping with life stress. Journal of Social Issues, 61(4), 707e729.
Park, C. L. (2007). Religiousness/spirituality and health: a meaning systems perspective. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(4), 319e328.
Park, C. L. (2010). Making sense of the meaning literature: an integrative review of meaning making and its effects on adjustment to stressful life events.
Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 257e301.
Park, C. L. (2013a). Religion and meaning. In R. F. Paloutzian, & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (pp. 357e378). New
York: The Guilford Press.
Park, C. L. (2013b). The meaning making model: a framework for understanding meaning, spirituality, and stress-related growth in health psychology. The
European Health Psychologist, 15(2), 40e47.
Park, C. L., Edmondson, D., Hale-Smith, A., & Blank, T. O. (2009). Religiousness/spirituality and health behaviors in younger adult cancer survivors: does faith
promote a healthier lifestyle? Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 582e591.
Park, C. L., & George, L. S. (2013). Assessing meaning and meaning making in the context of stressful life events: measurement tools and approaches. The
Journal of Positive Psychology, 8(6), 483e504.
Park, C. L., Malone, M. R., Suresh, D. P., Bliss, D., & Rosen, R. I. (2008). Coping, meaning in life, and quality of life in congestive heart failure patients. Quality of
Life Research, 17(1), 21e26.
Piedmont, R. L., & Leach, M. M. (2002). Cross-cultural generalizability of the Spiritual Transcendence Scale in India. American Behavioral Scientist, 45,
1888e1901.
Shek, D. T. L. (2001). Meanings in life and sense of mastery in Chinese adolescents with economic disadvantage. Psychological Reports, 88, 711e712.
Smith, C. (2003). Theorizing religious effects among American adolescents. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 42(1), 17e30.
Steger, M. F. (2009). Meaning in life. In S. J. Lopez, & C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 679e687). Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Steger, M. F., & Frazier, P. (2005). Meaning in life: one link in the chain from religion to wellbeing. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52, 574e582.
Steger, M. F., Frazier, P., Oishi, S., & Kaler, M. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 53, 80e93.
Wasteson, E., Nordin, K., Hoffman, K., Glimelius, B., & Sjo € de
n, P. (2002). Daily assessment of coping in patients with gastrointestinal cancer. Psycho-Oncology,
11, 1e11.
Wills, A. T., Yaeger, A. M., & Sandy, J. M. (2003). Buffering effect of religiosity for adolescent substance use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 17(1), 24e31.
Zinnbauer, B. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2005). Religiousness and spirituality. In R. F. Paloutzian, & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and
spirituality (pp. 21e42). New York: The Guilford Press.

View publication stats