Oligodynamic effect

The oligodynamic effect (from Greek

oligos "few", and dynamis "force") is a
biocidal effect of metals, especially heavy
metals, that occurs even in low
concentrations.

Silver spoons self-sanitize due to the oligodynamic

effect
effect

In modern times, the effect was observed

by Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli, although he
did not identify the cause.[1] Scholarly
texts from ancient India promoted the use
of brass and silver in ritual cleansing
practice as well as in consumption of food
and drink. The ancient Indian medical text
Sushruta Samhita promoted the use of
specific metals in surgical procedures as a
measure to prevent infection. Brass
doorknobs and silverware both exhibit this
effect to an extent.

Mechanism
The metals react with thiol (-SH) or amine
(-NH(1,2,3)) groups of proteins, a mode of
action to which microorganisms may
develop resistance. Such resistance may
be transmitted by plasmids.[2]

Use

Aluminium …

Aluminium acetate (Burow's solution) is

used as an astringent mild antiseptic.[3]

Antimony …
Orthoesters of diarylstibinic acids are
fungicides and bactericides, used in
paints, plastics, and fibers.[4] Trivalent
organic antimony was used in therapy for
schistosomiasis.[5]

Arsenic …

For many decades, arsenic was used

medicinally to treat syphilis. It is still used
in sheep dips, rat poisons, wood
preservatives, weed killers, and other
pesticides. Arsenic is also still used for
murder by poisoning, for which use it has a
long and continuing history in both
literature and fact.[6]
Barium …

Barium polysulfide is a fungicide and

acaricide used in fruit and grape
growing.[7]

Bismuth …

Bismuth compounds have been used

because of their astringent, antiphlogistic,
bacteriostatic, and disinfecting actions. In
dermatology bismuth subgallate is still
used in vulnerary salves and powders as
well as in antimycotics.[8] In the past,
bismuth has also been used to treat
syphilis and malaria.[9]
Boron …

Boric acid esters derived from glycols

(example, organo-borate formulation,
Biobor JF) are being used for the control of
microorganisms in fuel systems
containing water.[10]

Copper …

Brass vessels release a small amount of

copper ions into stored water, thus killing
fecal bacterial counts as high as 1 million
bacteria per milliliter.[11]
Copper sulfate mixed with lime (Bordeaux
mixture) is used as a fungicide and
antihelminthic.[12] Copper sulfate is used
chiefly to destroy green algae (algicide)
that grow in reservoirs, stock ponds,
swimming pools, and fish tanks. Copper 8-
hydroxyquinoline is sometimes included in
paint to prevent mildew.[13]

Paint containing copper is used on boat

bottoms to prevent barnacle growth.

Gold …

Gold is used in dental inlays and inhibits

the growth of bacteria.[14]
Lead …

Physicians prescribed various forms of

lead to heal ailments ranging from
constipation to infectious diseases such
as the plague. Lead was also used to
preserve or sweeten wine.[15] Lead
arsenate is used in insecticides and
herbicides.[16] Some organic lead
compounds are used as industrial
biocides: thiomethyl triphenyllead is used
as an antifungal agent, cotton
preservative, and lubricant additive;
thiopropyl triphenyllead as a rodent
repellant; tributyllead acetate as a wood
and cotton preservative; tributyllead
imidazole as a lubricant additive and
cotton preservative.[17]

Mercury …

Phenylmercuric borate and acetate were

used for disinfecting mucous membranes
at an effective concentration of 0.07% in
aqueous solutions. Due to toxicological
and ecotoxicological reasons
phenylmercury salts are no longer in use.
However, some surgeons use
mercurochrome despite toxicological
objections.[2] Dental amalgam used in
fillings inhibits bacterial reproduction.[11]
Organic mercury compounds have been
used as topical disinfectants (thimerosal,
nitromersol, and merbromin) and
preservatives in medical preparations
(thimerosal) and grain products (both
methyl and ethyl mercurials). Mercury was
used in the treatment of syphilis. Calomel
was commonly used in infant teething
powders in the 1930s and 1940s.
Mercurials are also used agriculturally as
insecticides and fungicides.[18]

Nickel …

The toxicity of nickel to bacteria, yeasts,

and fungi differs considerably.[19]
Silver …

The metabolism of bacteria is adversely

affected by silver ions at concentrations of
0.01–0.1 mg/L. Therefore, even less
soluble silver compounds, such as silver
chloride, also act as bactericides or
germicides, but not the much less soluble
silver sulfide. In the presence of
atmospheric oxygen, metallic silver also
has a bactericidal effect due to the
formation of silver oxide, which is soluble
enough to cause it. Even objects with a
solid silver surface (e.g., table silver, silver
coins, or silver foil) have a bactericidal
effect. Silver drinking vessels were carried
by military commanders on expeditions for
protection against disease. It was once
common to place silver foil or even silver
coins on wounds for the same reason.[20]

Silver sulfadiazine is used as an antiseptic

ointment for extensive burns. An
equilibrium dispersion of colloidal silver
with dissolved silver ions can be used to
purify drinking water at sea.[2] Silver is
incorporated into medical implants and
devices such as catheters. Surfacine
(silver iodide) is a relatively new
antimicrobial for application to surfaces.
Silver-impregnated wound dressings have
proven especially useful against antibiotic-
resistant bacteria. Silver nitrate is used as
a hemostatic, antiseptic and astringent. At
one time, many states required that the
eyes of newborns be treated with a few
drops of silver nitrate to guard against an
infection of the eyes called gonorrheal
neonatal ophthalmia, which the infants
might have contracted as they passed
through the birth canal. Silver ions are
increasingly incorporated into many hard
surfaces, such as plastics and steel, as a
way to control microbial growth on items
such as toilet seats, stethoscopes, and
even refrigerator doors. Among the newer
products being sold are plastic food
containers infused with silver
nanoparticles, which are intended to keep
food fresher, and silver-infused athletic
shirts and socks, which claim to minimize
odors.[13][14]

Thallium …

Thallium compounds such as thallium

sulfate have been used for impregnating
wood and leather to kill fungal spores and
bacteria, and for the protection of textiles
from attack by moths.[21] Thallium sulfate
has been used as a depilatory and in the
treatment of venereal disease, skin fungal
infections, and tuberculosis.[22]
Tin …

Tetrabutyltin is used as an antifouling

paint for ships, for the prevention of slimes
in industrial recirculating water systems,
for combating freshwater snails that
cause bilharzia, as a wood and textile
preservative, and as a disinfectant.
Tricyclohexyltin hydroxide is used as an
acaricide. Triphenyltin hydroxide and
triphenyltin acetate are used as
fungicides.[23]

Zinc …
Zinc oxide is used as a weak antiseptic
(and sunscreen), and in paints as a white
pigment and mold-growth inhibitor.[24] Zinc
chloride is a common ingredient in
mouthwashes and deodorants, and zinc
pyrithione is an ingredient in antidandruff
shampoos. Galvanized (zinc-coated)
fittings on roofs impede the growth of
algae. Copper- and zinc-treated shingles
are available.[13] Zinc iodide and zinc
sulfate are used as topical antiseptics.[25]

Safety
Besides the individual toxic effects of each
metal, a wide range of metals are
nephrotoxic in humans and/or in
animals.[26] Some metals and their
compounds are carcinogenic to humans.
A few metals, such as lead and mercury,
can cross the placental barrier and
adversely affect fetal development.[27]
Several (cadmium, zinc, copper, and
mercury) can induce special protein
complexes called metallothioneins.[28]

See also
Medical uses of silver
Antimicrobial properties of copper

References
1. Nägeli, Karl Wilhelm (1893), "Über
oligodynamische Erscheinungen in
lebenden Zellen", Neue Denkschriften
der Allgemeinen Schweizerischen
Gesellschaft für die Gesamte
Naturwissenschaft, XXXIII (1)
2. Harke, Hans-P. (2007), "Disinfectants",
Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial
Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–17,
doi:10.1002/14356007.a08_551 ,
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3. Berth-Jones, John (2010), "Topical
Therapy", in Burns, Tony; Breathnach,
Stephen; Cox, Neil; Griffiths,
Christopher (eds.), Rook's Textbook of
 Dermatology, 4 (8th ed.), Wiley-
Blackwell, p. 73.16, ISBN 978-1-4051-
6169-5
4. Grund, Sabina C.; Hanusch, Kunibert;
Breunig, Hans J.; Wolf, Hans Uwe
(2007), "Antimony and Antimony
Compounds", Ullmann's Encyclopedia
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, ISBN 978-3527306732
5. Leikin, Jerrold B.; Paloucek, Frank P.,
eds. (2008), "Antimony", Poisoning and
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 Informa, p. 753, ISBN 978-1-4200-
4479-9
. Kapp, Robert (2005), "Arsenic",
Encyclopedia of Toxicology, 1 (2nd
ed.), Elsevier, pp. 168–171, ISBN 978-
0-12-745354-5
7. Kresse, Robert; Baudis, Ulrich; Jäger,
Paul; Riechers, H. Hermann; Wagner,
Heinz; Winkler, Jochen; Wolf, Hans
Uwe (2007), "Barium and Barium
Compounds", Ullmann's Encyclopedia
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, ISBN 978-3527306732
 . Krüger, Joachim; Winkler, Peter;
Lüderitz, Eberhard; Lück, Manfred;
Wolf, Hans Uwe (2007), "Bismuth,
Bismuth Alloys, and Bismuth
Compounds", Ullmann's Encyclopedia
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9. Gad, Shayne C.; Mehendale, Harihara
M. (2005), "Bismuth", Encyclopedia of
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 John L. (2007), "Boron Compounds",
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Microbiology with diseases by body
system (3rd ed.), Benjamin Cummings,
pp. 278–279, ISBN 978-0-321-71271-4
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13. Tortora, Gerard J.; Funke, Berdell R.;
Case, Christine L. (2010),
 Microbiology: An Introduction (10th
ed.), Benjamin Cummings, pp. 300–
301, ISBN 978-0-321-55007-1
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Microbiology: A Systems Approach
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352252-4
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F.; Kerby, Robert C.; Teindl, Herbert;
Melin, Albert; Bolt, Hermann M. (2007),
"Lead", Ullmann's Encyclopedia of
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1 . Gad, Shayne C. (2005), "Lead", in
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17. Carr, Dodd S. (2007), "Lead
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1 . Gad, Shayne C. (2005), "Mercury",
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19. Lascelles, Keith; Morgan, Lindsay G.;
Nicholls, David; Beyersmann, Detmar
(2007), "Nickel Compounds", Ullmann's
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Alfons; Schröder, Karl-Heinz; Kempf,
Bernd; Lüschow, Hans Martin;
Drieselmann, Ralf; Peter, Catrin;
Schiele, Rainer (2007), "Silver, Silver
Compounds, and Silver Alloys",
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 Chemistry (7th ed.), Wiley, pp. 1–17,
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21. Micke, Heinrich; Wolf, Hans Uwe
(2007), "Thallium and Thallium
Compounds", Ullmann's Encyclopedia
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23. Graf, Günter G. (2007), "Tin, Tin Alloys,
and Tin Compounds", Ullmann's
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24. Leikin, Jerrold B.; Paloucek, Frank P.,
eds. (2008), "Zinc Oxide", Poisoning
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4479-9
25. Rohe, Dieter M. M.; Wolf, Hans Uwe
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 doi:10.1002/14356007.a28_537 ,
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925129-36-6
2 . Gad, Shayne C. (2005), "Metals", in
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