00 Introduction To The Devanagari Script PDF

I N T R O D U C T I O N T O THE
DEVANAGARI SCRIPT
FOR S T U D E N T S OF
SANSKRIT, HINDI, MARATHI
GUJARATI A N D BENGALI
INTRODUCTION T O THE
DEVANAGARI SCRIPT
FOR STUDENTS OF .
SANSKRIT, HINDI, MARATHI
GUJARATI AND BENGALI
BY
H. M. L A M B E R T, M.A.Cantab.
Senior Lecturer in Marathi (Maharaja Gaekwad's Lectureship)
in the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London
WITH A F O R E W O R D BY
PROFESSOR J. R. FIRTH, O.B.E., M.A.

Professor of General Linguistics in the University of London
GEOFFREY C U M B E R L E G E
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
Oxford University Press, Amen House, London E.C 4
GLASGOW NEW YORK TORONTO MELBOURNE WELLINGTON
BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS KARACHI CAPE TOWN IBADAN
Geoffrey Cumberlege, Publisher to the University
First published 1953
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

FOREWORD
I T is a commonplace of linguistics to a c k n o w l e d g e the debt w e owe to the ancient Indian
grammarians and to couple w i t h it the n a m e o f Sir William Jones. It was he w h o first
set a proper value on the Devanagari and A r a b i c scripts in his dissertation as President
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on the O r t h o g r a p h y of Asiatic W o r d s in R o m a n Letters.
His chart of suggested symbols for the transliteration of the Devanagari, with the
addition of letters for Arabic and Persian, is the first presentation of what may be called
a phonetic alphabet on such a scale. H e finds the A r a b i c alphabet almost perfect for
Arabic itself:—
'Not a letter could be added or taken away without manifest inconvenience. The same may
indubitably be said of the Devanagari system, which, as it is more naturally arranged than any other,
shall here be the standard of my particular observations on Asiatic letters. Our English alphabet
and orthography are disgracefully and almost ridiculously imperfect.'
He aims at using diacritics common in Europe rather than n e w letters—and symbols from
'fluxions' or mathematics—so as to equal the D e v a n a g a r i itself in precision and clearness.
A system of writing and spelling is the foundation of a system of grammar. Meillet
went so far as to say that the foundations of the science of grammar were laid b y the
Indians. F o r all languages e m p l o y i n g forms of the Devanagari script, the writing system
and the spelling carry implications of p h o n o l o g i c a l analysis and statement. T h e y are at
once practice and theory and deserve the first attentions of all students. T h i s is well
illustrated in Miss L a m b e r t ' s w o r k on the D e v a n a g a r i script, and it will be agreed that
the presentation of the phonological patterns, s u c h as 'junctions' occurring in words or
arising out of 'sandhi' in Sanskrit, and other characteristic patterns in the modern
languages, is clear, systematic, and original, and particularly interesting in Bengali.
T h e treatment of conjunct characters in the third chapter of each section is new,
and apart from its intrinsic interest m a y b e taken as an indication of what is lost w h e n
the structure of the Devanagari s y s t e m is superseded b y the usual roman trans-
literations. In addition to this study of the w r i t i n g system, attention is rightly given
here to calligraphy, for the practice of the h a n d is an obligation no less compelling
than that of the tongue and both are expressions not only of courteous relations but of
disciplined knowledge.
Miss Lambert has consistently applied the A l l - I n d i a R o m a n A l p h a b et to all five
languages in order to make comparison possible w h e t h e r the languages are k n o w n to the
student or not. T h i s treatment could b e e x t e n d e d to the Dravidian languages. B y this
vi F O R E W O RD
means it has been found possible to make a systematic statement of the various c o n v e n -
tions governing the use of the Sanskritic writing system for the m o d e r n languages.
T h e Sanskrit and H i n d i sections are published separately in one v o l u m e since they
employ one script and will presumably be more generally required, b u t the appeal of the
entire w o r k is to those w h o s e interests range from India through F u r t h e r India to the
Indonesian Islands following the Sanskritic system of writing.
I have been acquainted w i t h Mis s L a m b e r t ' s work in Indian studies since 1937, first
in Western India and later as a colleague in L o n d o n . It gave m e great pleasure to be
asked to write this brief foreword to her work on a subject w h i c h I have always held to
be of high importance and the results of w h i c h are n o w offered to students of Sanskrit
and the four principal Sanskritic languages of India.
J. R. F I R T H
PREFACE
G O O D writing, the understanding of the w r i t i n g system and the formation of a good
hand, is as important a part of the study of th e written language as good pronunciation
is of the study of the spoken language. Y e t too little time is usually given to the teaching of
writing to students of Sanskrit and of the m o d e r n Indian languages; writing is generally
left for the student to teach himself as b e s t he can. T h e result is that many students
neither have an adequate understanding of th e w r i t i n g system and the difference between
a syllabic and an alphabetic method of representation, nor k n o w h o w the characters of
the script are written and wha t features are important for the formation of a cultured
literate hand. It is hoped that this b o o k will p r o v i d e not only a guide to students learn-
ing to write the scripts w h i c h are described in each section, but will also give them a
fuller understanding of the special nature o f the scripts a n d the adjustments w h i c h are
made in the Sanskrit system in order to use it for writing the modern languages of
northern India.
T h e notation used for the transcription of the scripts in this work is the A l l - I n d i a
Roman Alphabet devised b y Professor J. R . F i r t h of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of L o n d o n , and u s e d already in several publications—A. H . Harley,
Colloquial Hindustani, T . G r a h a m e B a i l e y , Teach Yourself Hindustani, and m y o w n
Marathi Language Course. T h e use of this transcription necessitates the use of certain
conventions, particularly that of the representation of the 'inherent v o w e l ' , in final
characters w h e n listing the contents of e a c h section of the w o r k . T h e transcription of
the Sanskrit terms in the Sanskrit section is entirely systematic; but owing to the varying
realization of the characters of the script i n certain positions in word s in the modern
languages, it has been necessary to use in t h e C o n t e n t s of the other sections certain con-
ventions which are discussed in the t e x t . A n e x a m p le of such conventions occurs in the
writing of such Sanskrit terms, used b y grammarians in the modern languages, as
'antasth' and 'uusm', in w h i c h the realization of the 'inherent v o w e l ' of the final character
varies from a short glide-vowel to a full syllable. A s it is b e y o n d the scope of this work
to make a fine analysis of the v a r y i n g realization of such final characters, it is necessary
to establish certain conventions w i t h regard to the transcription of them. T h e s e con-
ventions are of necessity anticipated in the C o n t e n t s .
Some degree of repetition has b e e n inevitable in order to preserve the basic unity of
the description of the Devanagari s y s t e m of w r i t i n g while allowing for specialization
viii PREFACE
in each of the languages. W h i l e this repetition may at times seem irksome to the reader,
it has the advantage of facilitating comparison of one section w i t h another.
T h e words given in each section to illustrate the writing and reading of the various
scripts have been selected in order to provide examples of every character or combina-
tion of characters w h i c h occurs in the language under consideration. S o m e characters
occur only in colloquial forms o r in loanwords from other languages, including English.
I n order to illustrate the use of all the characters, examples are drawn, therefore, from
the whole range of vocabulary, from colloquial forms occurring in m o d e r n speech to
learned Sanskrit loanwords occurring only in literary texts. A n y w o r d w h i c h occurs in
a standard dictionary is a w o r d w h i c h the student may have to read and illustrates the
use of the characters of the script.
T h i s study of the D e v a n a g a r i script owes its inspiration to the suggestion and en-
couragement of Professor F i r t h , to w h o m m y thanks are first due. B u t a w o r k of this
nature could not have b e e n accomplished without reference to experts in the languages
discussed, and I am greatly indebted to m y colleagues of both the D e p a r t m e n t of India,
Pakistan and C e y l o n , and the D e p a r t m e n t of Phonetics and Linguistics, of the School, for
their co-operation and g u i d a n c e . I am especially indebted to M i s s G . M . S u m m e r s ,
formerly L e c t u r e r in Bengali in this School, for her collaboration in the Bengali section,
without w h i c h the study of the Bengali script could not have been included in this w o r k .
T h e t w o scribes w h o have written the script portions of the book, M i s s W . Westover
and M r . P . Pritchard, mus t also b e given recognition for their careful and accurate w o r k .
Finally I wish to express m y appreciation of the great generosity of the School of
Oriental and African S tudie s for their subvention towards the publication of this b o o k ;
and of the help and advice g i v e n b y the Oxford University Press on all matters concern-
ing its production.
H. M . L.
CONTENTS
page
Foreword v
Preface vii
Introduction: The Devanagari Script 1
Notation 2
Calligraphy 5
SANSKRIT SECTION
Chapter 1 . Arrangement of the Syllabary 1 1

Sanskrit syllabary in roman notation 1 2
Sanskrit phonetic terms 1 3
Chapter 2 . Characters of the Syllabary 1 5
1. Consonant Characters 1 5
i„ Characters of the vargiiya group 1 6
ii. Characters of the antahstna group 1 8
iii. Characters of the uusman group, and Vedic \o 1 9
2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 2 1
i. Vowel characters 2 1
ii. Vowel signs 2 3
3. Modifiers 2 6
• i. anusvaran 2 6
ii. visargah 3 0
1+. The Complete Syllabary 3 1
5» Numerals 3 2
6. Punctuation 3 2
Chapter 3 . Conjunct Characters 3 3

1. Construction of Conjunct Characters 3 3
2. Contexts of Conjunct Characters 3 5
3. Classification of Conjunct Characters 3 7
Class 1 . Two similar characters joined 3 8
Class 2 . Two vargiiya characters joined 3 9
Class 3 . Characters joined with antahstha characters 1 + 3
i. witn following ya 1+3
ii. with following va 1+1+
iii. with preceding or following ra 1+5
iv. with preceding or following la and \Q 1 + 7
Class 1+. vargiiya characters joined with preceding
or following uusman characters 1+8
i. witn Ja , sa and sa 1+8
ii. with ha 5 0
Transcription of reading examples 5 1

X C O N T E N T S
HINDI SECTION
page
Chapter 1. Arrangement of the Syllabary 57
Hindi syllabary in roman notation 59
Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 6l
1. Consonant Characters 61
Realisation of akar consonant characters 6 2
i. Characters of the vargiiy group 63
ii. Characters of the antasth group 61+
iii. Characters of the uusm group 65
2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 67
i. Vowel Characters 67
ii. Vowel Signs 67
Realisation of characters in special contexts 69
3 . Modifiers 70
i. anusvar and candr-bindu 70
ii. visarg 73
1+. The Complete Syllabary 73
5. Numerals 71+
6. Punctuation 71+
Chapter 3« Conjunct Characters 75
1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi 75

2. Realisation of Conjunct Characters in Hindi 76
3 . Classes of Conjunct Characters 76
Class 1. Two similar characters joined 77
Class 2. Two vargiiy characters joined 78
Class 3 . Characters joined with antasth characters 79
i. with following ya 79
ii. with following va 80
iii. with preceding or following ra 80
iv. with preceding or following la 81
Class 1+. vargiiy characters joined with preceding
or following uusm characters 82
i. with J" a , sa and sa 82
ii. with ha 83
Hindi prose passage 81+
Transcription of reading examples 85

C O N T E N T S xi
MARATHI SECTION
page
Marathi syllabary in roman notation 92
Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 9k
1. Consonant Characters , 9 5
Realisation of akar consonant characters 9 6
i. Characters of the vargiiy group 9 6
ii. Characters of the antasth group 99
iii. Characters of the uusm group, and \e 1 0 0
2 . Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 1 0 2
i. Vowel Characters 1 0 2
ii. Vowel Signs 1 0 3
Modern forms of Marathi vowel characters 1 0 3
Realisation of characters in special contexts 1 0 5
Realisation of characters of the ca-varg 106
3 . Modifiers 1 0 8
i. anusvar 108
ii. visarg 1 1 1
h. The Complete Syllabary 112
5 . Numerals 1 1 2
6 . Punctuation 1 1 2
Rules of Marathi Orthography 1 1 3
Chapter 3 . Conjunct Characters 118

1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Marathi 1 1 8
2. Realisation of Conjunct Characters in Marathi 119
3. Classes of Conjunct Characters 1 1 9
Class 1 . Two similar characters joined 1 2 0
Class 2 . Two vargiiy characters joined 1 2 1
Class 3 . Characters joined with antasth characters 1 2 2
i. with following ya 1 2 2
ii. with following va 1 2 3
iii. with preceding or following ra 12k
iv. with preceding or following la 1 2 6
Class k- vargiiy characters joined with preceding
or following uusm characters 1 2 7
i. withr J"a , sa and sa 1 2 7
ii. with ba 128
Marathi prose passage 129
Transcription of reading examples 1 3 0

xii CONTENTS
GUJARATI SECTION
page
Chapter 1 . Arrangement of the Syllabary 1 3 5
Gujarati syllabary in roman notation 1 3 6
Chapter 2 . Characters of the Syllabary 1 3 8
1. Consonant Characters 1 3 8
Realisation of akar consonant characters 1 3 9
i. Characters of the vargiiy group 1 1 + 0
ii. Characters of the antasth group 1 1 + 2
iii. Characters of the uusm group, and \Q 1 1 + 3
2 . Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 11+1+
i. Vowel Characters 11+1+
ii. Vowel Signs 1 1 + 5
Realisation of vowels ' e' and ' o' 1 1 + 6
Realisation of characters in special contexts 1 1 + 8
Realisation of ' câ' and ' qha' 1 5 0
Orthography of 'i* and 'u' 1 5 0
3 . Modifiers 1 5 2
i. anusvar 1 5 2
ii. visarg 1 5 1 +
1+. The Complete Syllabary 1 5 5
5 . Numerals 1 5 6
6 . Punctuation 1 5 6
Rules of Gujarati Orthography 1 5 6
Chapter 3 » Conjunct Characters 1 5 7
1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Gujarati 1 5 7

2. Realisation of Conjunct Characters in Gujarati 1 5 8
3. Classes of Conjunct Characters 1 5 9
Class 1 . Two similar characters joined 1 5 9
Class 2 . Two vargiiy characters joined 1 6 0
Class 3 « Characters joined with antasth characters l 6 l
i. with following ya l 6 l
iii. with preceding or following ra 1 6 2
iv. with preceding or following la 161+
Class 1+. vargiiy characters joined with preceding
or following uusm characters 1 6 5
i. with Jo , sa and sa 1 6 5
ii. with ha 1 6 6
Gujarati prose passage 1 6 7
Transcription of reading examples 1 6 8

CONTENTS xiii
BENGALI SECTION
page
Notation 17k
Bengali syllabary in roman notation 175
Calligraphy 177
Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 179

1. Consonant Characters
i. Characters of the vargiiya group 181
Realisation of akar consonant characters 183
ii. Characters of the antastha group 186
iii. Characters of the uusma group 188
Realisation of akar consonant characters in
verbal forms 190
2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 192
i. Vowel Characters 192
ii. Vowel Signs 191+
Realisation of consonant and vowel characters
in special contexts 195
a. Realisation of akar consonant characters 195
b. Realisation of vowel characters in
special contexts 197
Realisation of antastha ya 199
3. Modifiers 201+
i. candra-bindu and anus vara 2 0 1 +
ii. visarga 2 0 6
1 + . The Complete Syllabary 2 0 6
5. Numerals 2 0 7
6. Punctuation 207
Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters 2 0 8
1. Construction of Conjunct Characters 2 0 8

2. Contexts and Realisation of Conjunct Characters 2 0 9
3. Classes of Conjunct Characters 211
Class 1. Two similar characters joined 211
Class 2. Two vargiiya characters joined 212
Class 3» Characters joined with antastha characters 211+
i. with following ya 2 1 1 +
iii. with-preceding or following ra 2 1 8
iv. with preceding or following la 220
Class 1 + . vargiiya characters joined with preceding
or following uusma characters 221
i. with Ja , sa and sa 221
ii. with ha 223
Bengali prose passage 2 2 5
Transcription of Reading Examples 2 2 6

INTRODUCTION
Tne Devanagari Script
The script traditionally referred to as the Devanagari Script
is used in writing Sanskrit and, of the modern, languages of northern
India, Hindi, Marathi and Nepali. The script used in writing Gujarati
is a slightly modified form of the Devanagari script, and the scripts
used in writing Bengali and Panjabi are related to the Devanagari
script, though this relation is apparent in only some of the charact-
ers. The writing system, based on the character representing the syll-
able, is the same for all these languages. However, in order to use
this system for writing the modern languages, which have each develop-
ed in their own particular way from the original Sanskrit, a number
of conventions have become necessary in reading from the script, con-
ventions which vary with the special features of each language. The
realisation of the characters as they are used for writing Hindi,
Bengali, Marathi and Gujarati, and the conventions which have become
established in each language, are described in the various sections
of this work. Though the Bengali script differs considerably from
the Devanagari script in the form of most of the characters, the
study of it is included in this work because the writing system is
the same as the Sanskrit writing system, and the conventions by which
2 I N T R O D U C T I O N
this system is adapted for writing Bengali have much in common with
the conventions used in the other modern languages. An examination
of these conventions makes possible an interesting comparison both
between the writing of these four languages and that of Sanskrit,
and between the writing of the modern languages themselves.
The origin of the name 'Devanagari' is obscure. The shorter
form of the name is Nagari'(nagarii), which has been variously inter-

1
preted. It is thought by some to be tbe name given to the writing of
'tbe people of the city'(nagaram, 'a city'); by others it is said to
derive its name from the Nagar Brahmans of Gujarat.
Notation
The system of roman notation used in this text for transcribing
the Devanagari characters is the All-India Roman Notation^. Three
minor modifications have been introduced in this text in order to
adapt the notation for transcribing both Sanskrit and the modern
languages.
These modifications are :-
i. The use of the vowels i ('short' i) and ii ('long' ii) instead
of the vowels y and i ; and of the vowels u ('short' u )
and uu ('long' uu ) for the vowels w and u .
ii. The use of the letter rrj instead of n for representing the
mark of nasalisation known as the anusvar.
iii.The placing of a micron above the letter y in the diphthong ay ,
and above the letter v in the diphthong av , thus: ay , av .
1. See Preface.
INTRODUCTION 3
This mark distinguishes the transcription of the diphthongs from
the transcription of combinations of characters which are real-
ised in certain contexts as s-y and 9-v , not distinguishable
in ordinary speech, in the modern languages, from the diphthongs.
Besides these modifications, it is necessary to make certain
additions to the notation in order to represent characters used in
writing the modern, languages but not used in Sanskrit, and certain
modified characters used in Hindi and Bengali. The complete notation
used in the Sanskrit syllabary is this:
Vowels: a a i ii u uu e ay o ov
and r rr 1 11 , for the syllabic consonants.
Modifiers : 1
rrj (representing the onusvara) and
h (representing the visarga)
Consonants: k kh g gh n
c ch j jh ji
t t* a <ih
n
t th d dh n
p ph b bh m
y r l v ; J* s s h
\ , used in transcribing Vedic Sanskrit
The additional letters used in the syllabaries of the modern
languages are these:
r and rh for transcribing the modified forms of the characters
representing ^ and cjh , in Hindi and Bengali, and for
1. For the use of this term, see Sanskrit section, Chapter 1.

indicating the intervocallic realisation, in certain words, of
the Gujarati character representing c[ .
q , x , y , z and f , for transcribing certain modified Devanagari
characters used in Hindi in writing Persian and Arabic loanwords,
ts , z and zh , for transcribing characters of the 'palatal' class
in Marathi, when they are realised with alveolar articulation.
In modern spoken Gujarati and modern spoken Bengali, certain
vowel sounds occur which are not separately represented in the script.
For indicating the contexts in which such vowel sounds occur, the
three symbols e , o and se are used.
The sign of nasalisation,'"' , is used in transcribing the modifier
representing nasalisation when it is realised, in the modern lang-

1
uages, as the nasalisation of a vowel and not as a nasal consonant.
This roman notation is used for writing all the Sanskrit grammat-
ical terms referring to the syllabaries of Sanskrit and of the modern
languages, the classification of the characters and the phonetic de-
scription of their realisation. The names of the languages, the
scripts, and grammatical terms, such as 'sandhi'(sandhi), which are
in regular use in English, are written in their conventional English
form.
The Sanskrit syllabary, as arranged by the Sanskrit grammarians,
is given in the roman notation in the Sanskrit section^, and serves
as a standard with which the syllabaries of the modern languages can
be compared.
1. See Sanskrit Section, Chapter 2 , 3 . i . a . anusvara.

2. ibid., Chapter 1.
I N T R O D U C T I O N «
Callig£^P^Z
The writing of the Devanagari characters should he practised at
first with a reed or bamboo pen. Such pens are still in use in many-
parts of India, and in many schools Indian children are taught first
to write on a large scale with a broadly cut bamboo pen. Writing in
this way will train the eye to recognise easily details of difference
and will train the hand to write a standard form of the characters
with the broad and thin strokes in the right place and proportion.
These pens are cut in the same way as a quill pen, except that the
point is cut to slant in the opposite direction from that of the
quill used for English writing with the tilted axis. The English pen,
when cut for the tilted axis, looks like this from the back:
writing thus:
The pen cut for the Devanagari script looks like this from the back:
writing thus:
The pen should be neld in such a way that the thin line, made by the
cut edge, falls from left to right at an angle of k5 degrees from a
line drawn horizontally across the page. The broad stroke then forms
a right-angle with the thin stroke and crosses the horizontal line of
the page at an angle of i+5 degrees. Care must be taken not to change
the angle of the pen during the writing of curved or rounded strokes,
as this will change the shape and balance of the character.
Some of the typical strokes of the script should be practised
Until good control of the pen, held at the right angle, is establish-
ed before the characters themselves are written. For example.:
The use of the broad, pen should be continued until a good style
of handwriting is formed; the introduction of writing with an
ordinary pen, and without sufficient attention to the details of line
and form, often interferes with the formation of a good hand.
In the illustrations given below, which may be used as writing
exercises, the characters are grouped so as to show different combin-
ations of strokes, and to draw attention to•similarities and to small
but important differences. It will be seen that some of the characters
have an upright stroke, others are curved or rounded, without an up-
right stroke; but all have the head-stroke, though it is not always
written right across the top of the character. The alignment of the
characters is made by this head-stroke, that is, by the top of the
character, though there is an invisible alignment also by the bottom
of the character. For this reason, it is well to practice writing at
first between two lines; if one line is used, the characters should
be written from the line downwards, not on the line.
The general method of writing the characters is this: first,
the characteristic part of the character, usually on the left side of
the upright stroke; then the upright stroke, if there is one; and
finally the head-stroke. The head-stroke binds the whole character
together, as will be seen when vowel signs and other marks are added.
The general direction of making the strokes is from the top downwards,
and from left to right. But the order of the strokes in some charact-
ers, and their direction, differ from this general rule, and where
this is so, the calligraphy of particular characters is illustrated
when these are introduced in the chapters which follow.

I N T R O D U C T I O N 7
Examples of Devanagari characters, showing the order in which the
strokes are written:
Examples of similarity and difference between characters:
1 0 5
SANSKRIT SECTION
C H A P T E R 1
ARRANGEMENT OP THE SYLLABARY
When the characters of the Devanagari Script, , are
arranged in the traditional order, they constitute a series of syll-
ables which may be regarded as the basis of the Sanskrit phonological
system. Each character represents a syllable, and is called -*A"ql
(gksorom). The series of characters in the syllabary is called
3"*$HloHl (vornsmala) , and consists of:-
Pourteen vowel characters,
Two modifiers and
Thirtythree consonant characters.
The syllabary used in writing Vedic Sanskrit includes one more con-
sonant character.
In reading aloud from the script, a vowel character is realised
as a syllable consisting of a vowel, " ^ T ^ : -

(svarah) , and a consonant
character is realised as a syllable consisting of an initial conson-
ant, oEn3p=JJT (vyojijonam) followed by the vowel o . This vowel,
when realised with a consonant, is generally referred to in English
textbooks as the 'inherent' vowel. The term 'modifier' is used here
to refer to the two signs which indicate some modification in the
realisation of the character with which they are written. These two
signs are usually referred to individually, as the 'anusyarsh' and
the 'visarggh' , as there is no Sanskrit term which is used to refer
to them together.
12 S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N
Each character is referred to, for instance, in spelling, as the
syllable which it represents, and the particle (kara); for
example, ^fl^TTT (akara) , ^cf^R(ikara) , c^cfTI? (kakara) , rTorTTT (takara).
The roman syllabary given below corresponds in arrangement and
classification with the Devanagari syllabary. As the consonant
characters are discussed first in this work, the table of consonant
syllables is placed first in this syllabary.
1 2 3 k 5
CONSONANTS with a Velar Palatal Cacum- Dental Labial
inal
Voiceless
CQ
Unaspirated kg ca .t? ta pa
CD
i> Aspirated kha cha tha tha pha
•H
0s
Unaspirated
¥ da ba
Voiced
1
Aspirated gha jha dha dha bha

P
Nasal rja jia n 9

na ma
Semi-vowels ys ra la va
Fricatives sa sa
Aspirate ha
Lateral I 9
VOWELS, associated with a a i ii r rr .1 11 u uu

consonant-classes
e ay o av
MODIFIERS Nasal -m Aspirated -h
A R R A N G E M E N T OF T H E SYLLABARY 13
The character represented "by va in the roman table is usually
realised with labio-dental articulation in reading from a Sanskrit
text. The retroflex lateral consonant T_a occurs only in Vedic
Sanskrit. The vowel 'syllabic 11 does not occur in Sanskrit, but the
1
character representing it is traditionally included in the script
syllabary.
The main feature of the syllabary is the arrangement of the con-
sonant characters in groups according to the position and the manner
of articulation of the sounds which they represent. The following
Sanskrit phonetic terms are used by grammarians in the description of
the characters as they are classified in the syllabary:
i. The consonant characters are placed in three groups: characters
representing syllables with an initial plosive consonant, that is,
a consonant articulated with 'contact', ^-q(spar/ah,'touch')j
characters representing syllables with an initial semi-vowel, that is,
'neither a consonant nor a vowel', "=H«-ri:lF3T (antahstha, 'standing
between'); and characters representing syllables with an initial
fricative consonant, vjo^H*"^ (uusman, 'heat').
ii. The five positions o f articulation are: ct)<«c^( (kanj;hya,'velar')
or t ^ ^ ^ o i t ^ T ( jihvamuuliiya ,' root of the tongue'); cTToToZT
(talavya, 'palatal'); T^j[Z=Zf (muurdhanya,' cacuminal'!) ;
(dontya, 'dental') and 'SHV&O^ (osthya, 'labial'). Labio-dental
articulation is described as cfl ^"U. (dantavs^hya).
1. This term refers to the area of the roof of the mouth with which
contact is made by the tongue. Consonants of this class are also de-
scribed as 'cerebral'. As the retroflexion of the tongue is an import-
ant feature in the pronunciation of consonants of this class in the
modern languages, the class is described as 'retroflex' in the roman
tables of those languages. Cf. Hindi, p. 5 9 .
14 SANSKRIT SECTION
iii. The manner of production of the sounds by which the characters
are realised is described in the following terms, and in each class
of plosive consonants the characters are arranged in this order:
voiceless, unaspirated - -M vf]^ (aghosa ),

1
y(alpaprana ) 2
voiceless, aspirated - SfJ^STfar (aghosa), H^l VI 1^1 (mahapra:na3)
voiced, unaspirated - "^TtWrT (ghosavat^), CM (alpaprana)
voiced, aspirated - ^TtTcr^ (ghosavat) , ^T^TTfW (mahaprana)
nasal - ^ T ^ l l fo^5 (anunasika 5) ,
1. 'without sound', or 'voiceless'.

2. 'with little breath', or 'unaspirated'.
3.' 'with big breath', or 'aspirated'.
h. 'with sound' or 'voiced'.
5. 'nasal'.
C H A P T E R 2
CHARACTERS OP THE SYLLABARY
The characters of the script are described in this chapter in the
same order as that in which the syllables are placed in the roman
syllabary: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs,
and Modifiers.
The general style of the characters varies from period to period
and from region to region. In the older editions of Sanskrit works
some characters are found that are now supplanted by newer and more
widely used forms; and there is sometimes a marked difference in the
style used in printing books in Bombay, Calcutta and other parts of
India. The most commonly used of the alternative forms of some of
the characters are given below, among the characters of each group.
The calligraphy of any characters which are not written according to
the general order of strokes given in the Introduction is illustrat-
ed when the characters are introduced.
1. Consonant Characters.
The consonant characters of the syllabary represent syllables
consisting of an initial consonant followed by the vowel a . Conson-
ant characters realised with the vowel a are described as ^ c f t K
(akara). If a character is to be realised as the consonant element
only of the syllable, this is shown by writing the mark known as
f^TTPT- (viramah) at the foot of the character. The writing of this
mark with a character is illustrated below, after the first table.

Characters written with the viramgh are described as ^tyr^rT (hslants),

'ending in a consonant'.
i. Characters of the vorgiiys group ( ofTffcr ) .
The twentyfive characters of this group are arranged, as in the
roman table given above, in five classes, (vergah), representing
the five positions of 'contact', ^Cf^f: (sparJsh), used in the articul-
ation of the plosive consonants. Each class consists of five charact-
ers, arranged in order according to the manner of production of the
consonant of the syllable which they represent.
k9-v9rg9h 35
k9 kh9 gh9
3>
ca-varggh
C9 Ch9 Dh9 J19
-|;9-V9rg9h
t 9 th9 3h9 n 9
t9-varg9h
t9
«r
th9 d9 dhg n9
pg-varggh
P9 ph9 b9
*r
bh9 mo
The Bombay form of the character for jhg is § T > and the forms
35 and 7^ are found in older books printed in Calcutta. The Bombay

CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 17
form of the character for no is . The Bombay forms of these
characters are used in Hindi writing, but the Hindi forms are not
used in Marathi writing, or in Sanskrit books printed in Bombay.
Calligraphy.
All the characters in the above table are written in the way
described in the introductory notes on calligraphy, except the
following three characters: jo \> 1

\r \j| \jf
jh9 »- *J *b *R to r
1
c ri rT
The writing of the viramoh to indicate the realisation of a con-
sonant character as a consonant without the vowel a is illustrated
by these characters:
<*5 ^ ^ ^
k- c- t~ t- p-
When writing words, which may be of one or more characters, each
character is written and completed with the head-stroke before the
next character is written. In the reading examples which are given
below, words which are usually written with the modifier known as
fof^'f: (visargeh)^ are written in the form in which they occur in
various contexts without this modifier. The visorgah is written with
reading examples after the modifiers have been discussed. Verbal
roots, in the form in which they are given in grammars and diction-
aries, are included in the examples in order to illustrate the writing
of characters with the viramoh.
1. The first stroke in these characters is written from right to left.

2. See below, under 3. Modifiers, ii.
c
18 SANSKRIT SECTION
Reading examples
1. One character words
2. Two character words

TT5 « R ^ **<5 ^ ^FT TO^T v 3*T
xbti vrfs TfiZ "W ^fcT ^"T ^ TTUT
3. Three character words

TTTT5R ^PTrT xTCPR HSR -<Tc5cfi 3^*1
«TcT5F) cfi-qe 3qv3foR 7Turop5 cf^xf TTÔFI
i+. Four and five character words

"B^rTxr M^^fflT 'TCTT cRSFR SRFR vSFTCR
*T*TH*T "q3^*T eFPTO * W * B * i r R ^ " ^ ^ r p r
ii. Characters of the antahstha 2

group ( *5y«rl*.)
^ ^jJJ* Bombay form
ya ra la va la
Calligraphy
la : Hindi form ^ • ^ Bombay form ^ ^ ^ ^7>
These four characters are associated with four of the vargah, as
indicated in the roman syllabary, and with four of the vowels, thus:
T{ , ya, associated with the ca-vargah, and the vowels i and ii
^ , ra, associated with the , and the syllabic r and rr^"

—r k
Cn , la, associated with the ta-vargah, and the syllabic 1 and 11
of > va, associated with the pa-vargah, and the vowels u and uu
1. Transcription of examples is given on p.51.
2 . 'standing between.' 3 . This stroke is written from right to left.
U. See below, under 2 . Vowel Characters.
These characters are all described as olpgprang and ghossvet.
cf , , though associated with the labial class, is. realised with
labio-dental articulation, and described as 3[«-<^| (dantovsthys).
Reading examples 1

c T T T 5f *T rT

o^cf ^TM cRf v WtT STc5 «TC W TO V
qoT «R c=5^T ^ ^ ^^* N ^5
3. Three character words •

^ c*opJT *T*T^ «TSfc55 ^f5T WW S^TT
£5*13 *P*cT x cT^R cTC*T
h. Words of four or more characters

Z(V(cl^ cTCRTT *RcT*T tT$^*??T SFPTSoWW
iii. Characters of the uusman 2

group (\53"5EpT )
? ^ - f
J9 S9 S9 h9
Calldgraphy
Jg : Hindi form $ $| Bombay form <$ 3l 41 IT
ha : i. ^ |> or ii. 4 ^ f
An older form of is 5j , a form still used in joining this
character to certain other characters. This form is illustrated
later under Conjunct Characters-^.
1 . Transcription- of examples is given on p „ 5 1 o

2. 'heat' 3. See Chapter 3.
2o S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N
The first three characters of this group represent syllables
consisting of a fricative consonant with the vowel 9 , and are
described as 9ghos9 and mohaprang. The fourth character is realised
as an aspirate followed by the vowel 9 , and is described as ghosevot
and mehaprar)©. The uusmen characters are associated with the classes
thus: 51 , j"o , with the C9-V9rg9h; , so , with the -[Q-Yorgoh;
, 89 , with the T 9 - v 9 r g 9 h ; and , he , with the ko-vergeh.
The character |T is the last consonant character in the syllab-
ary used in writing classical Sanskrit. In writing Vedic Sanskrit
one more character is used, oS , \B , realised as a retroflex lateral
consonant followed by the vowel 9 .
Calligraphy of 55 : C Or OO 06 55
Reading examples 1

Tsre s ^sr ^ T^r ^
^7rT N ^Rr PI ^TST 1# ^ ^
3- Three character words
bi^t ^ C T N opre v *pt*t ttrst
^T5T^ n 5R£ ^TOcS H^ST $*5f5 t p ^ -*sth
k» Pour, five and six character words

3"5R*T ^ T ^ H TfSR"^ 5p>^"H s "STTFT^ ^TcTTT^
^Tc^lTH =ToTSr^P*>lT H ^ T ^ R ^ ^TT^T^^T ^*m?T*T
1. Transcription of examples is given on p. 51.

2. Vowel Characters, with corresponding Vowel Signs.
A vowel which constitutes a syllable is written with a vowel
character; a vowel which is part of a syllable with an initial con-
sonant is written with a vowel sign added to a consonant character,
x. Vowel Characters.
There are fourteen vowel characters in the V9rr|9mala:
w 5 4 3 in
o a i ii u uu
Syllabic
%r rr
% K
1 11
e ay o 9v
The character , and the other characters based on the same
form, ^Tf , Wl" and , and the characters ^ » » of and
, have these alternative forms:
<3T 3ff <2*t # S R ^ R ^ ^

o a o 8v r rr 1 11
Both forms of these vowel characters are used in Hindi writing;
only the Bombay forms are used in Marathi writing. An older form of
55ft , o , is »3* .
1
The order of writing the strokes in vowel
characters is illustrated by these examples:

9 M 9
a *> M\ ii t
r *> * 1 C
oy 5 0
1. See below, under 3.Modifiers,i.note c.

The vowel characters are referred to as "swoftlT > a-kara, smooiT ?
a-kara, J j ^ B T ^ i-kara, and so on. They are related to the five posit-
ions of articulation as shown in the table of the roman syllabary.
The vowel 11 does not occur in Sanskrit words, but the character is
traditionally included in the syllabary for the sake of symmetry.
The first ten vowel characters represent five pairs of 'simple'
vowels, each pair consisting of a character realised as a 'short'
vowel, f^ôT , (hrasva) and a character realised as a 'long' vowel,
^t ^
7
, (diirgha). The remaining four characters represent vowels
which are described as 'compound' or 'conjunct', ^T^rf) > (sarrjyukta-'-).
In the system of modification and combination of vowels known as
'sandhi', ^f^r: , (sandhih), as in the formation of compound words,
derived words, and the joining of final and initial vowels in con-
secutive words in a phrase or sentence, the vowels are grouped thus:
Simple vowels a a i ii u uu r rr 1
TJUT'* (gunah) 9 a e o ar al
(vrddhih) a ay av ar al
Examples : 2
^rpri^ nagaram — 'TI^TfôB nagarika
diva
bhuuti
kr
?5
kip op><v^HI kalpana cftio/HpJof) kalpanika
1. See above, Ch.l., and below,3. i. for the modifier represented by rrj.
2. See below, ii, for the vowel signs used in these examples.
Reading examples of words with vowel characters;1

TJ 5 3 W ^ { 35 ^ ) 51 ^ft 3£
2. Words of more than ne character
5\ 3<T ^ ^ ^sr
-STt^
w
3Tc5
iî
if 3^r
3$^
ii. Vowel Signs
Each of the vowel characters, except , a , has a correspond-
ing vowel sign which may he added to a consonant character to re-
present a syllable consisting of an initial consonant followed by one
of the vowels a - av . As the vowel a is realised with every con-
sonant character unless it is either marked with the viramah or has
one of the vowel signs added to it, there is no sign for this vowel.
The vowel signs, added to the consonant character oft , are:
5RT
ka ki kii ku kuu '
fkr krr kl kll 2
% %
ke kay ko kav
1 . Transcription of examples is given on p 5 1 . 0
2. See note on the vowel 11 under Vowel Characters, above.

24 SANSKRIT SECTION
Calligraphy
The order of writing the strokes when a vowel sign is added to a

consonant character is illustrated in the following examples:
ka cb cbl ku cb 3>
ki 1 !<*> kii cb <*>l
dhi 1 I'M ft fa bhi 1 m ft m
ke ko oh obi
When the vowel signs are added to consonant characters which
have an upright stroke, the superscribed signs are placed above the
upright stroke, and the subscribed signs are written at the foot of
that stroke. When vowel signs are subscribed to rounded characters
they are written below the mid-point of the lowest curve, thus:
f 5 f £ 5 I
chu pxn dû djiuu du huu
Special forms
^ * 5 1 ^
ru ruu dr Jr hr
An older form of is ^-, and of is
The vowel sign of 9f£ is not written with ^ • The character
representing if with ^ is written with the superscribed stroke
used to represent "5^ when it is to be realised before another con-
sonant character without an intervening vowel. This stroke is placed
over the vowel character 5fJ , as in Pi•s+îrl , nirrti . 2
Mark of 'separation'.
When an initial or sflT occurs after certain final vowels in
the preceding word, the mark S , known as 3T3"3T$|": (avagrohah)^ is
1 . See C h . 2 , l o i i i . 2. See C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 3.iii° a- 3 » 'separation'.

written after the vowel in which the final and initial vowels are co-
alesced, to indicate the presence of two words in the piece. The mark
is written once when the initial vowel of the second word is *5T , and
twice when the initial vowel is ^\ , as in these examples:
yo - ay am yo-yam te - api te- pi sada - atman sada—
Reading examples^
*' 1 * I
X ft
V*
ft? ^
3Tt§ £fcT ^
3. Three character words
jjfacr fa^to sttct t«?or facj^T ^fre^r ^ r e
«§5*nfr ^Tf^r ^ftcr ^rf^ i§rtW

f^«TTcI ^ft^R 5u^t=T s ^ff^SBT |o5cl"
U. Four, five and six character words

?of)Tfo>R {jfttofc^r ^frf^^T ^ f i ^ ^ T f^"^f%oHT hUiP|«F>
^RI*T% ?5^TTftf5F a f o ^ T ^ OTjftf^SFjT *sfa^ftl'«+>
1. , tma , the characters CT and T combined. See Chapter 3»

n
Class 2. iii. 2. Transcription of examples is given on p. 51.

26 SANSKRIT SECTION
3. Modifiers
The two modifiers, known as ^ T * J iPfl I T : (onusvarsh) and "fcf^'^f";
(visorgsh), are signs which may be added to a character to indicate
a modification in the realisation of the character. They are placed
in the syllabary after the vowel characters, and, as they cannot be
written alone, they are written-with the character ^ . They may,
however, be written with any character.
io anusvareh, ^"•|T ITT 5 : 1
This modifier is written as a dot above the character of which
it modifies the realisation, thus:
*•
I i 3 T
orrj arr) irrj iirrj urrj uurrj em eyrrj orrj avrrj
#> % # f % % #
kQirj kairj kirrj kiirrj kurrj kuurrj kerrj koyrrj korrj kevrrj
Calligraphy
The Qnusvareh is generally added to the character after the vowel
sign has been written and before the headstroke is written to complete
the character. It is placed above the middle of the character, or
over the last upright stroke if there is one, and to the right side of
any superscribed vowel sign, for example;
• • • » • *
kgrrj oh Ob eft 3 ^ hsnj ^ ^ |T

gang 4|| 4jj itf girrj \i\ ftj fSf gerrj Jj Jf
dhirrj f$ bhirrj \M R rorrj ^ *i
1. 'after-sound'.
The anusvarah is written with a character in various contexts,
and is realised in various ways according to the context.
a. When a word of which the final character represents the form-
ative particle occurs in any position except at the end of a line
of verse or a sentence, the character is omitted before an initial
consonant character of a following word and the formative particle is
represented by the anusvarah. This formative particle is usually writ-
ten as only at the end of a line or a sentence. For example:
yetarrj vibhuutirrj yogarr] ca. .. yetam vibhuutim yogam
b. The anusvarah may be written with an initial or. medial
character followed by a vargiiya character. In this context it is
realised as the nasal consonant of the class to which the following
character belongs. Examples:
"J - q
arrjka (arjka) purrjkha (punkha) lirrjga (linga)
VW
jg " J 1
parrjca (panca) varrjch (vajich) sirrjj (sip.3)
q -n arrjda (anâ) pirrjdâ (pin_qa)

kuirj^ha (kun^ha)
51 3%
Jarrjti (janti) irrjdu (indu) barrjdhu (bandhu)
rrj - m
karrjpa (kampa) arrjbu (ambu) kurrjbha (kumbha)
•re usual, method of representing a homorganic nasal
is that of combining the appropriate nasal consonant character with

the vargiiya character that follows it, that is, ^ with characters
of the ka-vargah, \>f^ with characters of the ca-vargah, and so on.
This method is used also when the formative particle occurs before
an initial vargiiya character in a sentence, where consecutive words
are joined in sandhi. The calligraphy of such combined characters is
illustrated later . 1
Formative particles, such as *lf~cl , -anti, and
^«-("! , -ante, are usually written by this method and not with the
anusvarah.
The anusvarah is sometimes written to represent -n or -m , in
compounds formed from the prefix ^T*T > sam-, and words beginning
N
with R or T * e.g. H*T(T sannata, and TTHf^" sammati.

c. When the anusvarah is written with a character preceding a
character of the antahstha or the uusman group, the realisation of it
varies according to the position of articulation of the character
which follows it, and also with the custom of speakers in different
parts of India. The anusvarah preceding an antahstha character is
realised as follows:
Before If , ya , as rj , m , n or y ; e.g.
^PTt'T sarjyoga, samyoga, sanyoga or sayyoga
Before T > ra , as rj , m , n or v ; e.g.
^ sarjraga, samraga, sanraga or savraga
Before oT , la , as rj , m , n or 1 ; e.g.
^fo/i^T sarjlaya, samlaya, sanlaya or sallaya
Before ^ , va , as rj , m , or v ; e.g.
^fo|sanvada, samvada or savvada
1. See Chapter 3, Conjunct Characters, Class 2.b.

The anusvarah preceding an uusman character is realised thus:
Before J[ , Ja , as n , m , n , or v; e.g.
^T"5T sgJ"8» sm/s, an/a or avj"a
Before "5T > sa , as n , m , nasalisation of the vowel, or vj e.g.
haviirjsi, haviimsi., haviisi or haviivsi
Before , sa , as n , m , n , or v; e. g.
^FIÎR sansara, samsara, sansara or savsara,
or as nasalisation of the vowel, as in
"f^f^TT hirjsa, himsa, hivsa or hisa
ijf^f punsi, pumsi, pusi
Before ^ , ha , as rj , m , n , or v; e. g.
"f^^" sinha, simha, sinha or sivha
or as nasalisation of the vowel in ^ " l * > sayha
The sign is sometimes written above a character preceding an
antahstha or an uusman character to indicate realisation by nasal-
ising the vowel of the syllable instead of by a nasal consonant,
following the vowel. This sign is called ^ - J - H f^cp> (anunasika ), 1
and it is usually written, in preference to the anusvarah, in the
'sacred syllable' \Q* , (orrj) 2
Reading examples
a. fifr W "§^r ift ^cr <Tf w ^PFCRN
b. ft«r -qff ^*t n i%i^cr s 3?fcr*r

|« ^TCTCT s ^TTH HoflH ^Tffc T
ami ^Tcn»ri^Tr ^ t t "*?wf^r i
1. 'nasal'. 2. See above, under 2.i. 3 . For transcription of

examples, see p. 52. . The lines a, b and c correspond to the notes
given above under 3 » i . L. Gitagovindakavyam, sarga 3 > v . 6 o
30 SANSKRIT SECTION
ii. visargah , •fcfH'fc 1
The visargah is written as two dotsj placed vertically, after a
character.
ah ah ih iih uh uuh rrh eh ayh oh avh
cfr cBT: fcB:

kah kah kih kiih kuh kuuh krh keh kayh koh kavh
Calligraphy
The visargah is usually added to a character after every other
stroke has been made, including the head-stroke.

e
-g- ch ch) cfit CWT:
The realisation of the visargah varies in different parts of India
a. It may be realised as strong aspiration following the realisation
of the character with which it is written, for example
JFFOT %
devah malah kavih guruh kaveh gunayh bhanoh gavh
It is realised in this way when it occurs medially, as in
^:^q*T^ , duhkham; or as the doubling of the following consonant,
as in r P T i ^ » tapahsu, tapassu.
b. . It may be realised in final position as h following the vowel of
the character with which it is written, and a very short repetition
of the same vowel after h , as illustrated by this transcription of
the examples given above:
devah 9
malah a
kavih 1
guruh u
kaveh e
gunayh 1
bhanoh 0
gavh u
1. 'emission of breath'
Reading examples 1
ofi: W 3* W %
7J-CTT: ^ffT:. «TT|: f^h ^ f ^ ' ffi
^ftrj ^gfo ^r^fq-rT: ^rw-. w : o t > w t n
.^P ^T*
:
^mtf^rTTi ^fcTtsfôR: cP^fsTT:
îfe ^gfr TO^t ^rerr^ ^rffcr^tfrrW^cr^^T^ i
U. The Complete Syllabary
The complete syllabary, arranged in the traditional order, is
given on the following page. The characters are further arranged in
a .table in which the vowel characters, and the two modifiers added to
the character , are placed in order at the head of a series of
columns consisting of every consonant character in the Qkarg form,
each consonant character with each of the vowel signs and each of the
modifiers.6 These two tables together show the order in which the
characters are placed as initial characters of words in dictionaries.
Characters with the onusvaroh are, however, placed before characters
without the onusvarah but followed by another consonant character.
1. For transcription, see p.52. 2. BhagavadgTta,ch.10,v.1„a.

3. ibid., ch,10,v.U.b. h. GTtagovindakavyam, sarga l,v.8.
5. ibid., sarga 1.3,v.7. 6. Cf. the series of characters with
vowel signs given above under 2.ii.
1 I 3
%
# *
3?
at
Z 5 3
%
55
5. The Devanagari numerals
Hindi forms: ^ c
=1 3 I %
1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
Bombay forms: ft * <3 vs C *o

A
1 2 3 K 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
6, Punctuation
In prose writing, the end of a sentence is marked with a vert-
ical stroke of the same height as the characters. In verse, the first
line of a stanza or couplet is closed with one vertical stroke, and
the complete stanza or couplet is closed with two vertical strokes
and numbered as illustrated in the verse examples given at the end of
the next chapter.

C H A P T E R 3
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Consonant characters may "be combined to represent two or more
consonants realised without any intervening vowel. A character
formed by combining other characters is called a conjunct character,
H^TblT5HH ( ssrrjyuktakssrsm).
y
1, Construction of Conjunct Characters.
Characters may be combined in various ways, according to the
form of the characters to be joined.
i. The second character may be subscribed to the first:
k- ko kka rj- ka nko X s

tt 9 d
~ V 9
^ v 9
ii. If the first character has an upright stroke, this stroke may be
omitted, and the first part of the first character is joined to the
second character by the head-stroke, thus:
n- da ndo g- gs ggo t- ps tpa n- mo nms
The characters o F " , and ^ are usually joined with following
characters in the forms of , * F and ^.
Some conjunct characters may be formed by either of these two
methods, for example: ^ ^ ^ o r —j- v3T ^ ^ o r w f

C- C9 CCS j - J9
V
j J9
34 SANSKRIT SECTION
Some conjunct characters are formed by a combination of methods
i. and ii. ; for example:
d- dho ddha d-bho dbha

iii. If the first character is a rounded character, with no upright
stroke, it is usually written in full, and the second character is
joined with it in a modified form, for example:
t~ y® ty s d
~ y°
d
y® n_
"y &
y®
n n
~ m o
^ me
iv. Some characters are written in a special form when joined with
other characters, for example:
/- ve JVG r- ths rtho g- ro gre J"- re /re
The characters (Hindi form) and jjf (Bombay form), represent-
ing k-so , and the character , representing j-ji9 , have been in
eluded in the syllabic series from a very early date, though no con-
junct characters are included in the syllabary. Calligraphically
these three characters are not formed by joining two distinct charact
ers, but they are considered in this work under the appropriate
classes of conjunct characters because they represent syllables con-
sisting of two consonants and the vowel 9 .
If any characters are not modifiable, and therefore cannot be
combined, by any of these methods, the realisation of them without an
intervening vowel is indicated by writing the first character with
the viramsh, thus 3 ^ ^5 ^ ^ ^ ^ W ci^T
t- k9 t k 8
3~ d 8
3 d 9
<i- bre dbr9
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 3 5
Characters combined with other characters in this way do not form
conjunct characters in calligraphy, but they are included in this
chapter because they complete certain series in the classes of con-
junct characters.
Three, four or five characters may be combined to form a conjunct
character, for example:
rT n ~Q 7^ * X ST *v* T 1 Z V "grf
\ \ V V \ \ \
t - m - yo tmyo b - dh - va bdhva r - s - \ - ya rstye
The general rules already given for the order of strokes in writ-
ing a character apply also to the conjunct characters. The vowel
signs are added to the character before the headstroke is written.
Examples: ktyu oj- o|- c o|- ^| r
stvi I I*- IVc©! f?r«|
RJYAIRJ \J VR^| \rM\ VTIJF"
2. Contexts of Conjunct Characters.
Conjunct characters occur in the following contexts:
i. In words, such as
<HfiT: <%PT: WfT^ ^

iccha agnih ksiprah brahmen Jlokah strii
ii. In junctions arising from grammatical processes:
a. In words formed by the addition of suffixes to verbal roots,
such as
bhaj-ta bhakta gam-ya gamya labh-tva labdhva

b. In derivatives of various kinds, such as
diva dayvyam Juura Javryam

c. In words formed "by the addition of prefixes or suffixes to
other words, as in
ut-tama uttama ut-gamah udgamah abhi-asah abhyasah
dur-guna durguna vi-adhih vyadhih vac-maya vanmaya
iii. In compound words, in which the final character of one part of

the compound word, if it is a halanta character, is joined with the
initial character of the following part, as in
sat - masah sanmasah rc - vedah rgvedah
Jriimat - bhagavat - giita /riimadbhagavadgiita
iv. In pieces consisting of two or more words, in which a conjunct

character is written joining the final character of one word, if it is
a halanta character, with the initial character of the following word.
For example:
Jreyo hi jjianamabhyasa j jjianaddhyanam vijisyate,
«qT^TccF> c ^ ^ T r * T P T T - * £ H I Pel ^ ^ T ^ c R H II ft II
dhyanatkarmaphalatyagastyagacchantiranantaram. 12.
1. Bhagavadgita, Ch.l2.v.l2.
C O N J U N C T CHARACTERS 37
The process of joining characters illustrated in ii. to v. above
is known as 'sandhi' 'of consonants" '. 1

The examples in ii.a. and ii.b.
illustrate the process of 'internal' sandhi, and those in i i . c , iii.
and iv. illustrate that of 'external' sandhi.
3 . Classification of Conjunct Characters.
The conjunct characters are arranged in this work in classes
according to the combination of consonants which occurs when the con-
junct character is realised in reading. The conjunct characters,
when arranged in this way, fall into four classes.
Class 1. Two similar characters joined.
Class 2 . Two vorgiiys characters joined.
Class 3 . Characters joined with sntshsths characters in various
combinations:
i. Characters joined with
ii. Characters joined with ~3[
iii. Characters joined with
a. preceding "<[ > or b. following T
iv. Characters joined with

2
a. preceding oT^ ; or b. following oT
Class h. vargiiys characters joined with uusmen characters:
i. Characters joined with
a. preceding ST , or ; or b. following , "Cf or^T
ii. Characters joined with

a. preceding |J ; or b. following |*
1. Compare reference to 'sandhi' of vowels, in Chapter 2 , 2 . i .

2. The Vedic character oo" , X » included in this class.
s i s
38 SANSKRIT SECTION
Class 1. Two similar characters joined^.
M «R4 M
-kks -kkhs -ggs -gghs "SSI 9
-CCS -cchs • jjhs —
1
"tt 9 -tts -tths -dds -ddhs -nns
<s><s{
"PPS -pphs -bbs -bbhs -mms
ocf
3
w
-yys -lis -vvs-^ -SS& -sss -sss —
Alternative forms UU|
&
-CCS - DJs -jjhs -lis
-nn 9
The characters > T and do not occur in this series. The
second and fourth characters in each vsrgsh are formed by combining
the slpsprans characters with the corresponding mshaprans characters.
Reading examples .
SOF^t: ^b^rstz: ^tNt* snf^r ftgfrr^
"q%oRr o7| "«râT faquui

3TTIT ^Pm -
3^*T« ff|T« ftrT ftWoT: ^TS|s
*rs$PT: ârfrk ^FTtf: ^TT ^f^: cT^^

§^fto (f«^5T) $MI^ (^^5^] ^TCTO ^gfaBT*
1. Conjunct characters which do not occur- initially are indicated by

prefixing a hyphen in the roman transcription.
2. This character occurs only in the grammatical term given in the
reading examples.
3. This character occurs only in combination with preceding T .
U. Transcription of examples is given,on p.52. N
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Class 2. Two vergiiy© characters joined.^
i. ©ghos© and ghosovst characters, excluding ©nunasik© characters:
vsrgsh ©ghos 0 ghosovst
- — — — —
ko - CO
-kco -kcho -gjh©
- Z
ko -\t?
-kto -tko -ktho -tkho -go;© -d^g© -gdh© -a^gh©
- cT
ko - to
¥
-kto -tko -ktho -tkho -gd© -dgo -gdh© -dgh©
Wi - T
ko - P©
-kpo -pko -kph© -pkho -gba -bg© -gbh© -bgh©
- S — — — —
CO - t 8
-{co -tcho -^.DO -djh©
- H — — ——
CO - p©
-pco -pcho -b jo -b jh©
Z - rT tt
- to 2
-tto -tto -tthe -ttho -dd© -dcje -qdh© -ddh©
- T
t 9 - po
-tP° -Pt 8 -tpho -pfho -db© -bo;© -dbh© -bdh©
- H
to - po
-tpo -pto -tpho -ptho -dbo -bd© -dbh© -bdh©
1 . Many of these conjunct characters occur only in external sandhi.

2. This combination occurs in the character combining ~g , <=p and .
40 SANSKRIT SECTION
ii. Characters of each vsrgsh joined with a preceding or following
©nunasik© character of the same vorgoh.
a. onunasiko character preceding.
f
-nke -nkh©
1 f f
-ngho
^3T
-jice -jicho -P-J© -njh©
TO TO TO
-nt 9
-nt h 9
-n<l 9
-nta -nth© -nd© -ndh©
-mpa -mpha -mb© -mbh©
Alternative forms Tig TTJJ
-jijh© -i].t
9 - I
lt n 9
"^TA 9
-ncjh©
These characters, representing a preceding homorganic nasal
consonant, are usually written in preference to the ©nusvarsh placed
on the preceding character, of which examples have been given above^.
The following examples illustrate the contexts in which the ©nusvarsh
may be written, and in which it is not written:
^TcT^cr ft^rfrt: 1^n%. ^Trt
pstsnti^ vinsnjtih or vin©ntih3 lsbhsnte^ ©njte or ©nte^
b. ©nunasik© character following.
^ ? ^ i ? ? ? ^ «r
-cji© jn© ~th:n© -djhn© -tn© -thn© -dn©^ -dhn© -pm© -bhm©
The character 3T is not calligraphically a conjunct character,
and is found, from an early date, included in the syllabic series of
characters^. In realisation, however, it belongs to this class of
1. See above, Ch.2,3.i.b. 2. Verbal forms. 3. Non-verbal forms.
k. The combination (J - *f more usually becomes «5T in sandhi.
5. See above, Ch.2,l. iii. x
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 41
conjunct characters. In the order of words in dictionaries, words
"beginning with are placed between words beginning with and
those beginning with^T^T.

iii. Characters joined with a preceding or following onunasiko
character of a different vorgoh:
a. onunasiko character preceding.
R • •' ^ ^ ^ %
-nbho -nko -ngo -nco -n jo -nphe -nbho
Most characters may occur joined with preceding , on account
of the frequent occurrence of formative particles ending in *T .
^ , no , also may occur with many characters in external sandhi.
b. onunasiko character following.
-UT
-ita
-kno -bhno
-no sR W "9
kne -khno gno ghno -pne -bno -bhno
-T koM 71?
-me
-kmo -khmo -gmo -ghmo -cms -jmo -dmo
-tmo' -dme -dhmo

iv. Two onunasiko characters of different vorgoh.
g*r • *pt ^ ?r
-nno -nmo -nno -nmo -nmo -mno mno
Alternative forms of the conjunct characters in iii. and iv. are
formed with " O T , e.g. " U T T -gô VTTf -bhno T^Jf -rang U
H -ipio .
1. It i s more usual to write ôf before characters of the co-vorgoh.
42 SANSKRIT SECTION
Reading examples
i. ciicmh w ^ f c w i^t^r- ^ ^ f e r r r ^rr-sF^t^r tst^^t^
oTT6FTB^TH N - s p ^ ^ f T ^ - oBô^TtTT ^S^fW:
^3$«rh ^SJT ^CTfe 5^T5F5T ^F>*T ^STTf ^f^SSFfvT:.
ll.a. ^ | f : ^Tf: fi^T TTf: ^F^fT ^ ^ T : « B ^ W
^RT: cRTO: -q-fferT: <jfu& ^FrD TpSJcfi ^=3R ^ S T :
^TT^T ITFR N %^TfrT IfTfa T « R KVTT ^STlfc* ^TI^R
?r#q w ftirw taring

iii. a. ^ f T ^ f o ^J?:
b. ârcr ^mr ^rfrt ^ngj: îRf:

^Tlfrt ^TTFtfrt W W ^f?^ft m f ^ R ^f^T: ^ T ^ : ff*T
iv. f^HT*?. STTf^ f^TT*T: 2

WTTO: ^FiR v WlfrT ¥TcT
1. For transcription of examples, see p . 5 2 . Examples illustrating

characters which could occur in sandhi arising from the sequence of
words in a sentence are placed between hyphens.
2. The first character represents dvi . See Class 3«ii«
Glass 3 « Characters joined with ©ntohsth© characters.
i. Characters joined with following .
^5 TO
kyo khyo ,gy© ghyo s
-gy 9
cy© -chy© jyo • jhy©
• T O
-ty 9
-t y
h 9 -dj© -djiy© n y 9 ty© thy© dy© dhy© nyo
TO
py© -phyo hy© hhy© my©
• TO TO
(yyo) 1
-ry© ly© vy© /ye -sys sy© hy©
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i.

5«qr
-nny© -tty© -tmy© -pty© -gdhy© -dhhy© -hjy©
Reading examples.
3^*F?frf oFjq-^^ W c S ^ W ^ F T ârrS^T ^ T E W cZTFHT
Î^FT ^ f r *T-pT: ^F*T W N ^<TO
•HvqT^ #^^T: f%^T f ^ T T rT^fcTH. % ^ « W X ^TTfTc^R.
1. See under Class 1, 2. The superscribed stroke in this character

represents r preceding another consonant. 3. For transcription
see p. 53. k- The first character represents Jla . See below
under iv.b. 5. NTtisatakam, verse 3.a.
44 SANSKRIT SECTION
ii. Characters with following 5J* .
TO TO
kve khvo gvo ghvo -nvs — CVS -chvs dvs jhvs
-tvo
? -thvs -d^vs
f
-djivs
TO
-nvo tvs
TO
-thvs dvs dhvs
TO TO
nvs
ocj
-pvo -tvo -bhvo -mvo
TO
1
TO TO f
yvs Ivo (-wo) svs svs hvs
-rvo
and ^ do not occur in this series. ^ preceding another
character occurs in oXXJ" , -vne, ?T > -vne , 9T , vrs " and 4

^ , vis .
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i. and ii.
TO o^f ^ TO ©TO T
TO
-ttvo -rvvs -cchvs -ktvs -dvys -bdhvs -gdhys
Reading examples.^
oT^p ^"?r^T Tf|€T Tf*T N ^ r^rftrT 3%5f
^ff^cT "HMI 5F53T^T*i; ft*5R ^F*ft: ^TPJcft ^Hl" ^c^T--
^ €^ T o^€oTr ^ T F ^ T "^TWr W ^ t T %TTfcT TTToWT 7

VJI£;cUh 7
1. For the superscribed stroke in this character, see below, in iii.a.

2. See -vvs in Class 1. 3. For this form of J"s see Ch. 2,1. iii.
U. See below, under iii.b. 5. See below, under iv.b.
6. For transcription of examples, see p.53. 7. The initial characters
in these words represent gro and pro .
8. From BhagavadgTta, Ch.6,v.kl.a.
iii. Characters joined with preceding or following .
a. preceding another character.
To represent preceding another character a stroke is super-
scribed on the character before which r is to be realised. This
stroke is called "V^T: , rephoh, the name given to the character ^ .
repheh in this form may be written with any character, but it does
not occur with or ,
*• -* £ I * $ I
-rko -rco -rô -rts -rpo -ryo -r/o -rho
Some of the characters, particularly TTf , , \jf , ?T > C$ >
S>[ , «[ , Xf , and ^" , ax-e frequently doubled when written with
repheh. This practice is found in Hindi writing, but is not usual
in Marathi writing. Examples:
**f ^
-rgge -rjjo
€ ^
-rtte -rddho
^
-rmms
^
-ryye
^
-rvve
Characters written with vowel signs and repheh:
«bF f«& ^ ^ ^
-rka -rki -rkii -rku -rke -rkey -rko -rkev
and with repheh and onusvaroh:
ciF f<l ^ «fc <fc

-rkairj -rkirr) -rkiiirj -rkuirj -rkerq -rkeyrrj -rkevm,
The repheh is placed above the upright stroke of a character, or
above the raid-point. It is always written to the right side of any
other superscribed stroke, as shown in the examples given below. It is
written also with the vowel character «|J . as in the word Pl^fci: .
1, repho, 'rough'; rephoh, 'a rough sound'.
Characters with rephoh are written as shown in these examples:
rki ft t* rkii ebl «Kl

rke <*> % % rko o^l *T
rkiir] ft rkovrrj
In Bombay writing 'the character representing -rho is sometimes
written as , though the use of this stroke for rephoh is more rare-
ly used in writing Sanskrit than in writing Marathi.
b. following another character.
To represent ^ following another character, a diagonal stroke
is placed against the upright stroke of those characters that have
one, or beneath the mid-point of the lower part of a rounded
character.
SB - HI — V <* —
kr© gr© -ghr© -nro — p —
-chr© jr©
— — ST W
5 -
-tro3 - -cjr© — tr© thr© dr© dhr© -nr©
- 5T sT
pro — br© bhr© mr© vr© Jr© sr© hr©
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. to 3.ii. with 3.iii.
TO TO TO 5?T
-ktre -tpr© -rty© -dry© -rdhv© rdr© -ntry© -rdhny©
1. See above, Ch.2,2.ii. Vowel signs.

2. This combination occurs in the character joining and .
3. S and ^ are combined in the character representing^ "5f , Z and"^" .
k. For this form of , see Ch.2,1. iii. s s
Reading examples''"
a. rp£: ^ £ OPFFQ" ^TT§- W&fr JFF^FEW ^T^T: ftsfo;
^ T ^ n ^ ^ ^^flT 7l1*?cT
3>f& cFF>fc SRRFôR ^£TT ^ c T ^ J : ôfa 3$R*T
I fl^T ^ w£ 3Tl£ ^ H ^ R ^Tft^PT TTft^ -qrPSETc^T
iv. Characters combined with preceding cT or following
a. '(FT preceding another character.*
TO TO c hL
TO TO TO
-Ike -lge -lpe -lpho -Ibe -lbhe -lme
TOT TO Vedic
-Us -lse -Ihe -Ihe
b. oT following another character.
~% $
kl© gls -chle -<|lo pie ble bhle
5?T or 3 r T ^
mlo vie Jle his
Most of these characters may be written either by method i.
by method ii., described earlier in this chapter.^"

1. For transcription, see p.53.
2. For oT joined with entohstho characters, see i. to. iii. above.
3o Vedic o"5 is included in this class.
h. See above, 1. Construction of Conjunct Characters...
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1 . to 3 * i i i . with 3 . i v .
rfj SWT
-tplo -tkl© -cchlo -Ibhy©
Reading examples. 1
^F^T xrc^J T^^T ^c*TW ^1^BH" JPTFT
^Tcb: f^>- 'fR^r ^|pr ^^T: 3 ^
T%*JTE: T T ^ - ^ q : tcRitf^rf^r *T^ IIW 2
Class 2|. vorgiiyo characters joined with preceding or following
uusmon characters.
i. Characters joined with 7£T > T o r

•
a
« > o r
preceding another character.
The following characters occur in this series, some occurring
only in external sandhi.

*r 3
TO TO
F-
J -Jks -J*c© -Jcho J"ne •J"pe Jm©
*r TO S TOT
s-
-sks sthe -sn© -?P8 -sphe -sm©
TO T3f TFT FT ¥7 TO? TO
sko skho -sjo sto stho sno spo sph© sm©
1. For transcription, see p . 5 k . 2 . Vairagyasatakam, v . 6 2 .

3. These characters may be written with either or &f .
b. , or following another character.
The f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r s occur i n t h i s s e r i e s , some occurring
only in e x t e r n a l sandhi.
TOT TOT
Js s
-k/o -n/o -n/o
* or 1
M 2
TO TO
so
kso -nso -pso
so *
TO
-kso ~t S 8
-nso -tso -nso -pso
The c h a r a c t e r ^ has been i n c l u d e d i n the s y l l a b i c series from
an e a r l y d a t e , and i s n o t c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a conjunct c h a r a c t e r . 3
In
the order of words i n d i c t i o n a r i e s , words beginning with T^T are
p l a c e d âfter words b e g i n n i n g w i t h £f} •
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s of C l a s s e s 1. - 3. w i t h C l a s s h.
"R "? f W M c^T TFT

stro _
?t r 9
~?t v 9
ksiô -ksm o -stvo -tstho -tsno
TTO HTO TP? 7 ^
stryo -tsmyo -rsty© -rtsnye
Calligraphy: kso , Bombay form - $ §f. fcj $J
Reading e x a m p l e s ^
a. W * T * k N 3^C=T fi^T ^ ^cT
f^RoT ^ C R ; *£tW ^f>TT T^ferT S T F ^ TcT5q" f^rfcT: ^ft
1. Bombay form. 2. T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n u s u a l l y becomes g".^jf .

3. C f . n o t e on $T , C 1 . 2 . i i . b . k. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 5^. s
E
SO S A N S K R I T S E C T I O N
ii. onunasiko c h a r a c t e r s joined with preceding "j?" or f o l l o w i n g ^
a. f p r e c e d i n g *tj , ^ and If . ^ ^
-hno hno -hmo
b. ^ following ^. and ? f t
-rjho -nho
Reading e x a m p l e s . 1
^fjfrt ^f|: |^ ffTfPST Tn^fTrT: [PTfTrT:] ^SF*Tu%
^W^Î^HI-^^^^^T^f^TrT«r \\^\\ k
f^^wmsTTÎ^r^sRWfR; II w i 5
1, For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 5 h . 2„ R i g v e d a , 1. 3. i b i d . , 2
Uo BhagavadgTta, c h . l , v . 2 6 . 5o i b i d . , ch.3»v. 2 5 .
6„ ibid., ch.5?v.8. 7 . NTtisatakam, v . l i 8 .
TRANSCRIPTION
T r a n s c r i p t i o n , o f R e a d i n g Examples
Chapter 2 .
1. i . do dho to pho mo po no co c{© go
ke bho jo bo gho cho tho kh© jh© n©
bh©];© -
p©d© dhsn© k©cj© m©"(;h© phsn.© gh©n© khoc d©dh dem©
chsd jhsg© j©cj© ph©"|;o poth© bot© ch©g© p©c]h gh©"|;© g©n©
gsmeke jeget cei]©k© methon© gh©"|;©k© p©|h©k© dsmsth©
dhe"|;ok© k©p©"(;© bh©j©k© g©r|©k© ksthsm kh©j©k© p©d©k©
chedon©m p©n©n©m n©"|;©n©m ksthsnsm bhsnonem jenopode
gemonem p©"(;h©nem dhon©m©d© jh©n©jh©n©m jh©i\© jhsr^sm
l.ii. v© ye re lo bo th© kh© t©
leve j©l© khsre ved jhsr© b©lo vere ' ron© v©"|;h
lobh yev© dhore l©y© jhsro r©"|; ran© ph©l rsth©
terole l©v©n© bhsysm dhsvol© j©"|;h©r© csrsne dêmsr©
nskhere legate c©p©l© bhsvst nsysn© v©c©r© l©"|;©bh©
yemevot vsysnsm g©r©l©m p©d©k©m©l© k©p©"|;©vecen©m
l . i i i o s© h© s© /© p© c|© r© kh©
/ere seh© £©t v©/© h©s jh©s© r©s© v©s J*eve
set Jo^he ke/o k©s© /©s h©y© h©r© jhss© bhss©
sorele k©l©/© jshst -v©y©s /©path© s©m©y© bshel© /©l©bh©
y©/©s /©r©{© s e p h e l e s©r©s© h©r©k© per©/© r©bh©s© h s t s k ©
de/eroth© /©keêm s©v©y©s kslshsm /©ssnsm /©t©/©s
j e l o c e r e s • noved©/ek©m s©h©g©m©n©m k©molov©d©n© d©/©/©t©m
2 i.
0 e i u © r ii uu o ©y 1 a ©v rr
oth©. is ut eke in© ot ©d ©y/o rdh
uuh edho i i J© uche evm rn© uucjh© i h e us
ed ©1 ©vm okh rc oyn© udon rn©m
iiset uuhenem rsobh© evs©dh©m ©yssmss up©k©r©nem
2 o i i < » nii bhuu gey sr da ji gov pey me duu
kr chi nev hoy bhii /rr /ii dr hi hr
duuro b h i i to ram© cor© tin dos© /rt© dhrt© ruuc|h©
g©yre kr/ pevl© kip drcjh© pur© phen© m©vl© krrt
pitr mem duugi b h i i t i hrdi guru vrtha /i/u setu
otu iiti etev rtu iti uuru rsi enii ii"Le
52 SANSKRIT SECTION
bhuusita vijesa upaya vaybhava p i t r r n p a v r u s a r u c i r a bhavmika

kumarii jhatiti thalinii rirusita avsadhi kaykeyii jhirika
vidhatru ayhika c^halin surabhi khacjika heâte
ekakin hrsike/a itihasa kav/aleya visuucika pavranika

devanagarii anunasika avpanisada upajiivika avpade/ika
upanive/ika avpanayika ko-pi rte-pi ya J"o-paya J*a
3.i. kin] marrj sukharrj harirr) mrtair) tanum, shorn evarrj rsiinarrj
cjirnba panjcju layrrjgam djiumdhi jrrnbh jharrjjha kirrjcit kavmteya
sarrjyamana sairjvat mairjsa janjyu. sainruuc|ha samliina arrjhati
tamahair) h r d i sairjgatamani Jarrj bhr/air) ramayami
kirn v a n e - n u s a r a m i t a m i h a kinj v r t h a vil9pami
3 . i i . kgh chgh t jhah
n s
ayh
n
oh uuh rh navh sah
gunah dhrtih bahuh n i t eh nrpayh viduh Jrnîh purusah
manahsu hivihsu dhenubhi h vi/esatah amjata h arrjtahkaranam
samaduhkhasukhah Junah/epah jagatohitah mato-dhikeh tejorrj-Jsh
behevoirj-buvegah yogomayasomavrteh garrjgataranjgahima.fiikaraj'iitalan i
jayadevapanjcjitakaveh. pan_cjitanarrj sama je-parrjc(ita mavnarr) b h a j e y u h
bhuya eva mahabaho Jrnu. me par amain vacah.
sukhair) duhkharrj b h a v o - b h a v o bhayarrj cabhayameva ca
v a h a s i v a p u s i v i j a d e vasanarrj jaladabharrj h a l a h a t i b h i i t i m i l i t a y a m u n a b h a m
k e j a v a d h r t a h a l a d h a r a r i m p a jaya j a g a d i i / a h a r e
m a d h a v i k a p a r i m a l a l a l i t a n a v a m a l a t i jatisugarrjdhav
munimanasamapi m o h e n a k a r i n i i t a r u n i i k a r i n a b a m d h a v
Chapter 3 »
Class 1 .
thakknrah kakkhaâ drggocarah vagghi tinnatin uccayh iccha
rajjuh u j j h a t i pa^tika la^ho ua^din© sed^ha visaniâ vis©nr|©
uttom© u t t h i t a u d d e / a h buddhih b h i n n a p i p p a l a h phupphuiisah abfcmh
abbhogah sammatih sarrjmohah Jayya u l l e k h a h tacchrnu sannaddh©
duj/iila (duh/iila) J a t a y u s s u (J"atayuhJ"u) j a s s a r a j a h Jubharrjllokan
Class 2.
i. v a k c a l a v a k c h a l am p r t h a g j a n a h vagjha"|;iti v a k ^ i i k a s©"|;kon©
s a t k h e t a k a m vagcâmbarah khac^gah v a g d j i s v k a t e dvid^ghora b h a k t i h utka"|;a
uktham utkhata hrdgata sadguna dagdha udgha"(;aka vakpaû
vakphalam k a k u p k h a l u p r t h a g b h a v a h kakubguruh kakubghora s a t . c a r a n a h
satjchavih sad^jah s a d ^ j h a ^ i t i apcarah k a k u p c h a v i h kubja k a k u b j h a ^ i t i
sacjdevah sacjdha s a t p s t i f/up-tiika âtphana sacjbahu kakup"|;hakkurah
abc|imbha sacjbhaga kakubcjhavkate utpanna satphalah g u p t a udbodhaka
udbhavah
Jabdah labdha bhagavadgiita sarrjyukta adbhuta madbhakta buddhi-
yukta sacchabdah
TRANSCRIPTION 53
ii.a. gijkgh Jgijkhgh lirjggm sgijghgh s s j i c s y a h vajicha g p j i i r g h j h g n j h a

ghui\t9h k9i\th8h pgi\cjitgh ^huijdjiih g n t g h p g n t h g k g s u n d g r g indhgh
ksmpgng gumphgti sgmbgndhgh argmbhgh pgrjktih grunddha
b. yacjia jnangm he-|;h:nati hedjiinati rgtngm m9thna b u d h n a t i papmgn

tgjpeys sgjijjia sgrrjjjia vi/esgjjig jijnasu
i i i . a. udgrjbhih mghankgvih drunphuh drunbhuh
b. r k i p rugrig g r b h n a t i Jsknoti cgkhnutuh agnih vighng

mrcjnati a p n o t i sbnabhgh rukmiiîi vagmin vgcmih gjmgh kudmglg
atmgn pgdma dhmatg drbhmgs dgdhmgv
iv. diijnaggh vaijmgyg dvirvnalgh S9i\masgh jgnmgn rgmiiati rrmatg
C l a s s 3.
i. vekygm k h y a t g vgyragygm J l a g h y g udgrjygj'gh c y u t g vapchyg j y o t i s
ujjhygti kapQ^ysn! J"a-|;hygm jad^ygm gvadhyg puipram tyajyg
pgthyg v i d y a dhyangm k s n y a apyg riphygte gbyonih gbhyasgh
sgvmygm dhgyrygm gmuulyg vyuudjig dr/yg mgmisygh r g h g s y g hygs
sgynygsyg
sgnnyasgh sgrrjnyasgh c i n t y g buddhya t g j j y o t i s vgydggdhygm mahatmygm
bhgktya kgvbjygm sghrdbhygh b h g g g v g n v y g k t i b evgmetgdygtha—tthg
guhygmgdhyatmgsgrrjjpitgm g j p g h sukhgmaradhygh s u k h g t g r g m a r a d h y g t e
vijesgjjigh
i i . k v g c i t pgkkvanngm akhvoh p g v e d g h l g g h v i i u c c h v a s g h u j j v g l g u j j h v g
Igf/vgh y g d n g t v a sgcjvidhg drcjhvgm J"rr|ygn t v s r i t g prthvii udvigng
dhvgnih
g n v i t g apva gbvahgngrrr r i b h v g n cgmvoh y v a g u l i i s g r v g s g r v v g n g l v g h
i i j v g r g h v i / v s s v g k k g t e g n u s v a r g h h v e v i h v g l g vidhvgrrjsgh dvgndvgh
tgttvgm
dugdhva I s b d h v a u k t v a davna e t g d d h v a v l i n a t i gravida prarjvg/gh
tygktva--tmgj"uddhye p u i p r g k r t a r r j l l o k a n u s i t v a J a j v g t i i h sgmah
i i i . a , tgrkg h muurkhs vgrggh v g r g i i y g d i i r g h g Jarrjgg c g r c a m u u r c h i t g
arjungh n i r j h g r g h
dardhygm v g r i p h k g r t r v y g r t h g durdgyvgm grdhg mgnurnamg grpgr^gm d u r -
bglg ggrbhitg
uurmih kgrmmgn dharmikg p g r y g n t g pgrygrrjtg s u u r y g h d u r l g b h g puurvg
ssrw© dgr/gnsm
h©rs©h g r h g t k i i r t i h ©h©rnij*©m uurdhv©m v s r j y © rrniurdhni rmiurdhnya-
dhayatmgngh n g y r r t i i
durbuddhsyryuddh© Jvetsyrhsysyryukte v e d s y © j n a d h y a y s n s y r n©
dangyrng C9
b , vikr©m©h agr©hah J i i g h r g p r a i j r a t r i i krcchr© vgjrgm psv^rgh
f g t r u h drgvygm
dhruv© pr©y©tn©h premna brniv© b h r a t r ngrnrg v r s j s h J u j r u u s a srgjva
h r g s v g hr©sv©
h r s y hirrjsrg Jraddhg ardr© ardr© d a r i d r y g m daridrygm s©rrjhriir]©
etgcchrutva
digvr©t©m sgtjtrirrjjg y©tpr©mai]©m j©mbvamr©le
54 SANSKRIT SECTION
iv. u l k a phslgta s v s l p © ©lpspran© g u l p h i t © ulb© prggslbhg

h©lj"©bd©h h©ls©ndhih V9lh prag©lbhy©m j©"[hu mi'Lhuse
klej"©h gl9V pl9V9 p i p l u h ©bling© k s k u b h l a b h s h m l e c c h s h vlinati
J"lok©h Jles9h sihlsh hladste ucchlskh© utklej"©h utplsv©
psresarrjcetarrjsi p r g t i d i v s s g m a r a d h y g bghu ha
prssadsrrj kirrj neturrj v i / © s i hrdsy© k l e J © k © l i l ©m
pr©s©nne tvsyysntsh sv©y©mudit©cintam©nigune
vimuktsh s©nk©lp©h k i m s b h i l s s i t s i r j pusysti ri9 t e
C l a s s h.
i.a. aj*c©ry©m pr©/n©h Jm© Jru pusksl© blesk©m

srstih krsn©
jyes-f/h© sthyuutg
puspsm nisph©!© uusman Jlesma ssrrjskrtg s k h s l i t © b h r o s j stsbdh©
sthitih strii
©ntshsth© s n i g d h 9 sprs );© s p h u u r t i h bhgsmg J"res"|;h©tv©m / c y u t © drstjva
-
d©rrjs"|;ra varsney© n©moste-stu
b . p r a k j i r s s pr©ty©nj"ir©s tajijuka t a n / u k a S9"|;/astr9 r©pj*©te ©kssrsm

tirysnsu s e t s s s t i h ksetrsjji© dikssm© l i ^ s u v s t s s h sug©ns©r©ti
sug©rjj;s©r©ti ksma
J"l©ksn© u t k s i p t © bhsksy© m©tsy©h t s t s t h © ! © k s v e t © ©pkrtsn© k a r t s n y s m
v i b h r s s t o / c h s n n © k©rm©ph©l©prepsurl©bdh©h n©bh©hspr J"©m d h a r s t y s m
etstksetrsm
ii. g r h n a t i v s h n i h h n u t e brahmen© p r a n h s s t s h prangh©st©h i s t . a n b h a n h i

©gnimiiê purohitsrrj y©jn©sy© d e v s m r t v i jsirj / hotarsrrj r©tn©dhat©m©m
©gnih p u u r v o b h s r r s i b h i r i i d ^ y o n u u t s n s y r u t © / s© devarrj eh© v s k s s t i
t©trap©Jy©tsthitanparth©h p i t r r n s t h © pitamshan
acaryanmatulanbhrantrrputranp©vtrans©khirrjst©th©
s s k t a h k©rm©i|y©vidvarrjso y s t h a k u r v s n t i b h a r s t ©
kuryadvidvarrjst©tha-s©kt©Jcikiirsurlok©s©ngr©h©m
n©yv© k i r r j c i t k © r o m i i t i y u k t o msnyet© t s t t v s v i t
p© Jysn J r n v s n s p r / © n j i ghr ©nn© J n s n g s c c h s n s v©p©n J* v©s ©n
a j j i a k i i r t i h palsnsirj brahmanarrj dansrrj bhogo mitr©s©mr©ks©n©m c©
y e s a m e t e s©c[guna n© p r s v r t t a h korth©stesairj p a r t h i v o p a / r s y e n ©
HINDI SECTION
C H A P T E R 1
ARRANGEMENT OF THE SYLLABARY
The Devanagari S c r i p t i s u s e d i n w r i t i n g H i n d i ( ^ P ^ t ) and t h e
arrangement of t h e c h a r a c t e r s in the syllabary is t h e same a s the
Sanskrit arrangement. 1
Some of t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e u s e d o n l y i n writing
S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , b u t most o f them may b e f o u n d i n l i t e r a r y texts.
Some of t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e m o d i f i e d f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g s o u n ds occurring
i n P e r s i a n and A r a b i c loanwords.
The s c r i p t is usually referred t o as sn^TsTtST (balabodh) , 'that
can be u n d e r s t o o d by a c h i l d ' . Each c h a r a c t e r is called ^'T^lT
( e k s o r ) , and t h e s y l l a b i c series is called cflffHIo'JI (vornomala,
'character-series'). The t e r m s u s e d b y H i n d i grammarians t o r e f e r to
the s c r i p t a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e u s e d i n S a n s k r i t , but as the realisat-
i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n Hindi d i f f e r s somewhat from t h e Sanskrit
system i n r e s p e c t of c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h the vowel o ,
t h e s e terms a r e u s e d i n t h i s section i n t h e H i n d i f o r m , and a r e tran-
scribed in accordance w i t h the r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s in Hindi.
The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e the difference between the terms
u s e d i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g terms u s e d i n this
section: Sanskrit ^SPqjR'^ (oksorom), Hindi SWGJIT (okser)
foTTT'R: (viramoh) , fcfTPT (viram)
'SFrTYfSr (antahstha), 3T^cT**T (antasth)
The t a b l e g i v e n b e l o w i n t h i s c h a p t e r shows t h e arrangemen t of
the Hindi s y l l a b a r y i n roman n o t a t i o n . The s o u n d s o c c u r r i n g i n A r a b i c
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.l.
58 HINDI SECTION
and P e r s i a n l o a n w o r d s , and t h e i n t e r v o c a l i c r e a l i s a t i o n of the
characters r e a l i s e d i n i t i a l l y as c|e and cjhe , a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in
t h e roman n o t a t i o n a s follows:
q , for the v o i c e l e s s uvular p l o s i v e , 5f5
x , for the v o i c e l e s s velar fricative,
j , f o r t h e v o i c e d v e l a r f r i c a t i v e , TT
z , f o r t h e v o i c e d d e n t a l f r i c a t i v e , yT
f , for the v o i c e l e s s l a h i a l fricative,
r , rh , f o r t h e r e t r o f l e x f l a p p e d c o n s o n a n t s ^ and
N a s a l i s a t i o n of v o w e l s i s shown by t h e s u p e r s c r i p t ~ .
As t h e D e v a n a g a r i s y s t e m of w r i t i n g i s s y l l a b i c , and t h e charact-
e r s i n t h e s y l l a b a r y r e p r e s e n t s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g e i t h e r of a v o w e l
or of a c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d by t h e v o w el o , t h e roman t a b l e shows
each consonant w i t h t h i s vowel. T h i s v o w e l , when r e a l i s e d w i t h a
consonant c h a r a c t e r , i s u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d to i n E n g l i s h t e x t s as the
'inherent' vowel . 1
The s e r i e s of v o w e l s includes 'short' i and ' l o n g ' ii , 'short'
u and ' l o n g ' uu . T h e s e p a i r s of v o w e l s o c c u r i n H i n di w o r d s , some
words b e i n g a l w a y s w r i t t e n w i t h t h e 'short' vowe l and o t h e r s w i t h the
'long' vowel. There a r e c e r t a i n p a i r s of words w h i c h a r e distinguish-
ed i n meaning by t h e w r i t i n g of t h e 'short' or t h e 'long' vowel, and
o t h e r words i n w h i c h t h e 'short', or t h e ' l o n g ' vowel i s w r i t t e n , but
'no d i s t i n c t i o n i s made i n s p e e c h . In t r a n s c r i b i n g e x a m p l e s, these
vowels are w r i t t e n as 'short' or ' l o n g ' in accordance w i t h Hindi
o r t h o g r a p h y , and n o t i n r e l a t i o n t o ' l e n g t h ' of s p o k e n v o w el sounds.
ARRANGEMENT OF T H E SYLLABARY 59
Hindi S y l l a b a r y i n Roman N o t a t i o n
1 2 3 k 5
CONSONANTS w i t h © Velar Palatal Retro- Dental Labial
flex
Voiceless
Unaspirated ka 1
c© t 9 t© P©
P l o s i v e s
Aspirated kh© cho tha th© ph©
Unaspirated go 3©
c|©2 do b©
Voiced
Aspirated gh© jha dha 2

dh© bh©
Nasal (rj©) 3
(p©) 3
na^" no m©
Semivowels. yo r© 1© 5
va
Voiceless x© 6
s©^ s©
Fricatives
Voiced y© 6
z© 6
Aspirate h©
VOWELS © a i ii e of 0 av
MODIFIERS Nasal - rrj and Aspirated - h '
Notes on t h e s y l l a b l e s marked 1 - 7 i n t h e above table:

1. The c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s y l l a b l e ka i s modified t o repre-
sent t h e uvular p l o s i v e , qa .
2. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e t w o s y l l a b l e s a r e m o d i f i e d t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e m e d i a l and f i n a l r e a l i s a t i o n of these characters

60 HINDI SECTION
as f l a p p e d s o u n d s , w r i t t e n as r and rh in the transcription.
3. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g no and jio are not w r i t t e n as
single characters i n H i n d i , "but o n l y i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h other
characters, i l l u s t r a t e d below i n Chapter 3 .
h. The two c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g no and so occur only in
S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and do n o t o c c u r initially,
5. The c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t e d by vo i s usually realised with labio-
dental a r t i c u l a t i o n ; or, i n i t i a l l y , as a b i l a b i a l plosive.
6. These s y l l a b l e s a r e w r i t t e n by m o d i f y i n g o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s which
r e p r e s e n t s o u n d s somewhat s i m i l a r i n articulation:
xa with the character f o r kho ; fe with the character for pha;
ye with the character for go ; za with the character for jo
7. T h is v o w e l , s y l l a b i c r , o c c u r s o n l y i n a few S a n s k r i t loanwords.
C H A P T E R 2
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h e D e v a n a g a r i S c r i p t u s e d i n w r i t i n g Hindi
are t h o s e g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n , w i t h t h e t e r m s w h i ch a r e u s e d
by Hindi grammarians i n r e f e r r i n g t o them and t o t h e sor.nds which t h e y
represent. The method of w r i t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s i s t h a t d e s c r i b e d in
t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n , and i n t h e n o t e s on t h e c a l l i g r a p h y o f special
c h a r a c t e r s as t h e y a r e g i v e n i n t h e tables.
The c h a r a c t e r s , and t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f them i n r e a d i n g H i n d i , are
d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r under t h e same h e a d i n g s a s i n t h e Sanskrit
section: Consonant C h a r a c t e r s , Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s ,
and M o d i f i e r s .
1
1. Consonant C h a r a c t e r s .
The c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s are arranged i n three groups: 'vergiiy*
characters, 'ontesth 1
characters, and 'uusm' c h a r a c t e r s . 2
The c o n s o n -
ant c h a r a c t e r s , a s t h e y a r e g i v e n i n t h e s y l l a b a r y , are r e a l i s e d as
s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g of an i n i t i a l consonant, or s e m i - v o w e l , followed
by t h e vowel © . Characters r e a l i s e d i n t h i s way a r e d e s c r i b e d a s
^T^RTT ( © k a r ) . The r e a l i s a t i o n o f a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h o u t this
vowel, that i s , as the consonant e l e m e n t of the s y l l a b l e o n l y , is
i n d i c a t e d i n t h e s c r i p t by w r i t i n g a d i a g o n a l s t r o k e , known a s the
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . l . f o r t h e u s e o f t h i s t e r m .
2 . See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2. R e f e r e n c e s are g i v e n throughout t h i s chapter
t o t h e d i v i s i o n s and s u b - d i v i s i o n s w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g numbers
i n Chapter 2. of t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n .
62 HINDI SECTION
foTTW ( v i r a m ) 1
a t t h e f o o t of t h e c h a r a c t e r t h u s , of) , k - , cT , t - .
The r e a l i s a t i o n o f akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n r e a d i n g Hindi
differs i n some r e s p e c t s from t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s in
Sanskrit. The f o l l o w i n g n o t e s may be r e g a r d e d a s g e n e r a l guiding
p r i n c i p l e s t o w h i c h r e f e r e n c e may be made l a t e r , when t h e characters
are d i s c u s s e d i n detail.
a. A final akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-
v o w e l , e x c e p t i n a few S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s .
b. A final okar c h a r a c t e r formed by c o m b i n i n g two o r more c o n s o n a n t

c h a r a c t e r s , or a f i n a l
3
okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d e d by a
c h a r a c t e r w r i t t e n w i t h the onusvar r e p r e s e n t i n g a n a s a l conson-
a n t ^ , i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h an o-glide.
c. A m e d i a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or
w i t h an o - g l i d e , i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s , a s , f o r i n s t a n c e , when s u c h
a c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s a s t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r of a word o f t h r e e or
more c h a r a c t e r s and t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s w r i t t e n w i t h one o f
the vowel s i g n s 5 . Other c o n t e x t s are g i v e n l a t e r , when t h e
c h a r a c t e r s are d i s c u s s e d i n detail.
d. When an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a
verbal base, i t i s usually r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel, or w i t h an
o - g l i d e , b e f o r e t h e a d d i t i o n of f o r m a t i v e p a r t i c l e s c o n s i s t i n g of
a consonant c h a r a c t e r w i t h a vowel sign.
In t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s of Hindi w o r d s , f i n a l okar
c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an © - g l i d e ,
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2..1. 2. ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h

z e r o - v o w e l , a s d e s c r i b e d below i n n o t e s a. - d . , a r e , h o w e v e r , n o t
w r i t t e n w i t h t h e v i r a m , which i s u s e d m a i n l y i n w r i t i n g c e r t a i n
Sanskrit loanwords. 3« See b e l o w , Oh.3.
h. See b e l o w , 3 « i . © n u s v a r , 5. See b e l o w , 2 . i i .
are t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h o u t o , and m e d i a l okar c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d in
t h i s way are w r i t t e n t h u s , k' , t' , p' , for guidance in reading.
Characters which do n o t o c c u r i n an i n i t i a l p o s i t i o n are i n d i c a t e d by
a hyphen p r e f i x e d t o t h e s y l l a b l e i n t h e roman transcription.
i. Characters of t h e v o r g i i y g r o u p .
The f i r s t group o f c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s c o n s i s t s of twentyfive
c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d a s s y l l a b l e s w i t h an i n i t i a l p l o s i v e consonant
f o l l o w e d by t h e vowel e . These c h a r a c t e r s are p l a c e d i n f i v e class-
e s , or cT ^ 7
( v e r g ) , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s i t i o n o f a r t i c u l a t i o n of the
consonant i n t h e s y l l a b l e t h e y r e p r e s e n t . The c h a r a c t e r s a r e g i v e n i n
the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . 1
Of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , , no and \5f . . . j i o ,
do not occur i n Hindi w o r d s , and o c c u r i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s o n l y i n
combination with o t h er c h a r a c t e r s . 2 The c h a r a c t e r UT , 1 ^ 0 , occurs
only i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s i n l i t e r a r y H i n d i . The c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n a s
'Bombay' forms are a l s o u s e d i n H i n d i w r i t i n g * b u t l e s s frequently
than t h o s e g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e s . Some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e m o d i f i e d
t o r e p r e s e n t c e r t a i n s o u n d s i n P e r s i a n and A r a b i c l o a n w o r d s and t h e
i n t e r v o c a l i c r e a l i s a t i o n of ^ and <5 .
I ? 7 ? T i f 5
• qo x© ye z© f© -£© -rh©
The c h a r a c t e r s § and <J o c c u r o n l y i n i t i a l l y ; 5 and Z are
never i n i t i a l , b u t may be m e d i a l o r final.
1. One c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , r e a l i s e d a s a c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h e v o w el o •.
I? Z rT z *t
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch. 2,1. i . 2. S e e b e l o w , Ch.3.

3. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p a g e 85.
64 HINDI SECTION
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel.
«R *TC ^3 ^FT 3*r *5?T xR3 ^TS
xrtit * r ^ts w=t Tf^r yrc ^ ^
3. Three c h a r a c t e r words
*TTR *fi*Tf W T **p=> ^^sp TTvyTST ^rf

*Tv5R- =côF> SRCR T^rW ^T^T
h. Four c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel
or w i t h an © - g l i d e , f i n a l characters with zero-vowel.
«R3RrT 5r^=T TcTflB^r xpj^cjvT SECTS
ii. Characters of the ©ntssth group.

There a r e f o u r c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s g r o u p , r e p r e s e n t i n g syllables
c o n s i s t i n g o f an i n i t i a l s e m i - v o w e l w i t h t h e v o w e l © . The c h a r a c t -
e r s are g i v e n i n the S a n s k r i t section . 1
When t h e c h a r a c t e r s U( , y© and , v© , o c c u r i n i t i a l l y , or
w i t h one of t h e v o w e l s i g n s , t h e y a r e r e a l i s e d a s c o n s o n a n t s followed
"by a v o w e l . When t h e y o c c u r m e d i a l l y i n a p o s i t i o n i n w h i c h t h e y a r e
r e a l i s e d w i t h a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , t h e y a r e r e a l i s e d a s c o n s o n a n t s . When
t h e y o c c u r m e d i a l l y i n p o s i t i o n s i n w h i c h an ©kar c o n s o n a n t character
i s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or f i n a l l y , they are r e a l i s e d as semi-
v o w e l s , f o r m i n g a d i p h t h o n g w i t h t h e v o w e l of t h e p r e c e d i n g syllable.
Examples: ^3=FT cTop SHJ
y©m©n v©k bhsy l©v
The c h a r a c t e r ^ i s o f t e n r e a l i s e d i n i t i a l l y or m e d i a l l y a s b© .
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,1.ii.
1 0 One c h a r a c t e r word. 3"

2. Two c h a r a c t e r -words, t h e f i n a l character r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
m err Tior m Wf OT"

«R is^r ^ ^ * R
3. Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , t h e f i n a l character r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.

STSoT ^TOT^T TR^T *R*R FT^R W
T^yf cRSR *Rc* sr^H "^T ifflSR j]yf^
h. Pour and f i v e character words; second characters in four character
words and t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i n f i v e character words, r e a l i s e d with
z e r o - v o w e l or w i t h an e - g l i d e , final characters with zero-vowel.
ETrTc^ SRIXf Sc^Ff ^CTic*
wzrt® *oRore qrôrs ^ S ^ R *M<HMH
iii. C h a r a c t e r s of t h e uusm group,.
This group c o n s i s t s of t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s which are r e a l i s e d as
f r i c a t i v e consonants f o l l o w e d by the vowel o , and one w h i c h is
r e a l i s e d as an a s p i r a t e f o l l o w e d b y o . These c h a r a c t e r s are given
in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . The c h a r a c t e r , so , occurs only in
some S a n s k r i t loanwords u s e d i n l i t e r a r y H i n d i . It i s often realised
i n o r d i n a r y s p e e c h as Jo . The l a s t character i n t h e Hindi syllabary
is I? , he .
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 85.
2 . This i s t h e o n l y o n t e s t h c h a r a c t e r w h i c h o c c u r s as a word.
3 . See S a n s k r i t , C h o 2 , l „ i i i .
66 HINDI SECTION
I n words c o n s i s t i n g o f okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s only, the real-
i s a t i o n of ^ , ho , v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o i t s p o s i t i o n i n t h e word.
a. When ^ o c c u r s m e d i a l l y p r e c e d e d by an okar c h a r a c t e r , and is
f o l l o w e d by a n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , it is often realised in
combination w i t h t h e vowel o of the p r e c e d i n g c h a r a c t e r as
a s p i r a t i o n accompanying the vowel (ee), a s in
W c^'H'T
Johor( Jfflhr) pahor(p8ehr) rohon(rffihn) lahoson(leehson)
b. When ^ occurs as a f i n a l c h a r a c t e r f o l l o w i n g an okar consonant
character i t i s g e n e r a l l y r e a l i s e d in combination w i t h the vowel
of t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a r a c t e r a s ( a ) . Examples:
cR^ ^SRT(? Exceptions: Xf^ ^ TJf

toroh(tora) jagah(joga) yoh(yeh) voh(voh) soho
Reading examples. 1
1. None of t h e uusm c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r s a s a word.

2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , t h e f i n a l character r e a l i s ed with zero-vowel.
<3?h TO srer w *6*r %z
«TH if^T 5f ^ £5 TT^T *R

3. Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , the f i n a l character r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
*R*F> f ^TTR ST«R *TC)T

$vFT ^TTJ^ ^B^qif ^FcT ^cT5T TOT
U. Four c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel,
second c h a r a c t e r s w i t h zero-vowel or w i t h an o-glide.
*T*RS 35STTrT §vR?T H^Tc^cT

f?5F>cT f^foT H^R^fi
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p.85.
2. Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s ,

i . Vowel C h a r a c t e r s .
The vowel c h a r a c t e r s u s e d i n w r i t i n g H i n d i a r e t h e same a s t h o s e
given i n the Sanskrit s e c t i o n , 1
omitting the characters representing
syllabic rr and s y l l a b i c 1 and 11 . The c h a r a c t e r occurs i n
S a n s k r i t loanwords u s e d i n l i t e r a r y H i n d i . The v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s a r e
usually placed f i r s t in the syllabary, and t h e y a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s
okar, a k a r , i k a r and s o o n . The Bombay forms o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e
sometimes w r i t t e n i n H i n d i , b u t t h e f o r m s g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e a r e more
usual.
The g e n e r a l r u l e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f okar c o n s o n a n t
c h a r a c t e r s s h o u l d be a p p l i e d i n r e a d i n g a l l e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w ,
u n l e s s s p e c i a l n o t e s are added.
1. Words c o n s i s t i n g o f v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s only.
5TT£ ^rrat ^rnr msft vsm
2 0 Words c o n s i s t i n g o f v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s and okar c o n s o n a n t characters.
^ T ' , ' TO* .. 3 5 3 OT" ^ ^ft5 ^TTTT f^cf
sfrsR ^pr i^r i$ far ^nr ^ri tt

%<zr ^vFf ^ f r vafrsnc >afocr ^ f t
i i . Vowel S i g n s .
The vowel s i g n s u s e d i n w r i t i n g H i n d i , c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h t h e
vowel c h a r a c t e r s and w r i t t e n w i t h t h e o k a r form o f t h e c h a r a c t e r ^ ,
are g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . 3 Each c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s a
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 2 . i . 2. F o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 85.
3. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 2 . i i .
68 HINDI SECTION
syllable consisting o f a c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d b y one o f t h e v o w e l s a
to ©v . The v o w e l s i g n s a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s HT^TT (matra) , as i n
*T ^Rt H i "511 ( e k i i matra , ' t h e s i g n of e.••'•).

Reading examples. 1
1. One c h a r a c t e r words.
"5F7T %
^ 1
Two c h a r a c t e r words.
W fte
*McT
3. Three c h a r a c t e r words.
^ t f t gsjp %)ciw spRm ^° £r (Jr^nr
^fâft §B3>T ^^TT ^W^fr g*TTf «(|^T
Words o f f o u r or more c h a r a c t e r s . Numbers i n b r a c k e t s indicate the
realisation o f ©kar c o n s o n a n t characters with zero-vowel, or with
an © - g l i d e , if t h e words a r e n o t t o be r e a d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e r u l e s
given above. Most words o f more t h a n f o u r c h a r a c t e r s a r e compounds
in which t h e f i n a l character of the f i r s t part, i f ©kar, i s realis-
ed w i t h zero-vowel.
TYTCT ^R^yftT ^nrmm ^TyT^5f> <5?5TT<7TT ^feqT^T
%§TT*ft s^Jtf^q ^JTTS ttarnft ITTSRN* ^mTifr
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s , s e e p . 8 5 .
2. A S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d , w i t h f i n a l d^h© .
/
The f o l l o w i n g r u l e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of okar consonant
c h a r a c t e r s i n words w h i c h h a v e v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s provide
some g u i d a n c e f o r r e a d i n g from t h e s c r i p t , though the only reliable
guide i s a knowledge o f t h e s p o k e n language.
a. When a m e d i a l okar c o n s o n a n t character, i n a t h r e e c h a r a c t e r word,
i s f o l l o w e d by a f i n a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h a vowel s i g n , it is usually
r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel, or w i t h an © - g l i d e , e.g.
rej'mii ©p'na lor'ka lok'ra per'da sod'rii
b. i. When a v e r b a l b a s e e n d s i n a n ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , this
character i s r e a l i s e d with z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an © - g l i d e , before
formative p a r t i c l e s which c o n s i s t of a consonant c h a r a c t e r with
a vowel s i g n e.g.
sok- s©k-na s©k-tii bol bol-ta bol-te
ii. When a v e r b a l b a s e c o n s i s t s of t h r e e or more c h a r a c t e r s , the
final and p r e - f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s b e i n g ©kar c o n s o n a n t characters,
the r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s v a r i e s according to the form
of t h e f o r m a t i v e p a r t i c l e s w h i c h a r e a d d e d . This v a r i a t i o n is
i l l u s t r a t e d in the following examples;
Tm*FTT H*T*BcTT "SRSRS&T ^T*T*HHT

somsjh s©m jha
T
s©m©jh-ta s©m©jh-k©r s©m'jhana
c. Medial , h© , f^" , hi and j ^ " , hu are r e a l i s e d as follows:
i. Medial ^ , p r e c e d e d by a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h a vowel sign
i s r e a l i s e d as a s p i r a t i o n of the vowel of t h e p r e c e d i n g syllable.

e
-s- WJ$m ft^cT ^ T r T %e>cTT # ^ c l
cahna mihnot tuhmst behtsr sohbot
70 HINDI SECTION
ii. M e d i a l f^T , p r e c e d e d by an akar c h a r a c t e r , may b e r e a l i s e d in
c o a l e s c e n c e w i t h t h e v o w e l of a p r e c e d i n g okar c h a r a c t e r a s ayh.
e.g. M^cHI srf^T Sff^T
p a h i l a or p e y h l a b a h i r a or b o y h r a b e h i n or bayhn
iii. M e d i a l 2 , p r e c e d e d by an akar c h a r a c t e r , may b e r e a l i s e d in
c o a l e s c e n c e w i t h t h e v o w e l of a p r e c e d i n g okar c h a r a c t e r as ovh.
e.g. Gt|?r "CHpr^TT
bahut or b e v h t p o h u r - n a or p o v h r - n a
Reading e x a m p l e s , illustrating t h e above n o t e s , and n o t e s a. and b .
under 1. i i i (uusm c h a r a c t e r s ) . 1
a. f^fit ^ R J f cPTT of^TST SfT^t W W
b. ifecft ^fcTT WfT^T TOO*- TO?*TT <P*TK*T

c. ^ *afc% -gsrf *r?ft5 *ri%7T "qfw^r s^^tt ^rfft
3. Modifiers.
The m o d i f i e r s , ^c^^gT^" (onusvar) and [o|^fT^ ( v i s o r g ) are both

2
used in w r i t i n g Hindi. T h e s e a r e g i v e n i n the S a n s k r i t section,
i. onusvar.
Both forms of t h i s m o d i f i e r a r e u s e d i n H i n d i , t h e f i r s t f o r m ,
a s i n 55T > b e i n g c a l l e d t h e o n u s v a r , and t h e s e c o n d f o r m , a s i n 35T ,
3
t h e c e n d r a b i n d u . The a n u s v a r i s u s u a l l y w r i t t e n , in preference to
the c o n d r e b i n d u , w i t h c h a r a c t e r s t h a t h a v e any s u p e r s c r i b e d stroke.
am. am im iirrj uirj uuirj eirj eym, orr) ovrr)
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , s e e p . 86.
2. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . and i i . 3 . 'moon and d o t ' .
The onusvar and c o n d r a b i n d u a r e r e a l i s e d i n Hindi a s f o l l o w s :
a. As t h e n a s a l i s a t i o n of t h e v o w e l o f t h e c h a r a c t e r w i t h whic h i t i s
written. The c o n d r o b i n d u i s p r e f e r r e d f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g a n a s a l i s e d
v o w e l , e x c e p t when t h e c h a r a c t e r h a s a s u p e r s c r i b e d s t r o k e ; e . g .
iff or $ ^ or f ^ ft
ha muh thii me hey
Reading examples.'''
ttZ TTT5T
3for fz *n§> ^ft
sarcbw Trff crt^TT A%~*r\ i^RT -qj^^rr
b. As t h e n a s a l c o n s o n a n t o f o n e o f t h e v o r g . The onusvar w r i t t e n on
a character preceding a v o r g i i y character i s r e a l i s e d as the nasal
consonant of t h e same c l a s s a s t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r , or a s n
when t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s of the ce-varg. The c a n d r a b i n d u
i s not usually w r i t t e n t o r e p r e s e n t a nasal consonant. When t h e
onusvar i s r e a l i s e d a s a n a s a l c o n s o n a n t b e f o r e a f i n a l okar
2
character, the f i n a l character i s r e a l i s e d w i t h an o - g l i d e .
tt^t $iz #>^pr
ponkh kon^h porantu hindii sambandh kanjuus
In w r i t i n g S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , t h e r e i s an a l t e r n a t i v e and more
f r e q u e n t l y used method o f r e p r e s e n t i n g n a s a l consonants i n t h i s
c o n t e x t , by combining c h a r a c t e r s . 2
When, t h e o n u s v a r i s r e a l i s e d
as a n a s a l c o n s o n a n t b e f o r e a f i n a l okar c h a r a c t e r , t h e f i n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d w i t h an a - g l i d e ^ .
1 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 8 6 . 2. S e e S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3*Class 2.ii.
3. See a b o v e , 1 . n o t e b„
72 HINDI SECTION
I n some w o r d s , t h i s m o d i f i e r may be r e a l i s e d a s i n a. or a s i n b .
The r e a l i s a t i o n a s i n b . i s more u s u a l when t h e c h a r a c t e r w i t h t h e
onusvar i s o k a r . e.g. 3>T^)

ok or onk reg or rang
R e a d i n g Examples."''
^ftcr wi*r z z ^Htr -q-âr 3"sft #etc
sf^rt w*r ^r^r Rfar f£«r ^55*
c . When t h e a n u s v a r i s w r i t t e n on a c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g one o f t h e
entosth or uusm characters, a s i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s and l e a r n -
ed words u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , i t i s r e a l i s e d in various
w a y s . Among t h e s e v e r a l ways o f r e a l i s i n g t h e o n u s v a r i n t h i s con-
t e x t u s e d by s p e a k e r s i n d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f India2, t h e u s u a l
Hindi p r a c t i c e i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g examples:
onusvar b e f o r e 7J[ , X , ^ , , !^ and 15" , r e a l i s e d a s n , or
as the n a s a l i s a t i o n o f t h e vowel o f t h e s y l l a b l e , e.g.
sonyog sonrag sonlegn s o n fay ahinsa sinha
or s a y o g sarag salagan saJay ahisa siha
anusvar b e f o r e o f , r e a l i s e d as m , the character o T being,
usually r e a l i s e d as b in this context, e.g.
somvad (sambad) varamvar (barambar) but kuvarii
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 8 6 . 2. S e e S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . n o t e c.
3. The l a s t c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s word r e p r e s e n t s 7T combined w i t h T f .
ii. viserg.
This m o d i f i e r i s r a r e l y u s e d i n w r i t i n g H i n d i . I t o c c u r s i n some
S a n s k r i t loanwords u s e d m a i n l y i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , and i n a few
Hindi words. When w r i t t e n w i t h a m e d i a l c h a r a c t e r , it is usually
r e a l i s e d e i t h e r as s t r o n g a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r the s y l l a b l e represented
hy the c h a r a c t e r w i t h whic h i t i s w r i t t e n , as i n r e a d i n g l e a r n e d
words from a l i t e r a r y t e x t ; o r , i n l e s s formal r e a d i n g , as the
d o u b l i n g of the c o n s o n a n t of t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r ; f o r example:
^:^cT , duhkh© or dukkh 'CRT: o f t ^ T , entohkoror^ or ©ntokkoror^

When the v i s a r g i s w r i t t e n w i t h a f i n a l character, i t i s r e a l i s e d as
strong a s p i r a t i o n f o l l o w i n g the f i n a l syllable, for instance, in
l e a r n e d words such a s ^J*T* » p u n s h , jcj ^)"^TrTt , v i f e s ' t s h ; or it
may be d i s r e g a r d e d , a s i n , ch© .
I+. The Complete Syllabary.

The arrangement of t h e c h a r a c t e r s of the Hindi s y l l a b a r y i n the
t r a d i t i o n a l order i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t g i v e n , i n t h e S a n s k r i t section,
o m i t t i n g t h e vowel c h a r a c t e r s , c£ and ^ . 1 The t a b l e i n w h i ch
a l l t he vowel c h a r a c t e r s , e x c e p t , and t h e m o d i f i e r s added t o t h e
c h a r a c t e r !£[ are p l a c e d a t t h e h e a d o f a s e r i e s of columns consist-
i n g of e v e r y c o n s o n a n t i n t h e ©kar f o r m , w i t h e a c h of t h e vowel signs
and each of t h e m o d i f i e r s , i s c a l l e d i n H i n d i t h e ^T^^<c|^l , bar©h-
k h s ^ i i , the 'twelve c h a r a c t e r s ' . This table i s often recited in
s c h o o l s by c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g t o read.
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,h.
' 4 HINDI SECTION
These two t a b l e s show t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e c h a r a c t e r s are
p l a c e d as the i n i t i a l characters o f words i n d i c t i o n a r i e s , which is
t h e same a s t h e order 1
in Sanskrit. Words b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e modified
characters are p l a c e d i n the s e r i e s o f words b e g i n n i n g w i t h the
corresponding unmodified characters.
5. Numerals.
The n u m e r a l s u s e d i n H i n d i a r e g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t section.1
Both t h e 'Hindi' f o r m s and t h e 'Bombay' forms a r e u s e d i n modern
Hindi printing.
6. P u n c t u a t i o n .
In p r o s e w r i t i n g , t h e end of a s e n t e n c e i s marked w i t h an u p -
r i g h t s t r o k e o f t h e same h e i g h t a s t h e u p r i g h t s t r o k e o f a c h a r a c t e r .
Other p u n c t u a t i o n marks a r e u s e d a s i n E n g l i s h . This system is
i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e H i n d i p r o s e p a s s a g e a t t b e end o f t h i s section . 2
The s y s t e m of p u n c t u a t i o n u s e d i n v e r s e i s t h e same a s t h a t used
i n Sanskrit3.
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,5. 2. S e e end of C h . 3 .

3. See S a n s k r i t , Gh.2,3.ii. Reading examples.
C H A P T E R 3
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Two or more c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s may b e combined i n w r i t i n g Hindi
t o r e p r e s e n t c o n s o n a n t s w h i c h a r e r e a l i s e d w i t h o u t an i n t e r v e n i n g
vowel. C h a r a c t e r s formed b y c o m b i n i n g o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s a r e c a l l e d
^^JrFjfisiR (sonyuktakser ) 1
b y Hindi grammarians. The c o n s t r u c t i o n and
c a l l i g r a p h y of conjunct c h a r a c t e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e S a n s k r i t sect-
ion . 2
The c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s u s e d i n w r i t i n g H i n d i a r e c l a s s i f i e d
i n t h i s c h a p t e r i n t h e same way a s t h e S a n s k r i t c o n j u n c t characters^.
1. C o n t e x t s o f Conjunct C h a r a c t e r s i n H i n d i .
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r i n H i n d i i n t h e s e contexts:
i. In Hindi w o r d s , t h a t i s , w o r d s n o t b o r r o w e d from S a n s k r i t or from
other languages; e.g.
<§F=gr C R M % m^t
becca kyoki mokkhii
ii. In S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , e i t h e r w o r d s commonly u s e d i n H i n d i , o r
l e a r n e d loanwords u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e ; e.g.
pustok strii /obd
i i i . I n loanwords from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
?TW WWrU
doroxt hofta sê/on
1 . 'joined character'. 2 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 1 . 3 . ibid. Ch.3,3.

76 HINDI SECTION
2. R e a l i s a t i o n of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s i n H i n d i .
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l i s e d i n r e a d i n g a s s y l l a b l e s consist-
i n g of two or more c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l . When an okar c o n -
junct c h a r a c t e r occurs as the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a word, i t is usually
r e a l i s e d w i t h an o - g l i d e , as i n , g u p t ' , $|| V I > J a s t r ' . l
The r e a l i s a t i o n i n modern Hindi of akar c h a r a c t e r s w i t h zero-
vowel i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s in words 2
gives rise t o a p r o b l e m of spell-
ing. For i n s t a n c e , when a f o r m a t i v e p a r t i c l e b e g i n n i n g w i t h a c o n s o n -
a n t c h a r a c t e r i s added t o a v e r b a l b a s e e n d i n g i n a f i n a l okar conson-
ant c h a r a c t e r , the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a s e i s u s u a l l y realised
with zero-vowel. T h i s r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e c o n s e c u t i v e c h a r a c t e r s is
s i m i l a r t o t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r . Similar problems
a r i s e i n o t h e r i n s t a n c e s , where an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s realis-
ed w i t h z e r o - v o w e l b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , and i n com-
pound words i n w h i c h t h e f i r s t p a r t ends i n an okar c o n s o n a n t charac-

3
t e r , and t h e s e c o n d p a r t b e g i n s w i t h a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r .
3. C l a s s e s of Conjunct Characters in Hindi.U
A l l the c l a s s e s of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h e Sanskrit
s e c t i o n o c c u r i n H i n d i , b u t i n some of t h e c l a s s e s o n l y a few of
the c h a r a c t e r s are used. Those u s e d i n w r i t i n g H i n di a r e illustrated
by t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n i n e a c h c l a s s , w h i c h i n c l u d e some S a n s k r i t loan-
words w h i c h a r e commonly u s e d i n H i n d i . More r a r e l y u s e d l o a n w o r d s ,
some of w h i c h may o c c u r i n l i t e r a r y H i n d i , are i n c l u d e d among t h e
examples g i v e n w i t h each c l a s s i n the S a n s k r i t section.
1. In t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s , t h i s g l i d e i s n o t i n d i c a t e d i n
words t o which t h i s r u l e a p p l i e s . 2. See a b o v e , C h . 2 , 1 . n o t e s
a. t o d. 3 . Examples of such words a r e g i v e n b e l o w , w i t h e a c h
c l a s s of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s . U. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 .
C l a s s 1 . Two s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r s joined.
The s e r i e s o f c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s c l a s s o c c u r r i n g i n S a n s k r i t is
given in that s e c t i o n . 1
Most of t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s of t h e Hindi
s y l l a b a r y occur i n t h i s c l a s s , b u t some o c c u r o n l y i n S a n s k r i t loan-
words u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e . The c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g -rra
i s w r i t t e n as ^ , the s u p e r s c r i b e d s t r o k e r e p r e s e n t i n g when p r e -
p
c e d i n g a n o t h er c o n s o n a n t . The m o d i f i e d c h a r a c t e r s ^ and <J do n o t
occur i n t h i s c l a s s , b u t o|-oh , qqa , VHVh , ffo , and \FjT , z z o a r e
w r i t t e n i n P e r s i a n and A r a b i c loanwords.
A c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g an a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t i s n o t w r i t t e n
i n S a n s k r i t as t h e f i r s t part of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s class,
but i n w r i t i n g Hindi t h e c h a r a c t e r s \o^cj , khkh© and , "|;h"|;h©
are sometimes u s e d . The c o m b i n a t i o n -mm© may be a l t e r n a t i v e l y r e -
p r e s e n t e d by w r i t i n g an a n u s v a r w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g ^ , as
in V4J-«41 <3[ or VS^ft"^ , ummid .
The f o l l o w i n g example s i l l u s t r a t e H i n d i words i n w h i c h two c o n -
s e c u t i v e consonant c h a r a c t e r s , t h e f i r s t b e i n g ©kar, a r e r e a l i s e d in
ordinary s p e e c h i n t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters:
s©nn b©n-na'3 yusse us-se k

Reading examples .
pF?f>T *raR5FT cR^ft sf^cft I ^ W
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . . 3 , C l a s s . 1 . 2. S e e b e l o w , C l a s s 3 . i i i . a .
3 . Verbal form. L\.. Pronoun w i t h s u f f i x .
5. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 86.
78 HINDI SECTION
C l a s s 2. Two v e r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s joined.
The c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s in t h i s c l a s s which occur i n S a n s k r i t are
g i v e n in the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . 1
Some of t h e more common c o n j u n c t
c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s o c c u r r i n g i n H i n d i , m o s t l y i n S a n s k r i t loan-
w o r d s , a r e g i v e n b e l o w , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of some c o n j u n c t characters
o c c u r r i n g i n P e r s i a n and A r a b i c l o a n w o r d s . Some of t h e e x a m p l e s given
i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n may be f o u n d i n Hindi t e x t s , i n l e a r n e d loan-
words i n t h e l i t e r a r y language.
3.
-kto -tko -gd© -dg© -pt© -tp© -bd© -db©
OXJrj <Frf 9FST

-xte - b j© -bz© -qt© -qb© -qf© -ft© -bt©
ii. Most of t h e c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n under i i . a . in the Sanskrit section
a r e w r i t t e n i n l i t e r a r y H i n d i , t h i s method of r e p r e s e n t i n g a
homorganic n a s a l c o n s o n a n t p r e c e d i n g one of t h e v e r g i i y charact-
e r s b e i n g g e n e r a l l y p r e f e r r e d t o t h e u s e of t h e o n u s v a r , in
w r i t i n g S a n s k r i t loanwords3. Among t h e c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n the
S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n under i i . b . , only "JfT , jji© and <?T , - t n © ,
occur i n Hindi. The c h a r a c t e r i s not c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a
conjunct c h a r a c t e r , and i t i s often included in the syllabic
series. I t i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d as gy© , w i t h n a s a l i s a t i o n of the
f o l l o w i n g vowel^-. I n Hindi d i c t i o n a r i e s , words b e g i n n i n g w i t h this
c h a r a c t e r a r e p l a c e d a f t e r words b e g i n n i n g w i t h vj^" .
iii. These c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r i n S a n s k r i t loanwords:
-kmo -gn© -ghn© -tm© -dm© -pn©
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3>Class 2. 2. The numbers i . - i v . c o r r e s p o n d

t o t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n .
3. See a b o v e , C h . 2 , i . b . L. Cf. gy© , i n C l a s s 3 . i . b e l o w .
i v . Of t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s g r o u p , o n l y , -rjmo and , -nmo
occur i n H i n d i , i n S a n s k r i t loanwords.
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e H i n d i words i n w h i c h consecut-
ive consonant c h a r a c t e r s , the f i r s t b e i n g okar, are r e a l i s e d in
o r d i n a r y s p e e c h i n t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters;
Jokti sok-tii 1
robt dab-ta 1
padma ad'mii
* T % W R T -&cW>-R " H I P TTOF^TT
fOT ^TovT ^cT OTT |WT TT^ olW oTcST

F^RF "H|* ^^PFT h^rt w^zr SNF% ^ftc
^F^H^fl | O P R ^llcHI W F T
Class 3 . Characters joined with a n t a s t h characters.
i. Characters joined with f o l l o w i n g Xf
The s e r i e s of c h a r a c t e r s in this class occurring in Sanskrit is
g i v e n i n t h a t s e c t i o n . 3 Most o f t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s of t h e Hindi
s y l l a b a r y can be combined w i t h f o l l o w i n g Xf , t h o u g h some of these
conjunct c h a r a c t e r s occur o n l y i n S a n s k r i t loanwords i n the literary
l a n g u a g e . Some of t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n may o c c u r
i n a Hindi l i t e r a r y t e x t . Of t h e m o d i f i e d c h a r a c t e r s , Jpf and
occur combined w i t h f o l l o w i n g ZJ -in P e r s i a n and A r a b i c loanwords.
1 . Verbal form. 2. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see p . 86.

3 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 , C l a s s 3 . i i i . b .
80 HINDI SECTION
Reading E x a m p l e s .
oRt to^TcT ^TTTl" ^ T ^ T "^TTZT
cqt "q«T ^3"^Tt T T

*T«T =*rrq" wfT sqÎT ^T«T
OFH^J ^pjc^r siTRotrr^r ^Tors^r Trgw ^m^- o^srr
ii. Characters joined with following cT .
The s e r i e s o f c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s c l a s s o c c u r r i n g i n S a n s k r i t is
p
given in that s e c t i o n . Only a few of t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e H i n d i
s y l l a b a r y o c c u r combined w i t h f o l l o w i n g cf , and t h o s e t h a t o c c u r are
mainly in Sanskrit loanwords. Of t h e m o d i f i e d c h a r a c t e r s , o n l y ^cf
i s combined w i t h cf .
3
Reading e x a m p l e s .
" W T T ôcTTsr -3cTR ÔTR CTT^T E5# f^T
"H^ W $ ivFTT ^f%rT "^TK

iii. Characters joined with preceding or w i t h f o l l o w i n g .
a. *5[ p r e c e d i n g .
Characters r e a l i s e d with preceding r , r e p r e s e n t e d by the stroke
called ( r e f ) , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d , w i t h n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y , in the
S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . ^ These c h a r a c t e r s occur i n Hindi w o r d s , i n Sanskrit
l o a n w o r d s , and i n l o a n w o r d s from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s . The e x a m p l e s given
below i l l u s t r a t e t h e c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s w h i c h o c c u r i n H i n d i .
The c h a r a c t e r s 7T, » 7T » ^ > » *T a n d

3" are often
d o u b l e d when w r i t t e n w i t h ref .
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 8 6 . 2. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3»Class 3.ii.

3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 8 6 . U. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,Class 3.iii.a.
The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e H i n d i words i n which consecut-

i v e consonant c h a r a c t e r s , t h e f i r s t b e i n g ©kar, a r e r e a l i s e d i n
ordinary s p e e c h i n t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters:
korta kor-ta^ s©rv dor'vaza dhorm d©r'maha

A few words may b e w r i t t e n e i t h e r w i t h f o l l o w e d by a c o n s o n a n t
c h a r a c t e r or w i t h a c h a r a c t e r w i t h s u p e r s c r i b e d ref ; e.g.
dor'bar dsrbar por'da parda d©r jii

f
dsrjii
b. "5[ f o l l o w i n g .
Characters r e a l i s e d w i t h r following, r e p r e s e n t e d by a s h o r t
s t r o k e p l a c e d e i t h e r a g a i n s t t h e u p r i g h t s t r o k e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r or
beneath the c h a r a c t e r , are g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . 2
The
examples g i v e n below i l l u s t r a t e the c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s which

occur i n H i n d i . The m a j o r i t y o f s u c h words a r e l o a n w o r d s from
S a n s k r i t and E n g l i s h .
?foR t $ "3?ff ^^cT
srJ *£r£ n£ 7
*P&*no*r ^tfS sHf ^|
^SPW ^ T f ^ «F4 ST^FT ^ gj^f srff H
ÎT *JPT ^ y T £PT Tffr W ttX^T ^*J$
fit*? W^FT TO ^Tg *W cffa ^T^T
iv. Characters j o i n e d w i t h p r e c e d i n g cvT or w i t h f o l l o w i n g cFT •
a. q% p r e c e d i n g .
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s w h i c h o c c u r i n S a n s k r i t a r e g i v e n i n
that s e c t i o n . ^ The c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r r i n g i n H i n d i a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y
1. Verbal form. 2. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3.CI.3.iii.b.

3. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 8 6 . U. S e e S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C 1 . 3 . i v . a .
G
82 HINDI SECTION
t h e e x a m p l es g i v e n b e l o w . Some words may be w r i t t e n e i t h e r w i t h

f o l l o w e d by a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , or w i t h a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r of
this class; e.g. f^cyfc^cT or RorcpoT , b i l k u l .
b. following.
The c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s c l a s s w h i c h o c c u r i n S a n s k r i t a r e g i v e n in
t h a t section.-*- The e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e the characters
which o c c u r i n H i n d i , i n S a n s k r i t and E n g l i s h l o a n w o r d s ,
p
Reading examples.
*f35 ararao if^T^T ^ f r m ^ g ^ r
C l a s s U. vorgiiy characters j o i n e d w i t h p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g uusm

characters.
i* t or p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g v o r g i i y characters,
a. "^T > "^T o r

preceding.
The c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s c l a s s w h i c h o c c u r i n Sanskrit
are given i n the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . Those w h i c h a r e w r i t t e n i n H i n d i ,
i n c l u d i n g t h o s e o c c u r r i n g i n S a n s k r i t and o t h e r l o a n w o r d s , a r e indic-
a t e d by t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w . The f o l l o w i n g c o n j u n c t characters
which are not i n c l u d e d i n the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n occur i n H i n d i , in
l o a n w o r d s from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s :
S3o T£
-Jqe -J"to -sto -sbo
H i n d i words i n w h i c h c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , the first
c h a r a c t e r b e i n g o k a r , a r e r e a l i s e d i n o r d i n a r y s p e e c h i n t h e same way
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch. 1 + . 3 , C I . 3 . i v . b . 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p. 87.

2 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . h . 3 , C I . k - i . a .
as c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s e examples:
rosta bos-ta 1
qismot us-me 2
b. "5T , or "^T f o l l o w i n g .
The c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s w h i ch o c c u r i n S a n s k r i t
are g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n " ^ . Only a few o f t h e s e characters
occur i n H i n d i . The c h a r a c t e r s w h i c h o c c u r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e
r e a d i n g examples g i v e n b e l o w . Some a d d i t i o n a l characters of this
c l a s s , not included in the S a n s k r i t series, occur i n loanwords from
other l a n g u a g e s : "ô^ , x s o , *o%\ , xja , , fsa .
Reading e x a m p l e s . ^
a. gf%oT q«TTrT N 'HI ^ 4 g**EoT
^TC Vf$C t<* f ^ r l ^ R * T S^cTR W W Ttf§5RT
fe^ft ^cTfT f^SRT ^ c = f ^ T F T
ii. |[ p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g an o n u n a s i k character^.
Only t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s class occur i n Hindi, illustrated
by t h e s e examples:-
a. | | preceding , as i n sTfirTW > brahmor; .
h. | | following ^ ,or *T » a s i n ÛRT , nhan , , untie ,
4-^1^1 u n h a r i i mharii , ^FsfST» kumhora , <J1=^ , tumhe .
1. Verbal form. 2. Pronoun w i t h s u f f i x .

3 . See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3. 3 . CI. 1+. i . b . U. F o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 87.
5. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3. 3 . 01^1+. i i . a. and b .
84 H I N D I S E C T I O N
Hindi p r o s e passagel
^TPW oft? CT^TT *rrW , c^^q ^ffcr HT^t 3 ^ f a r f o ftcTT ^HT | I
^5T5er ftcft ^ # f , c^f cqf gfrTfm -fen ^TT 7^1 | I §£T
wft focFt ^f^r 1 1 VTiUft tfgF ^ hstt *rf§w
ftcTT f I
1. Hindi S h a b d a s a g a r , p . l , e d . Shamsundardas, p u b . 1916, by K a s h i -

Nagari-Sabha.
TRANSCRIPTION 85
Transcription of Reading Examples
Chapter 2 .
1. i . cho dha to tho n©
kab dhan bh©t caph ghon djiab ch©t c©kh Oh©t gh©t
phon^ thon xam gaz yem q©d k©f m©"|;h
mogon jhogor phoh©n kharak q©d©m dh©m©k yazab psrhst

hhejon canak p©k©r gh©t©k k©th©n chamak xatsm z©x©m
dh©m'k©t bsc'psn p©t'jh©£ jsm'gh©"]; phafkan jhafpa.t
1 . i i. v©
k©r DOl v©r phsl l 8

T ghar v©n t©r khsl chay
dh©r nav jar chal vay bal lav D*ey yam bhar
b©d©l colsn gar a3 cspsl v©z©n q©b©r l©y©n varaii

yaraz taraf yamal v©c©n yavan xabar yamak y©z©l
mat'l©b l a m ' ch©£ caph'kar k a r ' V9~[ dal'kan kat'phal

com'rax kh©r V9\ 1
p©r©j'vo\ paka^'kar macal'pan
l.iii. das h©r bas hal kaj ham sab hath

haq dh©s yoj" ros har had sar
Japath samajh Jsrsr^ hasad saras Jabar saf ar

hazam sagarh semoy halaf fakal kalaj taras
mas'nad kas rat1

hoz'rot s a r 'kaj" xas'lot
hafkan h©r'k©t hoi'col mas'raf sar'dal
2. i . a ai ao ae ao ai ae
ab ek uuth evr un m orh uukh ag iikh

ojh is iid oyj or geii goe saii
idhor uupor ©yzon ovsodh ©gar ojhar avr'at aypan
2.ii. bhii sav ka de pay 311 le ya kha ve

ke pii dho ja nav do hoy se so thii
duudh bhat c n z hoyth khul mavj ched drdh jhiil

hoy nav din gay jhuut usa rtu huii dhoe
lie J*uruu poysa dhobii xana bhiiti krpa borii jae
maydan huzuur qitab kara:q faqiir tsyyar dii jie

prthivii rupayye keuur siiar dekhao sunaii bahudha
86 HINDI SECTION
maz'duur kam'zor ©f'sos moz'dik der'vaza ghariyal

beinamii isiiliye caturaii bayl'gacjii savdagar roz'garii
bonav'tii m u s a l ' m an xabar'dar xid'mat'gar
p . 1 3 . k h i r ' k i i duus'ra it'na ad'mii kap'ra l o m ' r i i b a v ' l i i phay'da

dekh-na b a y t h - t i i l i k h - t a pak'pana g h a b ' r a t i i pakar-na cjhalak-na
t e r a h cavdah s u b a h b a y e r a h g a h i r a pahacan ' ( ; h ~ kacaharii n 8 8 r n a
2 . 1 . a . may jo hii meh nahii gae mi\ pac gav gaii

os lit jauu kue dono voha akhe g h u us bhays
adh bhok bh§vk-na dej"6 davrii poch-na bhaiio ec|ua
auuga jaege soh lahaga mahaga has-na pahuc-na
b . p a n d i t arambh s a n g a t t l ^ . o n j i i r p a s a n d bandhan sarjghat

n 8 r
kamp-na pan jab jangal barjcjii sing dîmb andar angul

Jankh sangh pane'mii khambha ant kutumb manoronjak
Chapter 3 -
Class 1 .
pakka huqqa makkhan laggii ghugghuu baccii iccha
lajja izzat jhajjhar patt tt - \<\ ^haa c i n i : i 9< a b u
patta
patthar baddal Juddh ann chappar phupphuus dîbbii
bhabbhar kimmat rayyat harra killii navve hissa
Class 2 .
i. bhakti vaqt satkar daraxt sadgur^ vaqf ekbiis
kubj sabz gupt utpann hafta Jabd lafz latf
ii. ling s a n g h pajicamii manjha gharâ t lA / a n t i lampat
n8r
arambh parantu uparant jjian ( g y a n ) jijjiasu ratn sambandh

iii.rukminii huqm atma xatm lagn umda
i v . janm vanmay
C l a s s 3 « i»
kyo rrmkhy xyal gyareh jyo zyada cjyavdjiii pur^y

tyo pathy udyog madhy nyay pyarii byatha sabhy
karyy ammily vyakhyan ava/y manusy syal vyatha
Class 3 « ii»
pakvann xvab gvar jvar tattv dvara dhvani vi/v
svamii sarv sarvv iijvar kvara kvacit J*vas svapn
Class 3.iii.
a. t a r k f a r q muurkh s u r x v a r g g d i i r g h rrraryii xarc rrraurchit
arz a r j k o r t garc[ vorrâmala k i i r t i a r t h urduu arddh uurf
arpar^ arb garbh dharmm a r y y sarvv dar/an vers kursii arhit
b. kram kram gram angrez t r a m

ratrii patr chidr samudr
priy frak namr a b ru Jram tiivr mantr
TRANSCRIPTION 87
C l a s s 3« i v .
bolki nrnlk phalguri iltiza ilmii kulhaâ ilzam ultha
©ql ( e q o l ) f©sl (f©s©l) ixlas vssl Juki klas ulmukh
C l a s s h.
i.a. mujkil prsjn pa/cat ajcsry csjma pusksl krsr^

ras"|;r pustsk vaste vsstr strii rasta hindusthan snan
spas']; sphuurti svssti svssth ustad Jastr pojcim
ki/tii iftiha nisbet ijq skuul sêjon VX 0S
b. aksor ©ksor poriiksa ksama laksmii vats pratyaks

baxj" Jaxs afsos
Hindi p r o s e p a s s a g e
k i s i i j a t i ke j i v a n me u s ' k e d v a r a p r o y u k t Jobdo ka otyont

mehettvopuurn^ s t h a n hoy. a v e j y o k ' t a t a t h a s t h i t i ke ©nusar i n p r a y u k t
Jahdo ka agam a t h ' v a l o p t o t h a v a c y , l a k s y evam d y o t y bhavo me p o r i -
v o r t e n h o t a r e h - t a hoy. o t ' e v a a v r s a m a g r i i ke abhav ma i n Jabdo ke
dvara k i s i i j a t i ke j i i v e n k i i b h i n n b h i n n s t h i t i y o ka i t i h a s u p a s t h i t
k i y a ja s a k - t a hay. i s i i adhar p a r a r y j a t i ka p r a c i i n ' t a m i t i h a s p r e -
s t u t k i y a gaya hay avr jy o j y o s a m a g r i i u p o l o b d h h o t i i ja r o h i i h a y ,
tyo ty o yoh i t i h a s t n i i
k k i y a j a r a h a h a y . i s a v a s t h a me yah b a t s p a s t
samajh me a s a k - t i i hay k i j a t i i y j i i v a n me Jabdo ka s t h a n kit'ne
mahattv ka hoy. j a t i i y s a h i t y ko r a k s i t k a r - n e t a t h a u s - k e b h a v i s y ko
sucaru avr samujval bonane ke a t i r i k t vah k i s i i b h a s a k i i s a m p a n n ' t a
ya J e b d ' b a h u l t a ka suucok avr us b h a s a k e s a h i t y ka adhyayan k o r - n e -
1
v a l o ka sab s e bo-pa sahayok b h i i h o t a hay. vijes'teh any b h a s a -

b h a s i y d avr v i d e j i y o ke l i y e t o u s - k a a v r b h i i a d h i k upeyog h o t a h o y .
i n sob d r s ^ i y o s e J o b d - k o j k i s i i b h a s a ke s a h i t y k i i muulyavan
s a m p e t t i avr us b h a s a ke bhancjar ka s a b s e baâ n i d a r j a k h o t a h o y .
MARATHI SECTION
C H A P T E R 1
The Devanagari S c r i p t i s u s e d i n w r i t i n g Marathi ( Ep[r<§t ) and
t h e arrangement o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e s y l l a b a r y i s t h e same a s
t h e S a n s k r i t arrangement-'-. Some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e u s e d o n l y i n
w r i t i n g S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , b u t m o s t o f them may be found i n l i t e r a r y
texts.
The s c r i p t i s u s u a l l y r e f e r r e d t o a s «JI c*S«T)*T (balobodh) , 'that

can be u n d e r s t o o d by a c h i l d ' . T h i s name i s u s e d t o r e f e r t o t h e
Devanagari s c r i p t t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e c u r s i v e s c r i p t a l s o u s e d
i n w r i t i n g M a r a t h i , and known a s qt^t ( m o c j i i ) . Each c h a r a c t e r is
c a l l e d «3T~$TT (©ksor) and t h e s y l l a b i c series i s c a l l e d 6Ju^|<v>|
(vorn©mala) , ' c h a r a c t e r - s e r i e s ' . The t e r m s u s e d by Marathi grammarians
in referring to the characters are s i m i l a r to those used in S a n s k r i t ,
but as t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n Marathi d i f f e r s somewhat
from t h e S a n s k r i t s y s t e m i n r e s p e c t o f c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , these
terms are u s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n t h e i r Marathi f o r m , and t r a n s c r i b e d
i n accordance w i t h t h e Marathi r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s . The
d i f f e r e n c e between t h e terms u s e d i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n and t h e
c o r r e s p o n d i n g Marathi terms i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s e examples:
Sanskrit ^ { j j f ^ j^ (ekssrsm), M a r a t hi ^3TÎT (okser)

i^TPR": (viramoh) , fotTW (viram)
^FcT^Sf (ontohstho), sS^TT^^r ( © n t o s t h )
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . l .
92 MARATHI SECTION
The t a b l e g i v e n b e l o w shows t h e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t b e M a r a t h i syll-
abary i n roman n o t a t i o n . As t h e s y s t e m o f w r i t i n g i s s y l l a b i c , t h e
characters i n the syllabary represent s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i ng e i t h er of
a vowe l or o f a c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d b y t h e v o w e l o . The roman t a b l e
shows e a c h c o n s o n a n t w r i t t e n w i t h t h i s v o w e l , w h i c h , when i t i s r e a l -
i s e d With a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , i s usually referred to i n English
texts as the 'inherent vowel'.
1 2 3 k 5
CONSONANTS w i t h © Velar Palatal Retro- Dental Labial
flex
Voiceless
C© -,
Unaspirated k© t 9 t© p©
ts© 1
P l o s i v e s
Aspirated kh© ch© th© th© ph©
Unaspirated 3 1
9
a;© d© b©
Voiced
g©
jh© bh©
Aspirated gh© dh© dh©
zh©- -1
Nasal (p©) 2
n 9 n© m©
Semivowels y© r© 1© v©-^
Fricatives s©
Aspirate h©
Lateral I 9
VOWELS © a i ii u UU e ©y 0 ©V
MODIFIERS 5
N a s a l - nj , o r ~ Aspirated - h
1. - h. S e e n o t e s on f o l l o w i n g p a g e . 5. S e e S a n s k r i t , Chapter 1.
Notes on t h e s y l l a b l e s marked 1.. - h. i n t h e roman t a b l e :
1. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g co , j a and jho are r e a l i s e d in
some words as a l v e o l a r c o n s o n a n t s , w i t h f r i c a t i v e or affricated
articulation. This r e a l i s a t i o n is t r a n s c r i b e d as 1^sa , za and
zha , as shown i n t h e table.
2. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g na and jia do n o t o c c u r a s single
c h a r a c t e r s , but only i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h other c h a r a c t e r s , and
only i n S a n s k r it loanwords u s e d i n t b e l i t e r a r y language.
3» The c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g vo i s usually r e a l i s e d with l a b i o -
dental articulation.
I I . The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g -
sa and syllabic r occur only in
Sanskrit loanwords.
The s e r i e s of v o w e l s i n c l u d e s 1
short 1
i and ' l o n g ' ii, 'short' u
and ' l o n g ' uu. These p a i r s o f v o w e l s o c c u r i n Marathi w o r d s , and t h e
characters representing the 'short' and t h e ' l o n g ' vowels are w r i t t e n
a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n r u l e s o f orthography-'-. This d i s t i n c t i o n between
the ' s h o r t ' and t h e ' l o n g ' v o w e l s i s p r e s e r v e d i n t h e transcription
of the c h a r a c t e r s , t h o u g h i n modern M a r a t h i s p e e c h t h e r e i s often
l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of words w r i t t e n w i t h t h e
characters representing the 'short' or the 'long' vowels.
The term ' m o d i f i e r ' i s explained i n the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . Fully
n a s a l i s e d v o w e l s a r e r a r e i n M a r a t h i and t h e symbol irj i s used for
t r a n s c r i b i n g t h e mark o f n a s a l i s a t i o n only in a systematic transcript-
i o n of examples f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d e s c r i b i n g t h e c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h it
is realised. In words i n w h i c h t h i s mark i s g i v e n zero-realisation,
it is left untranscribed.
1, See b e l o w , end of Chapter 2.

C H A P T E R 2
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h e D e v a n a g a r i S c r i p t u s e d i n w r i t i n g Marathi,
and t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of them i n r e a d i n g , a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s chapter
under t h e same h e a d i n g s a s t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e S a n s k r i t section:
1. Consonant Characters,
2. Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s , and
3. M o d i f i e r s .
The s t y l e of t h e c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n i s the
s t y l e g e n e r a l l y u s e d i n H i n d i p r i n t i n g and w r i t i n g . The forms of the
c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h a t s e c t i o n a s 'Bombay' forms a r e u s e d i n Marathi
p r i n t i n g and w r i t i n g i n s t e a d of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g H i n d i f o r m s . Other
differences of l i n e and form may b e s e e n by comparing t h e characters
given in t h i s s e c t i o n w i t h those given in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . The
Hindi s t y l e i s n o t u s e d i n Marathi p r i n t i n g or w r i t i n g .
The method of w r i t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s i s i n g e n e r a l t h e same a s
t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n , and i n t h e n o t e s on t h e calli-
graphy of s p e c i a l c h a r a c t e r s a s t h e y a r e g i v e n i n t h e Sanskrit
section. When w r i t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s , r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e made t o
t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g g r o u p s o f c h a r a c t e r s i n t h a t section."'"
1. R e f e r e n c e s a r e g i v e n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r t o t h e d i v i s i o n s and
s u b - d i v i s i o n s w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g numbers i n Chapter 2. of t h e
Sanskrit s e c t i o n .
1. Consonant Characters.
The c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s are arranged in three groups: 'vorgiiy'
characters, 'ontesth' characters a n d 'uusm' c h a r a c t e r s . ! As t h e y a r e
given i n the s y l l a b a r y , these characters are r e a l i s e d as syllables
c o n s i s t i n g of an i n i t i a l consonant, or semi-vowel, f o l l o w e d by t h e
vowel o , and t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d a s 3T°BTT (okar). The r e a l i s a t i o n
of a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h o u t this vowel, that i s , as the conson-
ant element of t h e s y l l a b l e only, i s i n d i c a t e d by w r i t i n g a diagonal
s t r o k e known a s fof^fiq" (viram) at the foot of t h e c h a r a c t e r , as i n
Sanskrit , 2
thus, cR , k - , cT , t - , TJ" , p - . Characters written
V \ N
w i t h t h i s s t r o k e a r e d e s c r i b e d b y M a r a t h i grammarians a s ' h o l o n t ' ,
as i n S a n s k r i t , b u t i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f w r i t i n g i n Marathi schools
the w r i t i n g o f t h i s s t r o k e i s c a l l e d THT ftS'^t

T
( p a y moônem,
'breaking the f o o t ' ) , and a c h a r a c t e r w i t h t h i s stroke i s described
as 05*1% (longocjem, 'lame').
The r e a l i s a t i o n , of okar c o n s o n a n t characters i n r e a d i n g Marathi
differs somewhat from t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of these characters in Sanskrit.
The f o l l o w i n g n o t e s may be r e g a r d e d a s g e n e r a l guiding principles to
which r e f e r e n c e may be made l a t e r when t h e c h a r a c t e r s are d i s c u s s e d
in detail.
a. A f i n a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d with zero-
vowel, except i n a few S a n s k r i t loanwords.
b. A f i n a l okar c h a r a c t e r f o r m e d b y c o m b i n i n g two or more c o n s o n a n t
characters3, or a f i n a l o k a r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d e d by a
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch„2,1.1 - i i i . 2. S e e S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , l . i o okar
consonant c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , a s d e s c r i b e d belo w
i n n o t e s a. - d. a r e , h o w e v e r , n o t w r i t t e n w i t h t h e v i r a m , w h i c h
i s u s e d m a i n l y i n w r i t i n g c e r t a i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s and Marathi
c o l l o q u i a l forms. 3. S e e b e l o w , Ch.3. i
MARATHI SECTION
character w r i t t e n with the anusvar 1

representing a nasal consonant,
i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h an ©-glide.
c. A m e d i a l ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s realised with zero-vowel, or
w i t h an © - g l i d e , in c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s ; a s , for i n s t a n c e , when s u c h
a c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s a s t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r of a word of t h r e e or
more c h a r a c t e r s and t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s w r i t t e n w i t h one of

2
vowel s i g n s . Other c o n t e x t s a r e g i v e n l a t e r , when t h e characters
are d i s c u s s e d i n detail.
d. When an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a
v e r b a l "base, i t i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel, or w i t h an
©-glide, before t h e a d d i t i o n of s u f f i x e s c o n s i s t i n g of, or b e g i n -
ning w i t h , a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h one of t h e v o w e l signs.
In t h e t r a n s c r i p f i o n of Marathi w o r d s , f i n a l ©kar consonant
characters realise d with zero-vowel, or w i t h an © - g l i d e , are written
without © , and m e d i a l ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d in this
way a r e w r i t t e n t h u s , k ' , t', p ' , f o r guidance in reading . Reference
t o t h e s e n o t e s s h o u l d b e made when r e a d i n g t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n w i t h
the characters throughout t h i s chapter. C h a r a c t e r s w h i c h do n o t
occur as i n i t i a l characters a r e i n d i c a t e d by a hyphen p r e f i x e d t o the
syllable i n t h e roman transcription.

3
i. C h a r a c t e r s of t h e v o r g i i y group.
The f i r s t group o f c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s c o n s i s t s of twentyfive
c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g s y l l a b l e s w i t h an i n i t i a l p l o s i v e c o n s o n a n t
f o l l o w e d by t h e v o w e l © . These c h a r a c t e r s f a l l i n t o f i v e ofTf
(vorg), or c l a s s e s . The c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e t a b l e g i v e n b e l o w may be
1. See b e l o w , 2 . i i . 2. See below, 2 . i i . Vowel signs.

3 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , l . i .
compared w i t h t h e S a n s k r i t c h a r a c t e r s , written i n t h e Hindi style.
ko-vorg
35 7? XT
k© kh© go gha
co-verg
c©(tsa) ch© ja(za) jha(zha) -jia
Jo-verg
z z
th© a;©
z,
aha
t 9
to-vorg
t© th© d© dha na
«r
po-vorg
P© ph© ba bha ma
The c h a r a c t e r s and v3T" do n o t occur i n Marathi words, but
t h e y are w r i t t e n , in combination w i t h other c h a r a c t e r s , i n some
S a n s k r i t loanwords u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a r y language.
The t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s , vrf and are r e a l i s e d in reading
i n two w a y s , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e word i n w h i c h t h e y o c c u r , and t h e
vowels w i t h which t h e y a r e r e a l i s e d when w r i t t e n w i t h one of the
vowel signs.
a. The p a l a t a l r e a l i s a t i o n , ^ as co , ^3T a s ja , and as
jha , i s made u s u a l l y i n r e a d i n g S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and a l w a y s
when t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s have t h e s i g n s of t h e v o w e l s i , ii or ay.
b. The a l v e o l a r r e a l i s a t i o n , ^ as 1^s© , \Jf as za , and f£f
as zha , i s made u s u a l l y i n o t h e r w o r d s , when t h e s e characters

98 MARATHI SECTION
are a k a r , or when t h e y a r e w r i t t e n w i t h t h e s i g n s o f t h e v o w e l s
a , u , uu , o or ev- -.
1
c. When t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e w r i t t e n w i t h t h e s i g n o f t h e vow61 e ,
t h e p a l a t a l and a l v e o l a r r e a l i s a t i o n s o c c u r i n an a l m o s t e v e n
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f w o r d s , and e v e n may v a r y from t i m e t o t i m e w i t h
changing conventions of speech.
No c o m p r e h e n s i v e r u l e c a n be g i v e n f o r t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s e
t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s , h o w e v e r , and i n t h e r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s t h e p a l a t a l
r e a l i s a t i o n s h o u l d b e made u n l e s s an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e a l v e o l a r real-
isation i s given.
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e v a r y i n g r e a l i s a t i o n o f okar
consonant c h a r a c t e r s in certain contexts:
a. As t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r of a f o u r c h a r a c t e r word:
^rT«F>^' » dhamaka"!;© , r e a l i s e d a s
x
dham'ka !;
-
b. In a v e r b a l f o r m , t h e r e a l i s a t i o n c h a n g i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o r m -
ative particle or p a r t i c l e s added:
tSTS , i^socjhe , v e r b a l b a s e , r e a l i s e d a s tsod^h
^TcTfi • tpod^hote , b a s e w i t h <=f a d d e d , r e a l i s e d a s i^socjhet
^TS^^T » it6oc|hete1}S© , b a s e w i t h ^ , and e m p h a t i c p a r t i c l e , W
r e a l i s e d as 1is©6^h ' t e ^ s .
1 . One c h a r a c t e r w o r d s . Four o f t h e v o r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r a s
words: TJ W <3>
1 . See b e l o w , i n t h i s c h a p t e r , 2 . i i .
2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s , s e e page 1 3 0 . The a l v e o l a r
r e a l i s a t i o n o f c©-v©rg c h a r a c t e r s i s i n d i c a t e d by an a s t e r i s k .
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
W\ W W BTT T^cT ^ ST*?
3. Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
q^r "TO^ *r<5Hr *T^cT 5 ^
eRSfi T35W> *W&rt VsTfT *vjTCcr *3mS

1+.' Four c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel,
or w i t h an © - g l i d e , f i n a l characters with zero-vowel.
T3wz erqsFie wjj?iz k w ^ z

^ o f i ^ '^qsRrT *^5R^T *^^rcRrT *ZhW*iZ *fTe°FR N
ii. C h a r a c t e r s of t h e © n t o s t h group."*"
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s group g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n a r e
w r i t t e n i n t h e Hindi s t y l e . The M a r a t h i c h a r a c t e r s are:
yo ro lo vo
When t h e c h a r a c t e r s and cf occur i n i t i a l l y , or m e d i a l l y
realised with a following vowel, t h e y a r e r e a l i s e d as consonants.
When they occur m e d i a l l y i n p o s i t i o n s i n w h i c h okar c o n s o n a n t
c h a r a c t e r s are r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or f i n a l l y , they are realis-
ed as s e m i - v o w e l s , f o r m i n g a d i p h t h o n g w i t h t h e v o w e l of t h e preceding
syllable. Examples:
yevon vor bhoy lov lov'kor
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,l.ii.
ioo MARATHI SECTION
Readin g examples"'"
1. One c h a r a c t e r word. ^" i s t h e o n l y c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s group w h i c h

o c c u r s a s a word.
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel.
^5 or *rc m c*5*T
<q? vsz m as ^ *^5r
3. Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel.
5T5c^ <
^T tT65H ^TcT cPR WT 3 ^ T^rf
cFTO 35R^5 ofTST *xRcT *^T<?T* *tt^ *^s?f^ *c(^T
h. Pour and f i v e c h a r a c t e r w o r d s . Second c h a r a c t e r i n f o u r character

w o r d s , or t h i r d c h a r a c t e r in f i v e character words, r e a l i s e d with
z e r o - v o w e l or w i t h an o - g l i d e ; f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-
vowel.
ôToRT opTTrT ZlVtt ^3"cT

TfftZV] ^^cRcf TO^rf *W?QZ
2
iii. C h a r a c t e r s of t h e uusm g r o u p .
The c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s group g i v e n i n the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n a r e
w r i t t e n in the Hindi s t y l e . The Marathi c h a r a c t e r s are:
51 ^ *T - f
Jo so so ho
The c h a r a c t e r "Gf o c c u r s o n l y i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and when
r e a d i n g words i n common u s e i n M a r a t h i , i t i s o f t e n r e a l i s e d as Jo ,
except in formal r e a d i n g . Pinal f» i s usually r e a l i s e d with © .
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 3 0 .
2. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 1 . i i i .
CHARACTERS O F T H E SYLLABARY IC
Reading e x a m p l e s 1
1. None of t h e c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s g r o u p o c c u r s a s a word.
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel,
or, in the l a s t three words, w i t h o .
TO *T5T ^ ^ $R W
5** ê: ^TH W ^

3 . Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
sro*r wm *rc*r ^F^rer

TO^ *^nr *H^r
h. Four and f i v e character words. Second c h a r a c t e r s , or c h a r a c t e r s
i n d i c a t e d by numbers i n b r a c k e t s , r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel or w i t h
and e - g l i d e ; final characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
£WrT f£R*T HTSre 3TcT"qe " & V W

%*mz ^ T O C K J *iw>m;zp trw*rw L ? J
The l a s t c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i n t h e Marathi s y l l a b a r y is
2
o5" , -],Q , r e a l i s e d a s a r e t r o f l e x lateral consonant with © .
Examples of words w r i t t e n w i t h t h i s character
Uo5 XFIOS "^["55" ^?TO5" * WOFOS ^ 5 5 ^ oToStr CJAFOS
tJoSH *xT55cl55 ô5gR3" **R\3TcT55 (2) SfJoSlToSrT t2) * ^ o o ^ *
The two c h a r a c t e r s $T and ^" a r e o f t e n added a f t e r 55 in the
Marathi s y l l a b a r y , b u t t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , representing syllables con-
s i s t i n g of two c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n t s w i t h t h e vowel © , do n o t
'properly belong to the s y l l a b a r y , and a r e d i s c u s s e d later.^

1 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p a g e 1 3 0 .
2. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 1 . i i i , V e d i c c h a r a c t e r .
3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p a g e 1 3 0 . ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s
r e a l i s e d as shown i n p r e v i o u s e x a m p l e s .
h. See b e l o w , C h . 3 . Conjunct C h a r a c t e r s , C l a s s e s 2. and h.
102 M A R A T H I S E C T I O N
2 . Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s . 1
i. Vowel Characters.
The vowel c h a r a c t e r s u s e d i n w r i t i n g Marathi a r e t h e same a s the
S a n s k r i t c h a r a c t e r s , u s i n g t h e Bombay forms where t h e s e d i f f e r from

2
the Hindi f o r m s , and o m i t t i n g s y l l a b i c rr , 1 and 11 . The v o w e l
characters are u s u a l l y p l a c e d f i r s t i n the vernomala. The calligraphy
of t h e vowel c h a r a c t e r s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n the S a n s k r i t section.
The Marathi v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s are:
© a i ii u uu e ©y o ©v
The c h a r a c t e r ^? , syllabic r , o c c u r s o n l y i n a few Sanskrit
loanwords, used mainly i n t h e l i t e r a r y language The v o w e l characters
are r e f e r r e d to as akar , ikar , ukar , and s o o n .
I n a l l r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s which f o l l o w , okar c o n s o n a n t characters
which o c c u r i n words h a v i n g vowel c h a r a c t e r s or v o w e l s i g n s should
be r e a l i s e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a l r u l e s a l r e a d y g i v e n , unless
s p e c i a l n o t e s are added.
Reading examples-'.
1 . Vowel c h a r a c t e r s o n l y . $fl TJ 3Tt 3TT^
2 . Vowel c h a r a c t e r s w i t h ©kar c o n s o n a n t characters.
6T§ f$ *T«F5 %fi sffe affe
"fc 3Tto5 <3tW W*T
*^5r^r 35?r ôsi sfcrsr aftos^-
1. The u s e of vowel c h a r a c t e r s and v o w el s i g n s i s e x p l a i n e d i n t h e

Sanskrit sect-ion, C h . 2 , 2 . i . 2. ibid. 2 . 2 . i .
3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p , 1 3 0 .
ii. Vowel S i g n s .
Vowel s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e a c h v o w e l c h a r a c t e r , except ,
are added t o t h e okar form of c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s to represent
s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d by one o f t h e
vowels a to ov . The v o w e l s i g n s a r e shown h e r e added t o t h e c o n -
sonant c h a r a c t e r of) . The o r d e r o f s t r o k e s i n w r i t i n g c h a r a c t e r s with
vowel s i g n s , and s p e c i a l forms, are g i v e n in the Sanskrit sectionl.
ka ki kii ku kuu kr ke key ko kev
In t h e t e a c h i n g of w r i t i n g i n s c h o o l s , the upright stroke of^TT,
\3TT and <2rft , and of t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o w e l s i g n s , a s i n oRT ,
and o^* , i s r e f e r r e d t o a s obi HI (kana). This term i s a l s o used i n
r e f e r r i n g to the uprigh t s t r o k e i n any c h a r a c t e r . The d i a g o n a l
superscribed strokes i n the c h a r a c t e r s TT , vsfr and , and o f
t h e vowel s i g n s i n % , ofe , oRt and oFvt" » a r

e r e f e r r e d t o as
J-|T5f"i (matra). The s i g n s of t h e v o w e l s g and ^ are r e f e r r e d to
as %?5f€t ( v e l a ^ i i ) , t h e s i g n i n ft> being ^ T ^ t %c7f€t" (dâvii
velanJii, 'left velanîi') and t h e s i g n i n b e i n g ^vSTcft" %"c^t€1*
(uzovii velanj;ii, 'right velanj;ii'). A l l th e vowel s i g n s are r e f e r r e d
t o as <eÛ| (khuun_, p l u r a l khuna.).
In some modern Marathi p u b l i c a t i o n s new forms o f some of t h e
vowel c h a r a c t e r s a r e b e i n g u s e d , f o r m e d b y w r i t i n g t h e vowe l signs
w i t h th e c h a r a c t e r \3? , thus:
% 3fr <f 3j; <3J $ &

i ii u uu r e oy
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,2. i i . Calligraphy.

104 MARATHI SECTION
Reading examples 1
1. One c h a r a c t e r w o r d s .
W ft % ^ % % *fr TIT % %
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s .
^ W §fe **fN" ^fa ^ tc^ %rT 3 ^

oBTq ^t*T ^noT ^"cT ofsfoT ^ 3fa sfj ^ ^ ^
^>"^T sft^ f$T5J UTrft 4nrf JJ?> *#^T
*n3> ^Bfir ^ %| spg 3TfooT
3. Three c h a r a c t e r words.
w r a %ft*r ôj^r ^fcpfi =ft^5T %§5> t^s"
sR^tT ^frcTR" *^-ifrT « m i
^\ *^tm€t -rt\S[ f^sFn^ %TPn~ f^r^flr
R e a l i s a t i o n of m e d i a l okar c h a r a c t e r s i n words w h i c h have

2
characters with vowel s i g n s in various positions.
a. When a m e d i a l o k a r c h a r a c t e r , i n a thre e c h a r a c t e r word, precedes
a final c h a r a c t e r w i t h a vowel s i g n , it is usually realised with
zero-vowel, or w i t h an o - g l i d e , and and of form diphthongs
w i t h t h e v o w e l of t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a r a c t e r s , as in
ORl^Toft >$T"*ft IpSTT ofJTW ®TTîY

ar/khii rej'mii mul'ga kay'da hav'îi
5T*lit *TT5F>tr ôR^T 3TcRT ^NTTT

Jeg'îi bhak'rii chok'dâ o^h'ra koy'ta
1 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s s e e p . 1 3 0 .
2. Compare t h e s e n o t e s w i t h n o t e s b . and c . above i n t h i s chapter.
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY ic
The r e a l i s a t i o n o f okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n words of f o u r or
more c h a r a c t e r s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w . The
r e a l i s a t i o n v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s i t i o n i n e a c h word of the
c h a r a c t e r s w i t h v o w e l s i g n s , and a k n o w l e d g e of t h e l a n g u a g e is
t h e o n l y r e l i a b l e g u i d e t o t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of s u c h w o r d s .
Second c h a r a c t e r r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an o - g l i d e :
ttrTcFî- m^Tr^ %c^^t^T m w «

Jet'korii bhan'god^ vel'dodâ saa^'pataT,
Third c h a r a c t e r r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an a - g l i d e :
rrrwf^r *rfa<5c^r *rrg^?fr
tabed/tob mobad'la bhatuk'lii
Other c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an o - g l i d e :
ttf^Fs^rr -qw^nfr ^T^TT^R

palikad/tsa por'van'gii sem'zuut'dar
When a s u f f i x c o n s i s t i n g o f , or b e g i n n i n g w i t h , a c h a r a c t e r with
a vowel s i g n i s added t o a v e r b a l b a s e e n d i n g i n an okar c o n s o n -

ant c h a r a c t e r , t h i s f i n a l character i s r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel,
or w i t h an a - g l i d e , as in t h e s e examples:
has basat bas-to va\ vaôt va^-tat

When such s u f f i x e s a r e added t o v e r b a l b a s e s of t h r e e or more
c h a r a c t e r s of which t h e f i n a l and p r e f i n a l a r e okar c o n s o n a n t
c h a r a c t e r s , t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f a k a r c h a r a c t e r s v a r i e s i n t h e way
i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w .
Verbal b a s e of t h r e e characters:
semoz sam*za sam'zat samaz-to samaz-til

Verbal base of f o u r c h a r a c t e r s , second, t h i r d and f o u r t h okar:
fcTT^ST^ f ^ ^ c ^ T f^-EToScT "f^T^To5c5T

vir'gheT, vir'gholuun vir'ghel.ot vir'ghaT_-la
Reading examples 1
1. R e a l i s a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a s i n n o t e a. above.
^^NFTtfT. ^HcTT '$ 5 % >3W«IT W & h

^fe^vST oRT^fr *^3Ta^ ftf^ÛT ^3TR *g5R?ITxr
^qr^r ^w^xcfc fia^^rr ^ffe-snajoR ^ i ^ w
2. R e a l i s a t i o n of o k a r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a s i n n o t e b . above,
ofioo-rr cfioScTt "TOTT WTcTTcT ^TT^^T ^ 6 # $ 5
f%^T€ fll^npt ft^&OT \3T^^To5rf ^TSWoScTTrT
p
R e a l i s a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r s of t h e c o - v e r g w i t h v o w e l signs.
The t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s xjT , \xT and , are always r e a l i s e d as
palatal c o n s o n a n t s when t h e y a r e w r i t t e n w i t h t h e v o w e l s i g n s of i
or ii , or w i t h any v o w e l s i g n i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s . They a r e real-
i s e d more f r e q u e n t l y a s a l v e o l a r c o n s o n a n t s when w r i t t e n w i t h other
vowel s i g n s . When w r i t t e n w i t h t h e vowel s i g n o f e , the a l v e o l a r or
p a l a t a l r e a l i s a t i o n may v a r y from t i m e t o t i m e and from d i s t r i c t to
district. The r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e se c h a r a c t e r s as a l v e o l a r or a s pal-
a t a l consonants in various contexts is i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e examples
given below, but the only r e l i a b l e guide for reading the majority of
2 . See a b o v e , n o t e on t h e v o r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s , in l.i.
words i n which t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r i s a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a n g u a g e ,
a. P a l a t a l r e a l i s a t i o n w i t h t h e v o w e l s i g n s o f i , ii:
cikot ciid^ bhacii jii bhajii majhii
h. P a l a t a l r e a l i s a t i o n i n S a n s k r i t and Hindi l o a n w o r d s , and o t h e r s ,
w i t h t h e r e m a i n i n g vowel signs:
3txT
vac on niic colon ceyn ceha car cehera cuup
kocora jen me j a ujeq juva jeven_ jhela
c. A l v e o l a r r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s , o k a r , or w i t h any v o w el
s i g n e x c e p t t h o s e of i , ii or ey :
^>ft WR W*TWT ^ dfft ^cfi
tsot'nii tsar tsom'tsa tsuuk titse tsor tsevk

KJ fa I , %J Kf %J KJ <J <J
^ft ^r^t "OT^r . ^rte %r

ZQT[ vezon semez zaga "bazuu vazel zor
zhofken^ zhad^ zhucjuup mazhe zhop
The emphatic p a r t i c l e t£T , w r i t t e n a s t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a
word, i s always r e a l i s e d a s an a l v e o l a r c o n s o n a n t . The words
-oftvji and "SffaT a r e

r e a l i s e d r e s p e c t i v e l y as ciiz and jhiiz
The vowel c h a r a c t e r s ^ and 3 ('short' vowels) and j§ and 35
( ' l o n g ' v o w e l s ) , and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o w e l s i g n s , a r e w r i t t e n i n
Marathi words a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n r u l e s o f o r t h o g r a p h y . These
r u l e s i n c l u d e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e o r t h o g r a p h y of t h e m o d i f i e r known a s
108 MARATHI SECTION
t h e a n u s v a r ! , and a r e t h e r e f o r e g i v e n i n t h e f u l l statement of Marathi
r u l e s of O r t h o g r a p h y , after the m o d i f i e r s have b e e n discussed.
3. Modifiers.
Both t h e m o d i f i e r s o c c u r r i n g i n S a n s k r i t are u s e d i n writing
Marathi,, though t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of them d i f f e r s from t h e realisation
in reading Sanskrit.
2
1. onusvar.^
The a n u s v a r i s a l w a y s w r i t t e n i n Marathi i n t h e form o f a d o t
<3T
orrj
m
p l a c e d above a c h a r a c t e r ,
am im
thus:
t
iirrj
3
uirj
T
*
errj orrj
5R
karrj
SET
icarrj kiirj
#
kiirrj
f
kurrj kerrj korrj
The o n u s v a r i s w r i t t e n t o t h e r i g h t s i d e of a s u p e r s c r i b e d vowel
sign. The o r d e r o f s t r o k e s i n w r i t i n g c h a r a c t e r s w i t h vowel signs
and t h e o n u s v a r i s g i v e n i n t h e n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y in the Sanskrit
section.
The o n u s v a r i s r e a l i s e d i n M a r a t h i a s follows:
a. The o n u s v a r , originally a mark i n d i c a t i n g n a s a l i s a t i o n of a v o w e l ,
is s t i l l w r i t t e n i n many Marathi words i n w h i c h t h e v o w e l s are
not n a s a l i s e d i n s t a n d a r d modern s p e e c h . The o n u s v a r i n s u c h words
is disregarded in reading, though i t is s t i l l written either to
show t h e e t y m o l o g y of a word, t o p r e s e r v e a d i s t i n c t i o n of meaning
i n p a i r s of words i n w h i c h one h a s a vowel w h i c h was originally
nasalised, or t o e x p r e s s g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Characters
1. See b e l o w . 3. i . 2. See S a n s k r i t , C h , 2 . 3 . i .
w r i t t e n with the onusvar a r e , h o w e v e r, s t i l l r e a l i s e d with n a s a l-
i s a t i o n of t h e v o w e l i n Konkani s p e e c h l . The f o l l o w i n g examples

i l l u s t r a t e some of t h e c o n t e x t s i n which t h e a n u s v a r i s written
hut n o t r e a l i s e d i n r e a d i n g .
Words:
"SBTiff #5T
tuu to kii kahii dat gohuu pots
P a i r s of w o r d s :
TO TO
2 nav^ pats^ pats5
nav^
Grammatical f o r m s :
#
he tii bas-to bol-te kor-uu
^Tctt wfa g^T^f *l^t# ^ ^ f f ^r^r
ye-ta baget mulane mulanii mulajii ghorii
An onusvar p l a c e d on a f i n a l character i s never realised,
e x c e p t i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s i n modern Marathi w r i t i n g i n w h i c h
a d a p t a t i o n s of t h e s c r i p t a r e made i n o r d e r t o r e p r e s e n t collo-
c
q u i a l forms of s p e e c h , a s i n drama and d i a l o g u e .
h. In many w o r d s , i n c l u d i n g m o s t S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , t h e onusvar
w r i t t e n on a c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g one of t h e v o r g i i y characters
i s r e a l i s e d as t h e n a s a l c o n s o n a n t o f t h e same c l a s s a s t h e
consonant r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r , or a s n
b e f o r e a c h a r a c t e r of t h e c o - v a r g . When t h e anusvar i s realised
as a n a s a l c o n s o n a n t b e f o r e a f i n a l akar c o n s o n a n t character,
1. The v a r i e t y of Marathi s p e e c h known a s 'Konkani s t a n d a r d ' i s spoken

on t h e c o a s t a l s t r i p s o u t h o f Bombay, t h e Konkan (korrjkori).
2. 'boat'. 3 . 'name'. U. ' e m e r a l d ' . 5. ' f i v e ' .
6. See b e l o w , Marathi r u l e s o f o r t h o g r a p h y .
7. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . n o t e b .
no MARATHI SECTION
the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d w i t h an © - g l i d e . 1
This realis-
a t i o n o f t h e ©nusvar i s i l l u s t r a t e d hy t h e f o l l o w i n g examples:
t*r ^ vsMtr zz f*m flttft ^

rang unts ©njiir unj; bhint Jimpii themb
As i n S a n s k r i t , t h e r e i s . an a l t e r n a t i v e method o f representing
nasal consonants preceding v o r g i i y characters. T h i s method i s

p
described l a t e r , i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s .
When s u f f i x e s a r e added t o p l u r a l nouns and p r o n o u n s , t h e a n u s v a r
i s w r i t t e n on t h e c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g t h e s u f f i x . This onusvar
i s r e a l i s e d as n before t h e v a r i o u s forms o f t h e s u f f i x ,
and o f t e n r e a l i s e d b e f o r e the s u f f i x e s • "ft and "$?T » e . g .

r*TRT c*?Hfr 7*?HT rm^f mtff
tyan-1^sa^ tyan-cii tyan-na tyan-nii tyan-Jii
c. When t h e o n u s v a r i s w r i t t e n on a c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g one o f t h e
o n t o s t h or uusm c h a r a c t e r s , as i n Sanskrit loanwords, mostly
l e a r n e d words u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e , it is realised in
various ways. Among t h e ways o f r e a l i s i n g t h e o n u s v a r i n s u c h
words , g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n ^ - , the u s u a l Marathi practice
i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g examples:
onusvar b e f o r e T f , r e a l i s e d as y , as in sayyog
onusvar b e f o r e c^> » r e a l i s e d a s 1 , as i n Hc/^M sollogh 5
o n u s v a r b e f o r e o t h e r o n t o s t h and uusm c h a r a c t e r s , r e a l i s e d as v .
savreksoi]^ kivva ©vj" ©hivsa mavs sivh
1. See b e l o w , C h . 3 , 2 . 2 . ibid., 3.Class i i . 3 . The f i r s t

c h a r a c t e r i n t h e s e w o r d s i s <T combined w i t h ZJ" . S e e Ch. 3 * 3 * CI. 3 .
2+. S e e S a n s k r i t ,Ch. 2 , 3 . i . n o t e c . 5 . The l a s t c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s word
N
i s "*T combined w i t h ^ . See Ch. 3 , 3 . CI. 2 . i i i .

s 6 . The c h a r a c t e r
r e p r e s e n t s 3 5 combined w i t h ^ . S e e C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 4 . i . b .
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY u
In some e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y m a n u s c r i p t s t h e c h a r a c t e r "67 is in-

s
s e r t e d b e t w e e n t h e c h a r a c t e r w i t h t h e o n u s v a r and a f o l l o w i n g
o n t o s t h or uusm c h a r a c t e r , f o r m i n g a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r w i t h i t ;
e.g. Ho^R > sovhar , Rjo^ , sivh , ô^gJTJr , sevrokson, .
d. The onusvar i s r e a l i s e d a s n a s a l i s a t i o n o f a v o w e l i n a few e x -
c l a m a t i o n s ; e . g . n3^" , o , v^J • nil ; and i n t h e number word
^T?fr , oyjii.
ii. visorg.
This m o d i f i e r i s described in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . 1

It is rarely
used in w r i t i n g Marathi. I t occurs i n a f e w S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and
i s sometimes w r i t t e n w i t h e x c l a m a t i o n s , t o i n d i c a t e p r o l o n g a t i o n or
s t r e s s . When i t i s w r i t t e n w i t h t h e f i n a l character in Sanskrit loan-
words, i t i s r e a l i s e d a s h f o l l o w e d by the vowel a , as in these
words: "^T: , punha, "ipoT^f: , s v e t a h a , 2

f c ^ Qij^T: , vi/es'toha .
When the v i s o r g o c c u r s m e d i a l l y i n a w o r d , i t i s r e a l i s e d e i t h e r a s
the d o u b l i n g o f t h e c o n s o n a n t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r w h i c h f o l l o w s i t , or
as a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r t h e v o w e l o f t h e c h a r a c t e r w i t h which i t i s
written; e.g. c^:^ » dukkh, \3TcT:^F5T^T > antohkorer; .
When the v i s o r g i s w r i t t e n a f t e r e x c l a m a t i o n s , i t usually represents
a p r o l o n g a t i o n of t h e v o w e l , o r a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r t h e v o w e l , a s i n
t h e s e words: vjy. , u u . . . , o r uuh ; f£s , cheh ; cfT,, vah .
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i i . 2 . The f i r s t c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s word

is combined w i t h of • S e e Ch. 2 , 3 . C I . 3 . i i .
I I 2 MARATHI SECTION
U. The Complete Syllabary.
The arrangement o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s of t h e Marathi s y l l a b a r y i n the
traditional order i s s i m i l a r t o that given in the S a n s k r i t section, 1
o m i t t i n g the vowel c h a r a c t e r s ^ , ^ and c£ , and u s i n g o n l y t h e
'Bombay' f o r m s . The t a b l e i n w h i c h t h e v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s (except *R ),
and t h e m o d i f i e r s added t o t h e c h a r a c t e r \3Ff , a r e p l a c e d a t the
head of a s e r i e s of c o l u m n s c o n s i s t i n g o f e v e r y c o n s o n a n t character
i n t h e okar f o r m , w i t h e a c h o f t h e vowe l s i g n s and e a c h of t h e m o d i -
fiers, i s c a l l e d i n M a r a t h i the «rTCR°l«£l > barakhocîi, t h e 'twelve
characters'. T h i s t a b l e i s o f t e n r e c i t e d i n s c h o o l s by c h i l d r e n learn-
ing to read.
These two t a b l e s show t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h t h e c h a r a c t e r s are
p l a c e d as i n i t i a l c h a r a c t e r s o f words i n d i c t i o n a r i e s , w h i c h i s the
same a s t h e o r d e r i n S a n s k r i t , e x c e p t t h a t no s p e c i a l p l a c e i s given
to characters with the onusvar. This d i f f e r e n c e in order i s illustrat-
ed by t h e f o l l o w i n g series:
Sanskrit: a ai arrjyo arrjj"© arrjh© ak© akh© . .
Marathi: a ai ak© arrjk© akh© arrjkh© . . . ay© arrjy© arrjj"© . .
5. N u m e r a l s.
The n u m e r a ls u s e d i n M a r a t hi a r e t h e 'Bombay' forms g i v e n i n the

p
Sanskrit section.
6. Punctuation.
In prose w r i t i n g , t h e same s y s t e m o f p u n c t u a t i o n i s u s e d a s in
English prose. The s y s t e m u s e d i n Marathi v e r s e i s t h e same a s the
Sanskrit system.^
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , i + . 2 . ibid. , 5 . 3. ibid. , 6 .

Rules of Marathi Orthography.
The r u l e s of Marathi o r t h o g r a p h y c o n c e r n t h e w r i t i n g of the
vowels and 3 ( ^fT*T » h r a s v , or 'short' vowels) and j§" and
, diirgh , or ' l o n g ' vowels) ; 1

and t h e w r i t i n g o f the
onusvar i n c e r t a i n words and i n g r a m m a t i c a l forms. Some of t h e trad-
itional r u l e s are b e i n g m o d i f i e d i n modern Marathi w r i t i n g , new r u l e s
h a v i n g b e e n p r e s c r i b e d i n 1932 b y t h e M a h a r a s h t r a L i t e r a t u r e Society
( *T!»TTn| Tnf^r^T "*rfW«T » meharastro sahityo porisod ) . Some
of t h e s e r u l e s have become w i d e l y a c c e p t e d . The r u l e s g i v e n below a r e
stated f i r s t i n terms of 'standard' orthography, f o l l o w e d by t h e
modifications recommended by t h e M a h a r a s h t r a L i t e r a t u r e Society.
i. R u l e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e w r i t i n g of ?[ , and 3" > 3r> 2

«
a. The ' l o n g ' vowel c h a r a c t e r s and v o w e l s i g n s a r e w r i t t e n i n a f i n a l
position; e.g.
^Tla baii Hlool malii bhauu W\°£> t s a k u u
Exceptions: ^frf^T ani, and some S a n s k r i t loanwords,
such a s oftfcj k a v i guru
The v o w e l s of t h e 'crude form' of nouns f o l l o w this rule regard-
ing ' f i n a l ' characters before the a d d i t i o n of s u f f i x e s ; e.g.
ô^lcM mulii-la ohoH-^l kavii-tsa ^J'^f guruu-n e
Pronouns are w r i t t e n w i t h t h e 'short' v o w e l s : fclcrtl t i l a , "^c^ST tula
b. The ' l o n g ' vowel c h a r a c t e r s and v o w e l s i g n s a r e w r i t t e n i n a m e d i a l
p o s i t i o n immediately b e f o r e a final okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r ; e.g.
°h tiik \5fTô5 z a i i l *|c?> muul "^B*T gheuun
1. See a b o v e , C h . l .
2. These r u l e s a p p l y t o t h e v o w e l s i g n s corresponding with the
vowel c h a r a c t e r s .
ii4 M A R A T H I S E C T I O N
E x c e p t i o n s : The ' s h o r t ' v o w e l s a r e w r i t t e n i n some S a n s k r i t loan-
words, e . g . I^rt , hit , > purus ; when t h e y o c c u r w i t h

the onusvar b e f o r e a f i n a l ekar consonant c h a r a c t e r , as in
bhint, , unts ; o r when t h e y o c c u r b e f o r e a f i n a l conjunct
character , 1
as i n , citr , 2
monusy^. The S a n s k r i t
o r t h o g r a p h y i s p r e s e r v e d i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s s u c h a s *JT^t •
muurkh^, and cft"5T , tiivr . 2
c. In a l l other p o s i t i o n s , or f o l l o w e d by any f i n a l c h a r a c t e r except
an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , the ' s h o r t ' vowels are w r i t t e n ; e.g.
1*<ft firs* gsRsr f^r%%-

kitii tik'd'e tuk'â vihiir (crude form, vihirii-)
E x c e p t i o n s : Some S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , e . g. TJ^J , p u u j a , "vftfff bhiiti.
ii. R u l e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e o n u s v a r w r i t t e n i n g r a m m a t i c al forms.5
a. All neuter forms, s i n g u l a r and p l u r a l , e n d i n g - i n Tf , |£ or »
a r e w r i t t e n w i t h t h e o n u s v a r on t h e s e f i n a l v o w e l s ; e.g.
he tii lug'aîi ker'cjuu mule bhanjê
sftif ^rf 5TT§5 ^ W%

mo^he thoc|ii poc[*te zhale kelii yave
Exceptions: c*£|uf| , l o n i i and H I DU

, panii . The word ^T^* ,
gehuu , i s m a s c u l i n e plural.
I n modern Marathi s p e e c h , t h e vowe l , i n t h e n e u t e r forms of
words, i s o f t e n r e a l i s e d as o , i n informal speech. T h i s change
of s p o k e n form i s o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d by w r i t i n g t h e o n u s v a r alone,
1. See b e l o w , C h . 3 . 2.ibid. 3 . C l a s s 3 . i i i . b . 3 . i b i d . Class 3 . i .

L. ibid.Class 3« i i i . a . 5. The o n u s v a r i n n o t u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d
i n g r a m m a t i c a l forms,* e x c e p t i n t h e c o n t e x t g i v e n b e l o w i n b .
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY n
as, for instance, i n t h e d i a l o g u e o f n o v e l s o r dramas; e . g .
«ltf *Ttt 5ft 5R

zhale zhalo bhancje bhanô bore baro
b. The onusvar i s w r i t t e n on t h e c h a r a c t e r w h i c h h a s t h e v o w e l o f
the ' c r u d e form' of words t o w h i c h t h e s u f f i x rT i s a d d e d ,

1
in the
singular, and b e f o r e a l l s u f f i x e s i n the p l u r a l , e.g.
ghora-t bage-t kholii-t man/sa-huun mula-nii
The onusvar w r i t t e n on t h e c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g the 'crude form'
of words b e f o r e the a d d i t i o n of t h e s u f f i x Tiff i s always realised
as n , and o f t e n b e f o r e o t h e r suffixes . 2
c. The onusvar i s w r i t t e n on t h e c h a r a c t e r s representing certain
suffixes; e.g. , ^ , $\ , ^ and \3^T ; and on t h e
final c h a r a c t e r of p a r t i c l e s ending in v3TT , 5 * ^ a n d

>
e.g. TRf mage, p u d h e , ^c" <

| *£T khalii , v3fl"cft a
ta .
Exception: cf)^" koa"e
Suffixes and p a r t i c l e s ending i n a c h a r a c t e r w i t h t h e vowel sign
of M" a r e o f t e n spoken i n modern M a r a t h i w i t h f i n a l o . When
t h e s e forms o c c u r i n t h e d i a l o g u e o f dramas or n o v e l s , the f i n a l
character i s often w r i t t e n w i t h the onusvar a l o n e , omitting the
matra, a s i n XJcf , pucjhe , X£i5 , pua"he , IfRf » mage ,
*TT"*T , mago . T h i s u s e o f t h e o n u s v a r t o r e p r e s e n t t h e forms o f
colloquial speech i s sometimes e x t e n d e d t o the p a r t i c l e oR% >
and t o some p a r t i c l e s in "3)*T » e . g . ef",^" kod"© , TTSJ^f , pasuun ,
tTTTFT p a s ' n o , f^cfi^T , tik'dûun , fecR^ » tiked/no .
1. The mark of n a s a l i s a t i o n i s p a r t o f t h e s u f f i x , w h i c h r e p r e s e n t s
the word OTTrT , S t . The i n i t i a l v o w e l o f t h i s word c o a l e s c e s w i t h
the vowel of t h e crude form o f t h e noun t o w h i c h i t i s added a s a
suffix. 2 . See a b o v e , 3 . M o d i f i e r s , i . b .
n6 MARATHI SECTION
d. The a n u s v a r i s w r i t t e n on c e r t a i n s u f f i x e s added t o v e r b a l bases:
1st. p e r s o n s i n g u l a r and p l u r a l :
elf - t o rf -te ^ -ii -e 3F> - u u -lo ^5" - l e
and t h e v e r b a l f o r m s \3Tf^" » a h e
> 3TT^f > a h o
. a n d
•Tl^f nahii
2nd. p e r s o n p l u r a l : eff , t a , >3fl" , a , and off > ^ a
and t h e v e r b a l f o r m s ^ T ^ f > aha , and 'TT^f , nahii
3 r d . p e r s o n s i n g u l a r and p l u r a l : •if^ n a h i i and ••""(CTh n a h i i t
and a l l n e u t e r f o r m s w h i c h change i n t h e same way a s variable
adjectives.
Suffixes w h i c h a r e added t o form v e r b a l particles:
cTT t ta , clMI > tana , ^ , uu , and ^ , re (sometimes
w r i t t e n in d i a l o g u e as "OT and r e a l i s e d a s r[© )
e. The o n u s v a r i s w r i t t e n on c e r t a i n forms o f t h e p e r s o n a l pronouns,
when t h e y s t a n d i n t h e same g r a m m a t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p to other
words a s nouns and p r o n o u n s w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n of t h e suffixes
and ^ff . e.g. iff , mii s33""X"s£t , a m h i i 1

cj^lft , tumhii , 1
ofitofi, kon.il .
1. The c h a r a c t e r represents mho

R u l e s o f Orthography o f t h e M a h a r a s h t r a L i t e r a t u r e Society.
The m o d i f i c a t i o n of the r u l e s o f s t a n d a r d o r t h o g r a p h y recommend-
ed hy t h e Maharashtra L i t e r a t u r e S o c i e t y are mainly concerned with
the w r i t i n g of t h e o n u s v a r . The r u l e s are stated i n the Society's
pamphlet •^jTc^T f H I ^ 1 %
s
f^flJIT ( J u d d h o l e k h o n a t s e nove niyom)
p u b l i s h e d i n Poona i n 1 9 3 6 . The m o s t i m p o r t a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n s of the
s t a n d a r d r u l e s g i v e n above a r e t h e s e :
a. I f t h e onusvar u s u a l l y w r i t t e n on c e r t a i n words ( t h a t i s , not
suffixes or p a r t i c l e s ) i s not realised i n modern Marathi speech,
i t should not be w r i t t e n , u n l e s s i t i s c o n s i d e r e d important t o
show t h e e t y m o l o g y o f t h e w o r d , o r u n l e s s i t i s t h e o n l y means o f
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n meaning b e t w e e n p a i r s o f w o r d s , a s g i v e n above
i n 3« i . n o t e a.
b. The onusvar u s u a l l y w r i t t e n on t h e s u f f i x e s ~f a n (
i » a n d
on
the p a r t i c l e s g i v e n above i n r u l e i i . c . should be omitted, e . g .
go3T% g^T^fr Wfc^ *TFT OTTCTT

mulane mulanii khalii mage ata
The onusvar i s , h o w e v e r , s t i l l writte n to represent colloquial
forms such a s t h o s e g i v e n a b o v e i n i i . a . and c .
c. The onusvar u s u a l l y w r i t t e n on t h e word 5fl « f > nahii , should
be w r i t t e n o n l y when t h i s v e r b a l form r e f e r s t o t h e f i r s t person,
s i n g u l a r or p l u r a l , and t h e s e c o n d p e r s o n p l u r a l ; and t h e o n u s v a r
on t h e p l u r a l form TTfafcT > nahiit , should be omitted.
d. The onusvar w r i t t e n on t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r o f t h e wo.rd cfitsfT >
kahii , should be o m i t t e d , oî ^ | .

C H A P T E R 3
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Consonant c h a r a c t e r s may be combined t o r e p r e s e n t two or more
c o n s o n a n t s w h i c h a r e t o be r e a l i s e d w i t h o u t an i n t e r v e n i n g vowel.
C h a r a c t e r s formed i n t h i s way a r e c a l l e d ^SJrFTTSflT (soyyuktaksor)
by Marathi g r a m m a r i a n s , or ^t^T'!^ (zoaâksor) in the teaching of
writing in s c h o o l s . The c o n s t r u c t i o n and c a l l i g r a p h y of conjunct
characters is described i n the Sanskrit s e c t i o n ^ , but the s t y l e used
i n w r i t i n g Marathi c o r r e s p o n d s , in the conjunct c h a r a c t e r s , with the

p
style of the Bombay c h a r a c t e r s given in the t a b l e s in t h i s section .
The Marathi c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h i s chapter in the
same c l a s s e s a s t h e S a n s k r i t c o n j u n c t characters.^
1. C o n t e x t s of C o n j u n c t C h a r a c t e r s i n Marathi.
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r i n Marathi i n t h e s e contexts:
i. I n Marathi w o r d s , t h a t i s , words n o t borrowed from S a n s k r i t or
from t h e modern l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
djiobbuu ghod.yaT, vhava
ii. In S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , e i t h e r Words u s e d commonly i n M a r a t h i , or
l e a r n e d words u s e d ©nly i n t h e l i t e r a r y language; e.g.
pustok potr iijvor
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3»l» 2. See a b o v e , C h . 2 . i - iii.

3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3/3»
iii. In loanwords from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
s-fejen
2. R e a l i s a t i o n of C o n j u n ct C h a r a c t e r s i n M a r a t h i .
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l i s e d i n r e a d i n g a s s y l l a b l e s consist-
i n g of two or more c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l . When an okar c o n -
junct c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s a s t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a w o r d , i t i s usually
r e a l i s e d w i t h an o - g l i d e , as i n " ^ T T T , p h e k t ' , $|| ^sj /astr'. 1
The r e a l i s a t i o n i n modern M a r a t h i of okar c h a r a c t e r s w i t h zero-
vowel i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s i n words g i v e s r i s e t o a p r o b l e m of spell-
ing. 2
For i n s t a n c e , when a f o r m a t i v e p a r t i c l e b e g i n n i n g w i t h a c o n -
sonant c h a r a c t e r i s added t o a v e r b a l b a s e e n d i n g i n a f i n a l okar
consonant c h a r a c t e r , the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a s e i s u s u a l l y real-
ised with zero-vowel. This r e a l i s a t i o n of the c o n s e c u t i v e characters
i s s i m i l a r to the r e a l i s a t i o n of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r . Similar prob-
lems a r i s e i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s , w h e r e an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r is
r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel before a f o l l o w i n g consonant c h a r a c t e r , and
i n compound words i n w h i c h t h e f i r s t p a r t e n d s i n an ©kar c o n s o n a n t
c h a r a c t e r , and the s e c o n d p a r t b e g i n s w i t h a c o n s o n a n t character.
Examples of such words a r e g i v e n b e l o w w i t h e a c h c l a s s of conjunct
characters.
3. C l a s s e s of Conjunct C h a r a c t e r s in Marathi.
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s of a l l the c l a s s e s given in the Sanskrit
s e c t i o n ^ occur i n M a r a t h i , b u t i n some o f t h e c l a s s e s o n l y a few of
the c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r . Those w h i c h a r e u s e d i n w r i t i n g Marathi are
1. This g l i d e i s not r e p r e s e n t e d i n t r a n s c r i b i n g words t o w h i c h

this rule applies.
2. See Ch.2,1. n o t e s a. and b . 3. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3-
120 MARATHI SECTION
shown, hy e x a m p l e s g i v e n i n e a c h c l a s s , w h i c h i n c l u d e some S a n s k r i t
loanwords f r e q u e n t l y use d i n Marathi. More r a r e l y u s e d l o a n w o r d s ,

w h i c h may o c c u r i n l i t e r a r y M a r a t h i , a r e i n c l u d e d among t h e examples
given w i t h each c l a s s in the Sanskrit section.
C l a s s 1. Two s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r s joined.
The s e r i e s of c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s occurring in Sanskrit is
given in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . 1

Most of t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s of
the Marathi s y l l a b a r y o c c u r i n t h i s c l a s s . The c h a r a c t e r representing
-rro is written , the superscribed stroke representing r
preceding another consonant . 2
A c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g an a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t i s n o t usually
w r i t t e n as t h e f i r s t p a r t of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s c l a s s ; but
i n Marathi w r i t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s <oô( , khkho and ^ , t t

n n s a r e
sometimes u s e d . The c o m b i n a t i o n s -nno and -mmo are represented
i n some words by w r i t i n g t h e o n u s v a r o v e r t h e c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g "Cf
or . e.g.
^WfcT or ^f-CTff^ TRcT or ^

semmoti but gemmot sonnidhi but ©nn
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e Marathi words i n w h i c h c o n -
s e c u t i v e consonant c h a r a c t e r s , t h e f i r s t b e i n g ©kar, a r e r e a l i s e d in
o r d i n a r y s p e e c h i n t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters:
^F^TT ^T^Pf fo^T %Sc^T STTTT SfTWft

anna an^-ne-^ killa bol-la^ cjsgga ag'gadii^
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , C o n j u n c t C h a r a c t e r s , C l a s s 1.
2 . See b e l o w , C l a s s 3* i i i . a *
3 . Verbal f o r m s . U. Compound word.
iff ^1 f%FR T^fr ^nnujor "TTTT 3?3TFT T|T 5 ^
S J ^ v T ^XXM 3Sf ft£ f l f f ^ T o ^ T W W t | ^ T
Class 2 . Two v s r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s joined.
The f u l l s e r i e s of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s c l a s s which o c c u r
in Sanskrit i s given in the S a n s k r i t section . 2
The c h a r a c t e r s of this
c l a s s which occur i n M a r a t h i , m o s t l y i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , are g i v e n
below. Some of t h e example s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n may o c c u r
as loanwords i n Marathi l i t e r a r y texts,
i.
c5Fv
-kto -tko -gdo -dg© -gdh© -dgh©
FT
-tpo -pto -aba -bd© - b j©
ii. Most of the c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n u n d e r i i . a . in the Sanskrit section

occur i n l i t e r a r y M a r a t h i , r e p r e s e n t i n g homorganic n a s a l conson-
a n t s ; but t h e method of r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e c o n s o n a n t s by w r i t i n g
3
the onusvar on t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a r a c t e r i s more o f t e n U s e d .

The word ^^T^cf, d e h a n t , 'death', a learned Sanskrit loanword,
i s w r i t t e n w i t h t h e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r , which d i s t i n g u i s h e s it
from the word w i t h a Marathi suffix,^"^TRT, dehat, ' i n the body' .
Among the c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n under ii.b.
only JJJ" , jno , and , -tn© occur i n Marathi. |T i s not
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 3 1 . 2 . See S a n s k r i t ,Ch. 3 , 3 . C i . 2 . The

numbers i . - i v . c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s
i n the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . 3- S e e a b o v e , C h . 2 , 3 . i . ©nusvar.
122 MARATHI SECTION
c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a conjunct character, and i t is often included
i n t h e v o r n o m a l a . Words b e g i n n i n g w i t h jjj a r e u s u a l l y placed
last i n Marathi dictionaries.
iii. These c h a r a c t e r s occur in Sanskrit loanwords:
*FT ^ V
-kmo -gne -ghno -tmo -dma -pno
iv. Only two c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s group o c c u r i n M a r a t h i , in Sanskrit
loanwords: ^* , -nmo and 5 ^ , -nmo .
The e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e words i n w h i c h consecutive
consonant c h a r a c t e r s , t h e f i r s t b e i n g o k a r , are r e a l i s e d i n ordinary
s p e e c h i n t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters:
Jokti Jok-tii 1
g u pt kap-to 1
/obd ub'dar
o
C l a s s 3« C h a r a c t e r s joined with ontosth characters.
i. Characters j o i n e d w i t h f o l l o w i n g TJf .
The s e r i e s of c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s c l a s s i s g i v e n i n t h e Sanskrit
s e c t i o n ^ . A l l t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s of t h e Marathi s y l l a b a r y , ex-
cept ^* , no and ^ , no , o c c u r i n t h i s c l a s s , thoug h some o c c u r
only in S a n s k r it loanwords. Many of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r i n Marathi
1 . Verbal f o r m s . 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , s e e p.131.

3 . See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3.CI.3.i.
a s a r e s u l t of c e r t a i n g r a m m a t i c a l p r o c e s s e s . E n g l i s h loanwords a r e
sometimes w r i t t e n w i t h c h a r a c t e r s joined with XJ[ , t o r e p r e s e n t t h e
vowel sound in words s u c h a s olfoT) , 'Dank' and cpipT 'camp'.
YTSFZT ^ZTT^T ^ f t s ^ Ri#mi
tfts^TFf- 6TVZTT-cr tuijTc^T T^ZT TJ^f ^ c r M I
^TToZjTH oZTT^TPT STq"^ *f^*T
ii. Characters j o i n e d w i t h f o l l o w i n g of .
Only a few of t h e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s in t h i s s e r i e s , g i v e n in
p
the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n , o c c u r in M a r a t h i , most o f w h i c h o c c u r i n l o a n -
words. The c h a r a c t e r s which o c c u r i n M a r a t h i w o r d s , and i n some l o a n -
words i n common u s e , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e examples g i v e n below.
Marathi words a r e w r i t t e n w i t h o^" , S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s w i t h .
The r e a l i s a t i o n o f a f i n a l o k a r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i n some words
which form compounds w i t h t h e words qi<fy\ , vala , o r qT"T , var ,
i l l u s t r a t e s the r e a l i s a t i o n of c o n s e c u t i v e consonant characters,
when t h e f i r s t i s o k a r , in t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters.
For example:
pokvann cjak'vala dhvoni budh'var
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see p.131.

2. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 3 . i i .
124 MARATHI SECTION
Reading examples 1
^f^cT v 3qTft ^TTc^T ^r*q~r^r ^RcT:
iii. Characters joined with preceding or w i t h f o l l o w i n g ""Jf
a. preceding another character.
The c h a r a c t e r s in this series are given in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n2
These c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e formed "by p l a c i n g t h e s t r o k e called
\' 7T , reph
T
, above t h e c h a r a c t e r b e f o r e w h i c h 1[ i s t o be realised
as t h e f i r s t o f two o r more c o n s e c u t i v e consonants. The p l a c e o f this
s t r o k e on t h e v a r i o u s c h a r a c t e r s , w h e t h e r ©kar or w i t h v o w e l signs,
i s given in the note s on c a l l i g r a p h y in the Sanskrit section. These
characters occur i n Marathi words, i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and i n loan-
words from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s . C h a r a c t e r s a r e n o t u s u a l l y d o u b l e d when
w r i t t e n w i t h r e p h i n Marathi w o r d s , thoug h i n t h e w r i t i n g o f Sanskrit
d o u b l i n g may s o m e t i m e s o c c u r . The c h a r a c t e r s w h i c h o c c u r i n Marathi
are i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e r e a d i n g examples given below.
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l i s a t i o n of , with
zero-vowel, f o l l o w e d by another consonant c h a r a c t e r , similar to the
realisation o f rep h w r i t t e n above a c o n s o n a n t character:
korta kor-ta^ orpon^ sor'pen^ tark par'kar
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see p.131.

2 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 . 3. , Class 3«iii.a.
3 . Verbal f o r m .
A s p e c i a l form of r e p h i s w r i t t e n to represent preceding
<qf or i n Marathi w o r d s . T h i s f o r m of reph i s sometime s written
with ^-T i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , "but i t i s not usual to write this
form i n a S a n s k r i t text"'". The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e reph
w r i t t e n i n t h i s form w i t h ]T :
torha korhacja girhaiik rhosv^
The w r i t i n g of reph i n t h i s form w i t h is usually restricted to
Marathi words i n which t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f ^ and arises from
grammatical p r o c e s s e s . Other w o r d s a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n w i t h the
superscribed reph. e.g.
suury^ suurya-^" dus'ra dus'rya-^
The word sSTT^ 1^1 > when c h a n g e d t o t h e 'crude f o r m ' , b e f o r e adding
suffixes or p a r t i c l e s , i s d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e ' c r u d e f o r m' of the
word vSTp^TTlt by t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e w r i t i n g of reph:
^-^T^rf- -34MI$) ^Tf-^F^T-

acary-' acarya-* 4
acarii^ acarya-^"
Reading examples 7
cpfe Wr *$Jji &F$t* c#rJ -mi

srsftc-r orSc^ ^r^rf <sp?w
v$ mffidb £rfr tp? rih" ^
1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . i i i . a . 2. Sanskrit ' h r e s v e ' .

3. S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d . U. ' c r u d e f o r m ' . 5 . ' s p i r i t u a l p r e c e p t o r ' .
6. 'Brahman c o o k ' . 7 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 3 ' 1 .
126 MARATHI SECTION
The f u l l series of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i s given in the Sanskrit
section . 1
Only a f e w o f these characters occur i n Marathi, m o s t l y in
S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s and some E n g l i s h l o a n w o r d s . For t h e simplification
of p r i n t i n g , new f o r m s s u c h a s vr*^ > bhr© and ^ , Jra are some-
times used. The r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e the charact-
e r s of t h i s group w h i c h o c c u r i n M a r a t h i .
Reading examples 2
5R*r . Sb"*T ^r^T 3TTO^ ^T^T f^T
iv. Characters w i t h preceding or w i t h f o l l o w i n g •

a
» preceding another character.
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s group w h i c h o c c u r i n S a n s k r i t a r e given
in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n ^ . The c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r r i n g i n Marathi are
i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e w o r d s g i v e n a s r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s below,
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s group u s e d i n S a n s k r i t a r e g i v e n i n the
S a n s k r i t section**. The r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e the
c h a r a c t e r s which occur i n Marathi.
The f o l l o w i n g w o r d s i l l u s t r a t e consecutive consonant charact-.
ers, the f i r s t being akar, r e a l i s e d i n t h e same way a s conjunct
characters: "Wc^f %Tc*T

ul'-Jiii bol-to5 ghal-ne5 bas-la5 ghet-la5
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . i i i . b . 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of
examples, see p . 1 3 1 . 3 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . i v . a .
ibid. , iv.b. 5. Verbal forms.
Reading e x a m p l e s x
mmc^TOT ohlc£l ^"c^f c^Tofr c§W
C l a s s U. vargiiy characters j o i n e d w i t h p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g uusm
characters.
i. vorgiiy characters joined with , or ^j" .
a. , "8^ or preceding a v o r g i i y character.
The f u l l series of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s occurring in Sanskrit is
given i n . t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n .2
T h o s e w h i c n o c c u r i n Marathi are
i l l u s t r a t e d in the examples g i v e n b e l o w . Most of t h e c h a r a c t e r s occur
i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and t h e c h a r a c t e r "^"l o c c u r s i n E n g l i s h loan-
words.
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l es illustrate M a r a t h i words i n w h i c h consec-
u t i v e consonant c h a r a c t e r s , the f i r s t b e i n g okar, are r e a l i s e d in the
same way as c o n j u n c t characters:
oys'poys
Reading examples
2 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 4 . i . a .
3 . Verbal form.
i+. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 3 2 .
b. or ^ following a vorgiiy character.

The s e r i e s of c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s group whic h o c c u r i n Sanskrit
are g i v e n i n the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . 1
Only a few of t h e s e characters
occur in Marathi, m o s t l y i n S a n s k r i t loanwords. These a r e illustrated
i n t he r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s g i v e n "below. The c h a r a c t e r jJjT , k s o , is
n o t c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r , and i s o f t e n i n c l u d e d in
t h e v o r i j o m a l a . Words b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h i s c h a r a c t e r a r e u s u a l l y
2
placed
i n Marathi d i c t i o n a r i e s a f t e r words b e g i n n i n g w i t h ^ .
•5
Reading e x a m p l e s
oTr^Tc^ -q%^T §c£§T <ft8pT tfftij cFTT <3fcFSTrar$t
ii. p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g ©nunasik ( ' n a s a l ' ) characters,

a. p r e c e d i n g an ©nunasik character.
These c h a r a c t e r s a r e g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n ^ . Only one o f
-
t h e c h a r a c t e r s i s u s e d i n M a r a t h i , i n t h e word §1 brahman^ .
b. |£ f o l l o w i n g an ©nunasik character.
The c h a r a c t e r s "C^" , -nh o , , -nh© and *^jjT , -mh© , o c c u r

i n Marathi^.
ofiTr-f-af- s=^Tofr *^TcTHT f ^ = f
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch. 3 , 3 - C l a s s i+. i . b .

2. Compare n o t e on t h e c h a r a c t e r 5"" i n C l a s s 2 . i i . b . above.
3. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , s e e p . 1 3 2 ,
U. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s U . i i . a , 5. i b i d . b .
6. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s , s e e p . 1 3 2 .
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS i<
2
Marathi p r o s e passage 1
Vf§& ^TT%cf. TTTcnTT, < 3 ^ q ^ = R T , f c ? ^ T ^ ^ f t ^ T f t ^f?T^5R
-q-|^n-^f " q s ^ , ^ ^ o;tft S i f t q T f ^ K ^H^T iRcSf ^flcITcT.
gpf STfTFft JlfittS fcT^HT^ T T ^ R . W ^ T 3ff
i%cR' ff 0
^TlffrT, 3TJ"R "^bff ^ o ^ i - c ^ l i %o£f ^ r q •fofcerT ^ ^ i ^ q i t&zft
*rf|$ «n%.gyf sif? ^ ^ w i t q i ^ T ^ O

srrl.qT STITT^
^q=n ^ r o f -spfrjcft ftr^T^fRT^ri^ ^ r ^ f t c^fe^r *rtff
^ R M x I T ^t^T v3Trf^t -^fq-jfa- 7 ^ 1 % ^ 7 SFf ^ T f ^
tfte "gî ^^mcft ^ T I « J ^ I ^ I K ^ I ^^rr.ûiji^^ ^ c T T w s q M ^ o s sfr
1. M a r a t h i V a c h a n m a l a , B k . k , p . 1 5 , b y V a s a n t Ramchandra Nerurkar, pub.

Keshav B h i k a j i D h a v a l e , G i r g a u m , Bombay.
MARATHI SECTION
T r a n s c r i p t i o n o f R e a d i n g Examples
Chapter 2 .
l.i. no tso dhe

Is
jog pod khor^ bogh mon th©g kh©t pod, dhsm

chot noth dheg kon. <t©ph bh©t l^sokh zer^ zh©t
modot peked^ ghoôk bhejen th©k©t {hensk ph©b©t

dhemok khecjek tsoo^han. zekhem pe-^set zspst zhegec"_
khe-t ' p o t dhsm'k©"!; gsd^'b©^ men/ g©"|; th©b'k©t khen/ke-|;

phej; ' k e n tsem'ket "tjsts'k©^ d©ts'k©t kets'kef z h o t *k©n
l.ii. v©
k©r jsl v©r v©n joy thor v©y ghsr ledh ley
dh©r k©l l©th bh©r dor lov tsor ol zer tsev
b©d©l dh©r©r l c©l©n go v e t teney vecon kenev reyet

t©l©ph dhekol v©r©v •t^serot nozsr gerez mezel vezen
l©v'k©r kor'met per'ker •(; P l

9 r , n 9
dhen'ger ker*vet
psl'ton. kets'ret poked"/vet tsor'hot kerem'tots
l.iii. sor bes yo; hot her sen^ /ok Jev phes
hos ? t 9
khes ve/ J*er res Jebe tehe sehe
phonos peser Jepeth sodêk semoy herein seres kele/

Jehor besev serek dejok hezer leher sehez phesel
her'kot hey'gey ser've ";

-
J"et'po"(; ser'pon. mes'let
henve^ ser'seko"); meson/vet semez'tei^s
chel. phel, khe], sere^ zevel, heêd veêi; d/ieve^

peês tsej/voT; beT/ket mez'zeve^ kel/meT_et zevel/ser
2.i. a an
9
<l ath iid uuth ek eyk ocjh ev"|;
nun eyt iiq. uus eyn evt eyj rn.
seii menu zeii neuu iter u s el. dêkh uter ukhe^
aper^ eyvez udêt eyrer; seêii ojhor evsedh ol_ekh
2.ii. kha hii to ne pey dhuu chi bhii ga ghe thuu ho

thiik ruuc|h jhiil tel mevz dos drcjh b e y l hit duudh
kay hoy nav jev kevi khecjuu Jev b e h u n e y e berii
cjoTa peysa krpa dhobii Jiju chatii bhiiti g u ru tsevda
baii bhauu rsi suii eke yeii rtu eyke oTii
TRANSCRIPTION 13
maydan rumal "[he v l In jevuun kavtuk nokar becjuuk gariiud.

ka"|;hor jiivan zamiin deim^ patois laa"haii t a r a z m i 1^Bui"|;ii
vagayre -^savpajii pahije mara-|;b.ii "J; ilcaxi-uL bayragii bhikarii
itar ek aykila utar uufh gheiin aii dhuuun
p. 106. k h i d / k i i kor'cja diis'ra kap'cê ik'cje tek'cjii kun/bii

^savk'/ii koy'ta guc]/ghe av'gha par'dhii ev'cjha bat'mii
tar'buuz ker'sunii phavz'dar .fik'vari ub'dar mik'tats
khabar'dar phasav'rjuuk hat'us'na soqav'nuuk lahan'pana
kal_at ka^-to pas'ra pasar-tat sar'kuun sarak-tiil

ghasar g h a s ' r u u n g h a s ' r i i l ghasar~.fi i l a^h'Tuun a"|;hav-tiil
bighad^ bigh'cjuun bighad^lela ad/khaât ad/kha^-tat
Chapter 3»
C l a s s 1.
phikka akkal sakkhii cjagga kat^sa gaccii iccha lajja
ha"j;tii l a " t t t t
n 9 c
khacjâ J"a:nr|av p a t t a u t t h a n r a d d i i biiddhi
i n i l
ann chappann lapph a d^habbuu h i y y a k i r r h a l l i i s a v v a i / / h i s s a
Class 2.
yukti camatkar sadgui| upodghat mugdh sa^kon. utpann

Jabd gupt satphal samapt udbhav -udbodhak phakt
lagn atma padma ratn jnan janm varjmay
Class
vaky cjokyala sarjkhya agya ghya ticya
rajy jyane tujhya petya mo"|;hyane citthya
gaqya pec[hyatsa hor|_yas arjyatse tyacya
pothya udya madhye nyahal/ne pyala naphyatsa
dhohyane abhyas bhyala ramy suury kholya
karavyas vyakhyan ava/y rahasy mamisy
hyala ma^yane atmyatsa raukhy nadya
Class 3.ii.
kvacit gvahii ucchvas jvala vi/vas svatah

iijvar svacch svapn dvara sarasvatii kevha vhava
tattvajjian mahattv anvay sarv dhvaja vha^ Jvas
Class 3»iii-
a. t a r k imiurkh marg d i i r g h khurcii k h u r c y a a r z kor "; garc[ -
puurr^ kiirti arthat vardal ardha arpar^ uurph barph

durbal garbh dharm dharmik dhayry sarv darjan hars nars
tarha durlabh kurhac[ puurvii varse sarvat ardhya ryarya
b. kram kram irjgrajii agraha tras chidr citr

prayatn priiti abruu prapt namr tiivr tamra"";
Jriimant sahasr tryaipqav samudr
132 MARATHI SECTION
Class 3»iv.
valgana phalguri svalp kolha kalhaii Ihovii klas sle\
C l a s s U.
i.a. ajcary pajcim puskal, us ";
-
r a s t r Jresth rasta tast
vyavastha stabdh nisphal krsn. snan sthir rastyane
strii strya spast drs^l drs"|;ya sthiti ajcary sphuurti
Jastr sneha skuul sêjan post
b. vatsal poriiksa durlaks tilksr^ ksatriya vansa oksaboksii
suuksm ©ksarajah utsuk ak'smat
ii. tumhii amhii kantiane nhavii mhatara unhaâ cinh
Marathi P r o s e Passage 1
p r a t y e k J o h o r a t s e m a h a t t v k a h i i ek v i T i s t g o ^ t i i t a h e . a p ' l y a y a
mumboii i l a k h y a t az m u m b o i i , eh'medabad, s o l a p u u r v o g o y r e Johore v y a -
parasa"{;hii p r o s i d d h ahet. s a t a r a , eh'med'noger, vijapuur vogoyre
Johore e y t i h a s i k drs"|;ya m a h a t t v a c i i a h e t . per]cjher'puur, n a / i k v a -
g a y r e Johore dharmik drs"|;ya J r e s ^ h g e n i l i i z a t a t . pur e J o h o r a c i i
p r e s i d d h i v i d v a n a n t s e raaher'ghar mhor|Uun v i j e s a h e . karon. ya t h i k a n i i
sarv prakar'cya Jiksenacya j i t ' k y a s o y i i a h e t , t i t ' k y a i t e r t h i k a n i i
n a h i i t , ani p u u r v i i p e J v y a n c y a v e l i i kay kimva h o l l i c y a irjgrejii
r a j ' v a ^ i i t kay m a h a r a s t r a t i i l v i d v a n l o k a n t s e t e ek a v e c f t e s t h a n
houun r a h i l e a b e . pure Jahar s a m u d r a p a t i i p a s u u n 1850 phuu"(; u n t s a h e .
ya J a h a r a c i i s t h a p a n a don Je v a r s a p u u r v i i Jivajiimaharajani^se guru
d a d a j i i k o r ^ a d e v y a n i i k e l i i . m a h a r a j a n t s a vacja ye t h e h o t a ani r a y "gad.
g h e i i p a r y a n t t y a n t s e mukhy "[hane puny-asats a s e , maharajancya p a j c a t
s a t a r a he Jahar mara^hyancya s a t t e t s e kendr z h a l e . puqyanajiik simha-
gad. k i l l a , b h a f g h a r y e t h i i l dharan_ va t a l a v a n i l a s k a r a t i i l sundar
imar'tii pah'nyasar'khya ahet. p u r ^ y a t i i l Janivar'vad^yazava^ Jrii
Jivajiimaharajanl^se smarak mhanuun t y a n t s a ajvaruud^h bhavy p u t a ^ a
ubha k e l e l a a h e .
1 . anusvars t o be read w i t h z e r o - r e a l i s a t i o n are not t r a n s c r i b e d in

this passage.
GUJARATI SECTION
C H A P T E R 1
The w r i t i n g s y s t e m of G u j a r a t i (?L*Y3.lCLl , gujaratii) i s "based
on t h e S a n s k r i t s y s t e m , w i t h some m o d i f i c a t i o n s a s i n t h e o t h e r modern
l a n g u a g e s of N o r t h e r n I n d i a w h i c h a r e w r i t t e n in the D e v a n a g a ri
script. The c h a r a c t e r s of t h e G u j a r a t i s c r i p t a r e a r r a n g e d i n t h e same
way as t h o s e of t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t , given in the Sanskrit section" ". 1
The s c r i p t is referred to as ^ I ^ ^ M X ^ I (baôbodh) , ' t h a t can be
u n d e r s t o o d by a c h i l d ' . Each c h a r a c t e r is called $13. ( a k s a r ) ,
and the s y l l a b i c s e r i e s i s c a l l e d ct 5L^-LLCd.L ( v e r n o m a l a ) ,

l
'character-
series'. The terms u s e d by G u j a r a t i grammarians t o r e f e r to the
characters are s i m i l a r to t h o s e u s e d i n S a n s k r i t , but as the realisa-
t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s in reading Gujarati differs somewhat from t h e
Sanskrit system in r e s p e c t of c o n s o n a n t characters r e a l i s e d with the
vowel o , t h e s e terms a r e u s e d i n t h i s section in t h e i r Gujarati form
and t r a n s c r i b e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e characters
in Gujarati. The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s illustrate the differenc e between
the terms u s e d i n t h e S a n s k r i t section and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g terms
used i n t h i s section:
Sanskrit ^TT*T N
(akseram) Gujarati îfÂ (oksor)
fcTTTT: (viramoh) C^.^.LH (viram)
(ontohstha) îMrrl^l (ontosth)
136 G U J A R A T I S E C T I O N
The t a b l e g i v e n b e l o w shows t h e a r r a n g e m e nt o f t h e G u j a r a t i
s y l l a b a r y i n roman n o t a t i o n . As t h e s y s t e m o f w r i t i n g i s s y l l a b i c ,
and t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n the syllabary represent s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g of
either a vowel, o r a c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d by t h e v o w e l o , t h e roman
t a b l e s show e a c h c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h i s v o w e l . The v o w e l o , when
r e a l i s e d i n t h i s way w i t h a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , i s usually referred
to i n English t e x t s as t h e 'inherent vowel'.
.1 2 3 k 5
CONSONANTS w i t h 0 Velar Palatal Retro- Dental Labial
flex
Voiceless
Unaspirated ko CO t 9 to p©
P l o s i v e s
Aspirate kho cho tho tho ph©
Unaspirated go q© do b©
Voiced
Aspirated gho jho clhe 1

dho bh©
Nasal fo©) 2
(P-9) 2
no no m©
Semivowels yo ro lo v©^
Fricatives Jo so** so
Aspirate ho
Lateral I®
VOWELS © a 11 u uu e , z ©y o , o ^ ©v
J
MODIFIERS Nasal - m or Aspirated
1. - 5 . S e e n o t e s on f o l l o w i n g page.
1. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t e d b y cjo and c|he are r e a l i s e d medially
and f i n a l l y w i t h t h e f l a p p e d consonants r and rh i n some w o r d s .
2. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t e d by no and no occur only in combinat-
ion w i t h o t h e r c o n s o n a n t s , i n S a n s k r i t loanwords.
3 . The c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t e d by ve i s usually r e a l i s e d with l a b i o -
dental articulation.
h. The c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t e d b y so and s y l l a b i c r o c c ur o n l y in
Sanskrit loanwords.
5. The v o w e l s e and e a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e s c r i p t w i t h t h e same
c h a r a c t e r , or vowel s i g n , u s u a l l y t r a n s c r i b e d a s e . The v o w e l s
o and o are a l s o w r i t t e n w i t h t h e same c h a r a c t e r , or vowel sign,
u s u a l l y transcribed as o .
The s e r i e s of v o w e l s i n c l u d e s 'short' i and ' l o n g ' ii, 'short'
u and ' l o n g ' uu. These p a i r s o f v o w e l s o c c u r i n G u j a r a t i w o r d s ,
and the c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e 'short' and t h e 'long' vowels
are w r i t t e n a c c o r d i n g t o c e r t a i n r u l e s of orthography . 1
This d i s t i n c t -
i o n between t h e ' s h o r t ' and ' l o n g ' v o w e l s i s p r e s e r v e d i n t n i s work i n
the t r a n s c r i p t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s , t h o u g h i n modern G u j a r a t i
speech t h e r e i s o f t e n l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p r o n u n c i a t i o n of
words w r i t t e n w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s - r e p r e s e n t i n g the 'short' or t h e
'long' vowels.
1. See Chapter 2 , under 2 . i i . V o w e l Signs.

C H A P T E R 2
The G u j a r a t i c h a r a c t e r s a r e a m o d i f i e d form of t h e Devanagari
c h a r a c t e r s , w i t h some c h a n g e s of l i n e and form w h i c h hav e come a b o u t
through an a d a p t a t i o n o f t h e s c r i p t f o r c u r s i v e w r i t i n g . The c h a r a c t -
e r s a r e more rounded t h a n t h o s e of t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t , and do n o t
have a h e a d - s t r o k e . Comparison w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s in the Sanskrit
section will show how t h e G u j a r a t i c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e l a t e d i n form t o
t h o s e of t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t . The method of w r i t i n g t h e Gujarati
characters is in general t h e method d e s c r i b e d i n t h e Introduction,
and r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e made t o t h e n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y g i v e n w i t h
e a c h group of c h a r a c t e r s i n the Sanskrit s e c t i o n . Special notes are
g i v e n b e l o w on t h e c a l l i g r a p h y of any c h a r a c t e r s of w h i c h t h e order
of s t r o k e s c a n n o t b e e a s i l y deduced from t h e D e v a n a g a r i characters.
The G u j a r a t i c h a r a c t e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r u n d e r the
same h e a d i n g s a s t h e c h a r a c t e r s in the Sanskrit s e c t i o n : Consonant
C h a r a c t e r s , Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s , and M o d i f i e r s .
1 . Consonant Characters.
The c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e a r r a n g e d i n t h r e e g r o u p s : 'vorgiiy'
characters, 'ontosth' c h a r a c t e r s and 'uusm' c h a r a c t e r s . 1

As t h e y a r e
given in the s y l l a b a r y , t h e s e characters are r e a l i s e d as syllables
c o n s i s t i n g o f an i n i t i a l consonant, or s e m i - v o w e l , f o l l o w e d by t h e
vowel a , and t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d a s ^ H B l ^ (okar). The realisation
1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , l . i - iii.
of a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h o u t this vowel, that i s , as the conson-
ant e l e m e n t of t h e s y l l a b l e only, is i n d i c a t e d by a d i a g o n a l stroke
written at the f o o t of t h e c h a r a c t e r , thus ^ , k- , t- , and
so on, a s i n S a n s k r i t . This s t r o k e is called (p(j^LH ( v i r a m ) 1

and a
character w r i t t e n with this stroke is called •halont' by Gujarati
grammariansj b u t i n t h e t e a c h i n g o f w r i t i n g in s c h o o l s , characters
written with t h i s stroke are d e s c r i b e d as **lX^

J
(khodu, 'lame').
The r e a l i s a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s in reading Gujarati
differs somewhat from t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of these characters in Sanskrit.
The f o l l o w i n g n o t e s may be r e g a r d e d a s g e n e r a l g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s to
which r e f e r e n c e may be made l a t e r when t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e discussed
in d e t a i l .
a. A final okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s usually realised with zero-
v o w e l , e x c e p t i n a few S a n s k r i t loanwords.^
b. A final ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r f o r m e d by c o m b i n i n g two or more
characters^, 0 r a final o k a r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d e d by a
character written with the onusvar r e p r e s e n t i n g a nasal conson-
ant* -, i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h an
4
e-glide.
c. A m e d i a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d in certain contexts
with zero-vowel, or w i t h an o - g l i d e , for i n s t a n c e , when s u c h a
c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s a s t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r of a t h r e e character
word, and t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r h a s one of t h e v o w e l signs^.
d. When an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r is the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a
verbal b a s e , i t is usually r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel, or w i t h an
1 . See S a n s k r i t ,Ch. 2 , 1 . 2 . The v i r a m i s n o t w r i t t e n i n G u j a r a t i

w i t h c h a r a c t e r s w h i c h a r e r e a l i s e d i n t h i s way; i t i s w r i t t e n o n l y
i n a few S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s . 3 - S e e b e l o w ,Ch. 3 , 2 .
U. See b e l o w , 3 . i . b . 5. See b e l o w , 2 . i i .
Ho GUJARATI SECTION
e-glide, b e f o r e t b e a d d i t i o n of s u f f i x e s c o n s i s t i n g of, or b e g i n -
n i n g w i t h , a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h one of t h e vowe l signs.
For g u i d a n c e i n r e a d i n g , f i n a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s realis-
ed w i t h z e r o - v o w e l a r e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h o u t o , and m e d i a l okar c o n -
s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l or w i t h an o - g l i d e are
transcribed thus: k' , t' , p' .
i. C h a r a c t e r s of t h e v o r g i i y group (ct?!^^. ) . 1
The f i r s t g r o u p o f c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s c o n s i s t s of twentyfive
c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g s y l l a b l e s w i t h an i n i t i a l p l o s i v e consonant
f o l l o w e d by t h e v o w e l a . These c h a r a c t e r s f a l l into five ct^^L
( v e r g ) , or c l a s s e s , according to the f i v e p o s i t i o n s of articulation.
ko-vorg
ke khe
H
g 9
ghe -ne 2
ce-vorg
H CO che
>»>
jhe -jie
•];©'-verg d 6
the
vS d
ahe -n.o
t 9
te-verg d te
H
the de
ii H
dhe no
pe-vorg
H po
A phe be
(H H
bhe mo
An o l d e r form o f Q is ^ .
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 1 . i . 2 . C h a r a c t e r s w h i c h do n o t o c c u r
i n i t i a l l y a r e shown by a hyphen p r e f i x e d t o t h e s y l l a b l e i n t h e
roman t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
The c h a r a c t e r s » §. » 06 a n d
6 a r
e written thus:
£ <- * 3 $ c
* *L
36 D 36 6 c
S 6
The okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e f e r r e d t o , a s f o r i n s t a n c e i n
spelling, thus: g , >&^L ( k e k k o ) , ct » CITHX ( t e t t o ) , and s o o n 0
The c h a r a c t e r s \$« and do n o t o c c u r i n G u j a r a t i w o r d s , h u t

they are w r i t t e n , i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , i n some
S a n s k r i t loanwords i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e . The c h a r a c t e r s £ and
& are r e a l i s e d m e d i a l l y and f i n a l l y as re and r he in certain
words. Examples o f t h i s r e a l i s a t i o n a r e g i v e n l a t e r , a f t e r t h e
vowel s i g n s a r e d i s c u s s e d . l
1 . One c h a r a c t e r words. Pour o f t h e v o r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r a s

words: -t ^9 V <!»
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel.
Qrl H L3
d H H V *M.vS H6 #d CH^L V6
:*bd Hv5 *4.d d6 UvS <dd $d YvS H£l
3 . Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
<Hfri U6v5 ^vSH Hfcfc HHd $d6 d>LS =>Otd
<HHvS dHfc *<.H6 &Hd d d H CHYd U6d
U. Four c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-'vowel
or w i t h an e - g l i d e ; f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel.
%VA£l (HdS^t =M.£H$ lySdHd <HAV£ H Y ^ t
1. See b e l o w , under 2 . i i .
2. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . l 6 8 .
i 2
4 GUJARATI SECTION
ii. C h a r a c t e r s o f t h e o n t o s t h group ( ^ H r T l ^ ^ i ) 1
There a r e f o u r G u j a r a t i characters in t h i s group, as in the
same group of S a n s k r i t characters.
H a ^ «l
ye le re ve
When t h e c h a r a c t e r s M. and ol occur i n i t i a l l y , or m e d i a l l y
realised with a following vowel, they are r e a l i s e d as c o n s o n a n t s . When
they occur m e d i a l l y , in p o s i t i o n s i n w h i c h eka r c o n s o n a n t characters
are r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or f i n a l l y , they are r e a l i s e d as semi-

2
v o w e l s , f o r m i n g d i p h t h o n g s w i t h t h e v o w e l of t h e p r e c e d i n g syllable.
e.g. UVt otH W4. °#t
yejen ven bhe y jev
Reading examples3
1 . None of t h e o n t e s t h characters o c c u r s as a word.
2. Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , f i n a l characters realised with zero-vowel.
*U M3. H a ° ik W *t «LH
*w. &h w. ^>(rt CLR. â =mm w . yh
3. Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
Vtt?. ab^l CNAS <=OHct * R rlÂ

a^LQi m f m n a n h ^ h ch^l
k. Pour c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel
or w i t h an e - g l i d e ; final characters r e a l i s ed with zero-vowel.
£&ctt &H(H?l UvSctt (dbSSqi cttrtY ^ftdA

1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , l . i i . 2 . F u r t h e r e x a m p l e s of t h e realisat-
i o n of t h e s e two c h a r a c t e r s a r e g i v e n b e l o w , under 2 . i i .
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY i 4 :
iii. C h a r a c t e r s o f t h e uusm group ( (3l"t»H. ) X
These c h a r a c t e r s a s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n a r e w r i t t e n
in t h e Hindi s t y l e . The G u j a r a t i c h a r a c t e r s a r e :
U H <*
J"o so so ha
The c h a r a c t e r X o c c u r s o n l y i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and when
w r i t t e n i n words i n common u s e i n G u j a r a t i , i t i s often r e a l i s e d as
Jo e x c e p t i n formal reading.
2
1 . None of t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s g r o u p o c c u r s a s a word.
2 . Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
*U *16 m. &L H*l ^ <SH * t d

3 . Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel.
aûat *iu*i U H H ^ I H
U. Pour and f i v e c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; f i n a l characters r e a l i s e d with zero-
v o w e l , s e c o nd c h a r a c t e r i n f o u r c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , t h i r d character
i n t h e f i v e c h a r a c t e r w o r d , r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l or w i t h an
o-glide.
3iHY£l U W d . ?&SZ Û^d c&Sd <£dWl

The l a s t c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i n the Gujarati syllabary i s
, ~T,o » r e a l i s e d a s a r e t r o f l e x l a t e r a l c o n s o n a n t w i t h o .
2
#t m. m. owjo H<<t 3H<a HR.<=LÎ mste
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,1. i i i . 2. For transcription, see p.l68.

3 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 1 . i i i . V e d i c character.
The two c h a r a c t e r s *Q and , each r e p r e s e n t i n g syllables
c o n s i s t i n g of two c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d b y t h e v o w e l o , are often
p l a c e d a t t h e end of t h e s e r i e s of c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e voriô-
m a l a , b u t t h e y do n o t p r o p e r l y b e l o n g t o t h e s y l l a b a r y , and t h e y a r e
discussed later . 1
2
2 . Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s ,
i. Vowel Characters.
The v o w el c h a r a c t e r s u s e d i n w r i t i n g G u j a r a t i c o r r e s p o n d w i t h
the vowel c h a r a c t e r s i n S a n s k r i t though t h e forms d i f f e r . Syllabic
rr , 1 and 11 do n o t o c c u r i n G u j a r a t i ^ . The v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s are
usually placed f i r s t in the vornomala.
»>i
© a i
£ii
S
u uu
S i
syllabic r e, oy 0,0** ov
The c h a r a c t e r , syllabic r , o c c u r s o n l y i n a few Sanskrit
loanwords, used mainly in the l i t e r a r y language. The v o w el characters
are r e f e r r e d to as okar, akar, i k a r , u k a r , and s o o n .
I n a l l r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s which f o l l o w , ©kar c o n s o n a n t characters
which o c c u r i n words h a v i n g vowe l c h a r a c t e r s or vowel s i g n s s h o u l d b e
r e a l i s e d according to the general rules already given, unless special
n o t e s a r e added.
1 . See b e l o w , C h . 3 . C l a s s e s 2 . and U. 2 . For t h e u s e o f vowel

c h a r a c t e r s and vowel s i g n s , s e e S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 2 . i .
3 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 2 . i . h. See a b o v e , C h . l . The r e a l i s a t i o n of
t h e s e vowel c h a r a c t e r s a s e or e , and a s o or o , i s d i s c u s s e d
below under i i . Vowel S i g n s .
1. Vowel c h a r a c t e r s o n l y . Ît ^
5
2. Vowel c h a r a c t e r s w i t h okar characters.
SlH *>tlU ^Ld ^1°* 5>tl6
^6 H@ <a*T fesP utf fcsftV &$$t

i i . Vowel s i g n s .
Vowel s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o e a c h v o w e l c h a r a c t e r , e x c e p t 3>-C ,
are added t o t h e okar form o f t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s to represent
s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g of an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d by one of the
vowels a to ev . The v o w e l s i g n s a r e g i v e n h e r e added t o the
character .
si & £1- f ^ 4 ^ ^ &

ka ki kii ku kuu kr ke,ke key ko,ko kov
The o r d e r of s t r o k e s i n w r i t i n g c h a r a c t e r s w i t h vowel s i g n s is
i n g e n e r a l t h e same a s t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y in
the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . Some of t h e c h a r a c t e r s a r e m o d i f i e d i n form
when c e r t a i n of t h e vowel s i g n s a r e added.
a. The u p r i g h t s t r o k e of a c h a r a c t e r i s w r i t t e n w i t h o u t r o u n d i n g the
f o o t when t h e vowel s i g n s f o r u or uu are added:
gu guu pu puu su suu
b. Special forms:
•KI fir « •<!, ^ ^ $ 3 $

ja ji jii ju juu nu ru ruu dr J*r hr
1 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , see p. 168,

2 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 2 . i i .
146 GUJARATI SECTION
In t h e t e a c h i n g o f w r i t i n g i n s c h o o l s , and i n s p e l l i n g , the up-
r i g h t s t r o ke of a c h a r a c t e r , and of t h e v o w e l s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to
t h e c h a r a c t e r s *D\X ,^\X and are r e f e r r e d to as £ L H l (kano), and
the diagonal s u p e r s c r i b ed s t r o k e s i n t h e v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s ,
a s i n 5^ , , d n d s y
tl > a r e
r e f e r r e d t o a s HL^LL ( m a t r a ) . The
vowel s i g n s f o r ^ and $ are c a l l e d §.^ct ^ (hrosv i) and
^1^1 $ (diirgh i i ) , and t h e vowel s i g n s f o r and (3^ a r e called
^ ^ • 0 ^ ^ ( h r o s v u) and (diirgh uu) . 1

Characters having vowel
s i g n s are d e s c r i b e d as 'akar', 'ukar', 'ekar' and s o o n .
Reading examples 2
1. One c h a r a c t e r words.
2 . Words of two or more characters.
£i6 $iy £L& ai^ *(taf &$> fed °oiH
aid dfe Mk Ufcft (§L(Hl S^l

ÎMX *bfo *b<i ^£lA oiteT eflA
<3t(L %«iX <tute Ûdl ^ âl §HL OX
PL^L&L Svi^d SplRl dlAuCl ^.lALHlCL ( H l ^ d t A
Realisation of the vowels and •
These v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s , and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g v o w e l s i g n s , each
r e p r e s e n t two v o w e l s o f d i f f e r e n t quality. The v o w e l character
and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n a r e r e a l i s e d i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f words as
e , b u t i n some words a s e ; the vowel c h a r a c t e r and t h e corres-
ponding s i g n are r e a l i s e d i n t h e m a j o r i t y of words a s o , but in
1, hrosv, 'short' ; d i i r g h , 'long'.

some words a s o . The r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a s e and o
i s d e s c r i b e d by G u j a r a t i grammarians a s Ceêjrt ( v i v r t , 'open'). Some
p a i r s of w o r d s , w r i t t e n i n t h e same w a y , a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n meaning
only by t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e v o w e l «y^X a s 0
or a s o . Some words
in frequent use i n which t h e s e v o w e l s are r e a l i s e d as 'open' vowels
are g i v e n b e l o w ; a f u l l e r list o f s u c h words i s g i v e n i n t h e G u j a r a t i

1
dictionary ' Narmakosh' , and i n t h e d i c t i o n a r y ' J o d n i k o s h ' 2 words i n
which t h e ' o p e n ' v o w e l s o c c u r a r e s p e c i a l l y noted.
Words i n which , or t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n , i s r e a l i s e d as e :
^LH ^61 s\- *£s ~h?> ISH " M l i& &LC£L £>-t
^ ?IH \%i u \ v 3
^ û-
^ ^ 6 - "l6S <Û- <^-t o&*t ^Htt ^ \ &
§t- £U>1 <£i\ ^MlSL d^C-lL *&c±t
Words i n which tyX. > o r
the corresponding sign, i s r e a l i s e d as o :
*%>Ut *HXV16 =*tXy>H îu^- SlMfct Anc-tl^ £lual

al6 SL^L siaîX slCa^X >tvi
ril €lvs- ileo *4l(± ^Xî- -tXs^ -iX^X
HIH U&ytl Ml^tl 6
Hi MXdluti HU&U'l MX^
£l§. d ^ U sils ^Cl ^Ci^ 4-
When c h a r a c t e r s w i t h t h e s e v o w e l s a r e w r i t t e n w i t h t h e mark of
n a s a l i s a t i o n known a s t h e a n u s v a r ^ , they are r e a l i s e d as 'open' vowels.
1. n4sl$.l , narmako;, pub. 1 8 7 3 . 2. WUrCl *&vS»$tUstfU

s a r t h a g u j o r a t i i jodjanii k o / , p u b . l 9 U 9 . The ' o p e n ' r e a l i s a t i o n o f
t h e s e vowel c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s i s i n d i c a t e d i n t h i s d i c t i o n a r y by
i n v e r t i n g t h e matra. 3 . The word s w r i t t e n w i t h a hyphen a r e
verbal b a s e s . L. I n t h i s and l a t e r words i n which t h e r e a r e two
okar c h a r a c t e r s , i t i s t h e f i r s t w h i c h i s r e a l i s e d w i t h o .
5. S i m i l a r l y a l l words i n w h i c h t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e i s a£l , ' f o u r ' .
6. S i m i l a r l y o t h e r words i n w h i c h t h e f i r s t s y l l a b l e i s "Hist > ' l e s s a -
quarter'. 7 . See b e l o w , u n d e r 3 . M o d i f i e r s , i . o n u s v a r .
Some words w h i c h a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d i n meaning o n l y by t h e realis
of as 0 or a s 0 :
go\,
1
round' gol, 'treacle'
khol , ' e n q u i r y ' khol, 'oil-cake'
copop i i , 'smeared' coporii, 'book'

kon,, ' a n g l e ' kon^, 'who'
colli , 'bodice' colii, (name of a v e g e t a b l e )
sol, 'sixteen' sol, 'weal', 'stripe'
R e a l i s a t i o n o f okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n words w i t h vowe l
c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s in c e r t a i n positions,
a. When a m e d i a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , in a three character
w o r d , i s f o l l o w e d by a f i n a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h a vowel s i g n , it is
usually r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel, or w i t h an o - g l i d e , and t h e
s e m i - v o w e l s r e p r e s e n t e d by and form d i p h t h o n g s w i t h the
vowel of t h e p r e c e d i n g s y l l a b l e , as in
^d<ai v&<+CL Hîil £>c&

e^'lo cor'bii men/ko phay'do chev'"(;e
The r e a l i s a t i o n o f m e d i a l okar c h a r a c t e r s i n words of more than
t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s v a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s i t i o n i n e a c h word
of t h e c h a r a c t e r s w i t h vowe l s i g n s . I n compound w o r d s , the
r e a l i s a t i o n d e p e n d s upon t h e form of the words j o i n e d i n t h e

compound. The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l i s a t i o n of
okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s in such words.
Second c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an o-glide:
$lct&<l "&daiS ^6HL-t Yl-LctR,

Jet'korii keflak nuk'san jan'vor
Other c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h an o - g l i d e :
dL"t6rCl<d 6U6<dl£9 UM-MPCl

dukan'dar tabod^'tob kopa );'ba j i i
-
par'van'gii
b. When a s u f f i x b e g i n n i n g w i t h a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s added t o a
noun or pronoun, or t o a v e r b a l b a s e , e n d i n g i n an okar c o n s o n a n t
character, this f i n a l character i s r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel, or
w i t h an o - g l i d e , as i n t h e s e examples:
HtR-Cl dÂ £^dX "iiadi <au>ul

gam-no tom-ne kor-to bol-va lag-Je
When s u c h s u f f i x e s a r e added t o v e r b a l b a s e s of t h r e e or more
c h a r a c t e r s , o f which t h e f i n a l and p r e - f i n a l consonant characters
are o k a r , t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e p r e - f i n a l character varies in
the way i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g examples:

^&HY UHYdt UHVlddl
somoj sem'jii somoj-va som'jav-va
therok thor'ke thorok-to thor'kav-vo
Reading examples" " 1
1. okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e a.
£lS5l *HH$l <d6€l d6Ul Hln^tl

HlU<tfl YHjd UlHfc^ 6l6*ll<<± ^Y^lctl SU^d^lA
2. okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e b .
dd* &d*=Cl U66 US6dl

HUCIA HU^CI HiaeCl Hl&a<=&
R e a l i s a t i o n of m e d i a l and f i n a l ^ and £
The c h a r a c t e r \$ i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d m e d i a l l y or f i n a l l y as a
flapped consonant, p o , e x c e p t when p r e c e d e d by a c h a r a c t e r

1
written
p
w i t h t h e o n u s v ar . I n some w o r d s , h o w e v e r , i t i s always r e a l i s e d as
a s t o p , q© . The c h a r a c t e r i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d a s a s t o p , c|h© ,
and s o m e t i m es a s a f l a p p e d c o n s o n a n t . In some words t h e realisation
as a s t o p i s c o n s t a n t . The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s a r e some o f t h e words in
frequent use in which £ and d are always r e a l i s e d as s t o p s ^ : .

5 d i 3 l Si- £u Hiil ntst m£l rCU ^5-&us
eu.V*tl =HL<SL *Hl4l<*t £ 1 6 - £ 1 6 &L& <*$L *=tL6-
These c h a r a c t e r s a r e a l w a y s r e a l i s e d as s t o p s a f t e r nasalisation.
I n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a i r s o f words t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of vS as c|© or
as r© i s n e c e s s a r y f o r d i s t i n c t i o n of m e a n i n g :
padjD, 'male b u f f a l o ' paro, 'neighbourhood'
Ybj jad/u^ ", ' t h i c k '

4
jaru^, 'jaw'
CUSL vodjD, 'cancelled' voô, 'elderly'
Orthography o f t h e 'short' and ' l o n g ' vowels.
The f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l r u l e s a r e u s u a l l y applied in writing the
vowel c h a r a c t e r s ^ , $ and (3 , (§L > and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g vowel
signs, though p r a c t i c e v a r i e s , and numerous e x c e p t i o n s occur,
a. ^ , and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n , a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n i n final
characters, or i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a f i n a l ©kar c o n s o n a n t
1. See n o t e i n l . i . a b o v e . 2 . See b e l o w , under 3 « i . ©nusvar.

3. See N o t e s on G u j a r a t i P h o n o l o g y , T . N . D a v e , B u l l e t i n of t h e S c h o o l
of O r i e n t a l S t u d i e s , V o l . V I . p . 6 7 3 f f .
h. For t h e mark of n a s a l i s a t i o n on t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i s w o r d ,
s e e b e l o w , under 3 . i . © n u s v a r . 5 . P u l l e r n o t e s on G u j a r a t i o r t h o -
graphy a r e g i v e n i n ' J o d n i k o s h ' , I n t r o d u c t i o n , p . 3 0 f f .
character, unless this i s a conjunct character ; 1

e.g.
laii korii panii t n i

ik ciij geriib
ff) , and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n , are u s u a l l y w r i t t e n in all
other p o s i t i o n s ; 2
e.g.
CrLHd PtatSl &GX*UA ed&U.ui
divos tikhe-J; biladîi hojiyar ghodîyaT,

Some e x c e p t i o n s :
biijo hokiikot liidhe kiidho Jiikhiine

h. (§t » and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n , a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n i n a
medial p o s i t i o n when i m m e d i a t e l y p r e c e d i n g a f i n a l akar c o n s o n a n t
character, unless this i s a conjunct character; e.g.
uu^h duudh hhuukh phuul mejuur

(3 » and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n , a r e u s u a l l y w r i t t e n i n o t h e r
p o s i t i o n s , though many words o c c u r i n . G u j a r a t i t e x t s w r i t t e n w i t h
2
e i t h e r the ' s h o r t ' or t h e 'long' vowel ; e.g.
unaô dukan suthar varu al/su
Some e x c e p t i o n s : ^Ll SJjH-

uucok uupar uubho kuuvo suujh-
The S a n s k r i t o r t h o g r a p h y i s u s u a l l y p r e s e r v e d i n S a n s k r i t loan-
words; e . g . QiXl LjÛ ^(>l *>t<f
hit bhiiti purus bhuumi bohu
1 . See b e l o w , Chapter 3»
2 . For t h i s vowel w r i t t e n with, t h e o n u s v a r , s e e b e l o w , under 3.i.
3. Modifiers.
The m o d i f i e r s > ^H^^Ll^. (onusvar) and (^î^C ( v i s o r g ) , used in

the Devanagari s c r i p t , are both used in w r i t i n g Gujarati. 1
i. onusvar.
The o n u s v a r i s a mark r e p r e s e n t i n g n a s a l i s a t i o n , and i s written
in Gujarati i n t h e form o f a d o t above a c h a r a c t e r , thus:
oil) am irrj urrj err) orrj karg kiirj kurrj kern korrj
The o n u s v a r i s p l a c e d a t t h e r i g h t s i d e of any superscribed
s t r o k e , and i t i s w r i t t e n on t h e c h a r a c t e r a f t e r e v e r y o t h e r stroke,
2
as i n the Devanagari script.
R e a l i s a t i o n of the anusvar.
a. The a n u s v ar i s r e a l i s e d i n some words a s t h e n a s a l i s a t i o n of the
vowel of t h e c h a r a c t e r w i t h w h i c h i t is written. This realisation
o c c u r s u s u a l l y when t h e o n u s v ar i s w r i t t e n w i t h any of t h e vowels
to , except i n some S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s . The o n u s v a r
r e a l i s e d i n t h i s way o c c u r s i n many g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s . Examples:
h$ HI #6 ^ SlH *t U&X Midi

koii ma 11\ tu uuc me" pohoc povva
Grammatical f o r m s :
nuiA %q HU? Vl(3 *Hld^

chokorS bodhae kelu maru ja u av-vu,
The ' l o n g ' v o w e l s fcj and (§1 are u s u a l l y w r i t t e n i n characters
w i t h t h e o n u s v a r when i t r e p r e s e n t s n a s a l i s a t i o n of a v o w e l ,
1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . and i i .
2 . i b i d . , n o t e on c a l l i g r a p h y of t h e o n u s v a r .
e x c e p t i n g r a m m a t i c a l forms d e s c r i b e d a s ' n e u t e r s i n g u l a r ' , w h i c h
are always w r i t t e n w i t h t h e ' s h o r t ' vowel; e . g .
e(M ettct StvSt HIS? <#>i §t§

viichii bhiit uucjo maru liibu uuc|u
Some words a r e w r i t t e n w i t h e i t h e r 'short' or ' l o n g ' vowels.
The vowel c h a r a c t e r s , and t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g signs,

are r e a l i s e d w i t h t h e o n u s v a r a s £ and 0 ; e.g.
khec-vu bh£s sop-vu pehoc-vu

b. The onusvar w r i t t e n on a c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g one of t h e v o r g i i y
c h a r a c t e r s may be r e a l i s e d a s t h e n a s a l c o n s o n a n t of t h e same
c l a s s as the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r , or as n b e f o re a character of
the c o - v o r g . Thi s r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e ©nusvar o c c u r s m a i n l y i n
reading Sanskrit loanwords. When t h e ©nusvar i s r e a l i s e d a s a
n a s a l c o n s o n a nt b e f o r e a f i n a l ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , t h e
f i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h an © - g l i d e . 1
Examples:
k©nj;h Janti jsntu ssmbha"! s©mb©ndh
As i n S a n s k r i t , t h e r e i s an a l t e r n a t i v e method of representing
nasal consonants in t h i s c o n t e x t . T h i s method i s d e s c r i b e d later.
The ' s h o r t ' forms o f t h e v o w e l s $ and are u s u a l l y w r i t t e n
w i t h t h e ©nusvar r e p r e s e n t i n g a n a s a l c o n s o n a n t ; e . g .
ling cinta sundor kumbhar
1 . See a b o v e , l . b . R e a l i s a t i o n o f ©kar c o n s o n a n t characters.

2 . See b e l o w , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 2 . i i .
c. When the o n u s v a r i s w r i t t e n on a c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g an o n t o s t h
or an uusm c h a r a c t e r , a s i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s and l e a r n e d words
used in the l i t e r a r y language , it i s r e a l i s e d in various ways,
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p o s i t i o n of a r t i c u l a t i o n of t h e f o l l o w i n g conson-
ant. The r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e o n u s v a r i n t h e s e c o n t e x t s hy speakers
in v a r i o u s p a r t s of I n d i a i s d e s c r i b e d i n the S a n s k r i t section . 1
The u s u a l G u j a r a t i p r a c t i c e i s i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e s e examples:
©nusvar b e f o r e , r e a l i s e d as y , as in î^l, > soyyog
©nusvar b e f o r e (j^ , r e a l i s e d as 1 , as i n *^C^l l 5

> Polling
©nusvar b e f o r e a l l o t h e r © n t s s t h and uusm c h a r a c t e r s , realised
as v ; e.g. sfcttygl <=tA<=lA *HXi ^G^Ll

sevrskssi] 2
varsvvar ©vj ©hivsa sivh
Reading examples-^
1. onusvar r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e a.
*] § 5$ (HtH \ b %l ULY (§LH *£bl

°tiH DMJM. clt'lV HL§ H&X HtJSt <=Ct<>i
2 . ©nusvar r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e s b . and c .
*>U-l& Vci <m<± M.6 ZHPil
ii. visorg
This m o d i f i e r , d e s c r i b e d i n the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n * , d o e s n o t
4-
occur
in Gujarati words, but i t o c c u r s m e d i a l l y i n a few S a n s k r i t loanwords
and i s r e a l i s e d a s t h e d o u b l i n g of t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t , a s in
%g*H.» dukkh ( a l s o w r i t t e n ^"l^ , dukh) and «^H,rti^ft^l > ©ntskksr©^.
1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . e .
2 . $1 r e p r e s e n t s k - j o i n e d w i t h -s© . See C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s U. i . b .
3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 6 9 . U. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 » i i .
The t r a d i t i o n a l order of the characters i n the s y l l a b i c series
i s shown i n t h e f o l l o w i n g table^-:
=^1
n H
H V
d 6 d
H (H H
H <
•4. u 6
The vowel c h a r a c t e r -sfe i s n o t u s u a l l y included in the table.
The t a b l e i n which t h e v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s (except ) , and t h e
m o d i f i e r s added t o t h e c h a r a c t e r , a r e p l a c e d a t t h e head of a
s e r i e s of columns c o n s i s t i n g o f e v e r y c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i n t h e ©kar
form, w i t h each of t h e v o w e l s i g n s and e a c h o f t h e m o d i f i e r s , is
c a l l e d in Gujarati the ^L^.l'îvSl > b a r a k h o d i i , the 'twelve characters'.
This t a b l e i s o f t e n r e c i t e d i n s c h o o l s by c h i l d r e n l e a r n i n g t o r e a d .
1. Cf. Devanagari t a b l e i n S a n s k r i t ,Ch . 2 , U.

These two t a b l e s show t h e o r d e r i n w h i c h c h a r a c t e r s a r e p l a c e d
a s i n i t i a l c h a r a c t e r s o f words i n d i c t i o n a r i e s , w h i c h i s t h e same a s
the order i n S a n s k r i t , e x c e p t t h a t words b e g i n n i n g w i t h characters
w i t h t h e o n u s v a r a r e p l a c e d a f t e r words b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h e same
character withou t the onusvar, as i l l u s t r a t e d below:
Sanskrit: a ai arrjy© arrjje arrjho ako akho ...
Gujarati: a ai ak© akh© . . . as© ah© arrjk© airjkh© ...
5. Numerals.
The G u j a r a t i n u m e r a l s a r e w r i t t e n t h u s :
A ^ 3 Y H \ V3 £ Hp
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
6. Punctuation.
In p r o s e w r i t i n g , t h e same s y s t e m of p u n c t u a t i o n i s u s e d as in
English prose. The s y s t e m u s e d i n G u j a r a t i v e r s e i s t h e same as t h e
Sanskrit system.^
1. See Sanskrit,Ch.2,6.
C H A P T E R 3
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Consonant c h a r a c t e r s may b e combined, t o r e p r e s e n t two or more
c o n s o n a n t s which a r e t o be r e a l i s e d w i t h o u t an i n t e r v e n i n g vowel.
Character s formed by j o i n i n g o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s are c a l l e d •tL^BciL^R.
(soyyuktaksor) by G u j a r a t i g r a m m a r i a n s or *$tv5L^L^ ( j o q a k s e r ) in
t h e t e a c h i n g of w r i t i n g i n s c h o o l s . The c o n s t r u c t i o n and calligraphy
of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s in the Devanagari s c r i p t i s described in the
Sanskrit s e c t i o n . 1
Gujarati conjunct c h a r a c t e r s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d by
s i m i l a r methods, w i t h t h e s e modifications'
i. Some c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e f o r m e d by w r i t i n g two characters
together, without the usual s e p a r a t i n g space, as in , kko.
i i . When c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e f o r m e d by o m i t t i n g t h e upright
s t r o k e of t h e f i r s t character^, t h e r e m a i n i n g p a r t of t h e first
c h a r a c t e r i s o f t e n w r i t t e n on a l o w e r l e v e l than the f i r s t part
of the s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r , as in , gg© , Q U O ^ , bbo.
1. C o n t e x t s of C o n j u n c t C h a r a c t e r s in Gujarati.
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s occur i n Gujarati in the f o l l o w i n g contexts
i. In G u j a r a t i w o r d s , t h a t i s , w o r d s n o t borrowed from S a n s k r i t or
from modern l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
vSl^ H^l &£l

qahyu bsccu n©kkii ci-|;t n i i
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,1. 2. ibid., Ch.3,1.ii.

ii. In S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , e i t h e r words u s e d commonly i n Gujarati,
or l e a r n e d words u s e d o n l y i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e ; e.g.
pustok petr iijvor
iii. I n l o a n w o r d s from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
rosto gard^ sê/on
2 . R e a l i s a t i o n of C o n j u n c t C h a r a c t e r s i n Gujarati.
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s are r e a l i s e d i n r e a d i n g as s y l l a b l e s consist-
i n g o f two or more c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d by a • v o w e l . When an okar c o n -
j u n c t c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s a s t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of a w o r d , it is usual-
l y r e a l i s e d w i t h an o - g l i d e , as in , jenm' , %tX|J^^ , Jastr'. 1
The r e a l i s a t i o n i n modern G u j a r a t i of okar c o n s o n a n t characters
with zero-vowel in certain positions i n words g i v e s r i s e t o a problem
of s p e l l i n g . For i n s t a n c e , when a f o r m a t i v e p a r t i c l e b e g i n n i n g w i t h
a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s added t o a v e r b a l b a s e e n d i n g i n a final
okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a s e i s realised
with zero^vowel. T h i s r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e c o n s e c u t i v e c h a r a c t e r s is
s i m i l a r to the r e a l i s a t i o n of a conjunct c h a r a c t e r . Similar problems
a r i s e i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s , where an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s realis-
ed w i t h z e r o - v o w e l b e f o r e a f o l l o w i n g c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , and i n
compound words i n w h i c h t h e f i r s t p a r t ends i n an okar consonant
c h a r a c t e r and t h e s e c o n d p a r t b e g i n s w i t h a c o n s o n a n t character.
Examples of s u c h words a r e g i v e n below w i t h t h e v a r i o u s c l a s s e s of
conjunct characters.
1 . See a b o v e , C h . 2 , l . a . and b . This g l i d e i s not r e p r e s e n t e d i n the

t r a n s c r i p t i o n of words t o w h i c h t h i s r u l e a p p l i e s .
3 . C l a s s e s of Conjunc t C h a r a c t e r s in Gujarati.
• The c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s u s e d i n w r i t i n g G u j a r a t i a r e classified
i n t h i s c h a p t e r i n t h e same way a s t h e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n in
the S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n .
1
C o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of a l l t h e c l a s s e s occur
i n G u j a r a t i , hut i n some of t h e c l a s s e s o n l y a few of t h e characters
are u s e d . Those which a r e u s e d i n w r i t i n g G u j a r a t i a r e shown by t h e
examples g i v e n i n e a c h c l a s s , w h i c h i n c l u d e some S a n s k r i t loanwords in
f r e q u e n t u s e . Some of t h e r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t sect-
ion occur i n l i t e r a r y t e x t s a s l e a r n e d l o a n w o r d s , and t h e s e may be
transcribed without d i f f i c u l t y in Gujarati characters.
Class 1 . Two s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r s joined.^
Most of the c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e G u j a r a t i s y l l a b a r y o c c u r i n this
c l a s s , as 'doubled' c h a r a c t e r s . The c h a r a c t e r f o r -rre is written
as , the superscribed s t r o k e r e p r e s e n t i n g r- preceding another
consonant-3,
A c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t i n g an a s p i r a t e d c o n s o n a n t i s n o t usually
w r i t t e n as t h e f i r s t p a r t of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r i n t h i s c l a s s ; but
in Gujarati w r i t i n g the c h a r a c t e r s , khkho , ^ , "(; t n n 9

» a n <
^
^Jd^ , dhdho are o f t e n u s e d . The c o m b i n a t i o n s -nno and -mmo are
r e p r e s e n t e d i n some words b y w r i t i n g t h e ©nusvar o v e r t h e character
preceding or ^ ; e.g.
sommoti s©nnidhi but ©nn
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l es i l l u s t r a t e G u j a r a t i words i n which two
consecutive consonant c h a r a c t e r s , t h e f i r s t b e i n g ©kar, are realised
1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . 2 . Cf. Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.Class 1 .

3 . See b e l o w , C l a s s 3 . i i i - a .
i6o G U J A R A T I S E C T I O N
i n o r d i n a r y s p e e c h i n t h e same way a s c o n j u n c t characters:
^WllvSl niHHl OUA^ <Hkddl

H P % ?
ag-gaqîi gam-ma bhav-vu-' behen-no
R e a d i n g examples^-
'i/sSi ^tb>iX a ^ j > d A eSWi ê>l u ^ v s
@ £ c £ l ygt CH£L P*£L. H>S&L ftbrut w ^Q* 5
^ H-*£ C^Hd (fedl

Class 2. Two v o r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s joined.
The c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s c l a s s o c c u r f o r t h e most p a r t i n Sanskrit
and o t h e r l o a n w o r d s . Those w h i c h a r e most f r e q u e n t l y u s e d i n w r i t i n g
G u j a r a t i a r e g i v e n "below, i n t h e same g r o u p s a s t h e c h a r a c t e r s given
in the Sanskrit section^.

u
6rl M cH
-kto -tko -pt© -tp© -bd©
ii. Most of t h e c h a r a c t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h o s e o f t h i s group in
t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n , under i i . a . , a r e w r i t t e n i n l i t e r a r y Guja-
rati, r e p r e s e n t i n g homorganic n a s a l c o n s o n a n t s . T h i s method of
representing nasal consonants preceding v o r g i i y characters is
g e n e r a l l y u s e d o n l y i n w r i t i n g S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s . An a l t e r n a t i v e
method, r e p r e s e n t i n g n a s a l c o n s o n a n t s of e a c h c l a s s by w r i t i n g
t h e ©nusvar on t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a r a c t e r , h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e ^ .
Of t h e c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n under i i . b . , only
, jn© and <?!,, - i n © occur i n G u j a r a t i . The c h a r a c t e r ^
i s not c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r and i s often

1. Compound word. 2 . Noun w i t h s u f f i x . 3 . Verba l form.
i+. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . l 6 9 . 5. The s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r i n t h e s e words
is formed from t h e D e v a n a g a r i c h a r a c t e r f o r d© ; C f . S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 1 . i . .
6. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 2 . 7. See a b o v e , C h . 2 , 3 . i . b .
included i n the s y l l a b a r y . In Gujarati d i c t i o n a r i e s words b e g i n -
i n g w i t h 5[L a re p l a c e d a f t e r w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h . «^jL i s
o f t e n r e a l i s e d as gye .
iii. Some of t h e c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s group occur in S a n s k r i t loanwords:
-kmo -gno -ghn© -tmo -dm© -pn©
iv. Of t h i s g r o u p , o n l y , -nm© , o c c u r s i n G u j a r a t i , though
v^pi-L , -rjm? and l ^ H , , -nm© may o c c u r i n l e a r n e d l o a n w o r d s in
a literary text.
The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s illustrate the r e a l i s a t i o n of consecutive
consonant c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t is ©kar, i n t h e same way a s c o n -
junct c h a r a c t e r s : UCfel SlScCl ^Vt Ûdl

Jskti Jsk-tii 1
gupt ap-to 1
Reading examples^
(Ml&t ctcSia UHc8lR. ^ V t ctrM*. 31c^> A&L
Class 3 . Characters joined w i t h ©nt©sth characters,
i. Characters j o i n e d w i t h f o l l o w i n g M. .
All the characters of t h e G u j a r a t i syllabary, except ^S* and

V
>L occur in t h i s c l a s s . Many o f t h e characters occur in verbal forms
i n which the s u f f i x ^(X > n d other forms

a
of t h i s s u f f i x , a r e added t o
t h e v e r b a l b a s e by j o i n i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r of the s u f f i x with the final
c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a s e .
1 . Verbal form. 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see p.169.

3 . See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3.Class 3 « i .
M
i6z G U J A R A T I S E C T I O N
Q&AL vîej dJ.Wl aiî *£fo£i

^fe ^dHL §16^ HvSHl 6ltf£l
^>cMl cHL *IL*J GfclL H**l HlrMl
%^ ^ 6mJ °iLeMl
OU<>*4 ^cu*4. xClW£ H-i^l 8 ^ Hm^ Cl6i/rft 5H<S^l
ii. Characters joined with f o l l o w i n g .2
Only a few o f t h e G u j a r a t i c h a r a c t e r s a r e combined w i t h , and

these occur only i n S a n s k r i t loanwords. The r e a l i s a t i o n o f a f i n a l
okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i n some compound words formed w i t h t h e words
^LUill 9 v a l a and cJJA , v a r , i l l u s t r a t e t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f c o n s e c -
u t i v e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t i s o k a r , i n t h e same way a s
conjunct c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s ; e . g .
U&=Ll-*L ^6cllCs*i * & H < m ° J^Ll

pokvann o^h'vadîyu cjak'vala s o m ' v ar budh'var
Reading examples-^
iii. Characters joined with preceding or f o l l o w i n g

v
a. preceding another character.5
These c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e formed by p l a c i n g a s t r o k e known^
a s » r e p h , above t h e c h a r a c t e r b e f o r e w h i c h i s t o be r e a l i s -
ed a s t h e f i r s t o f two o r more c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n t s . The p l a c e of
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . l 6 9 . 2. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3j.3-CI.3. i i .

3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . l 6 9 . U. For t h e c h a r a c t e r * C , f © ,
see Sanskrit, C h . 2 , 1 . i i i . 5. S e e S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . i i i *
t h i s s t r o k e on G u j a r a t i c h a r a c t e r s , w h e t h e r a k a r or w r i t t e n w i t h vowe l
s i g n s , corresponds with the p l a c e of t h e s t r o k e on t h e Devanagari
characters, and t h e o r d e r o f w r i t i n g the s t r o k e s of c h a r a c t e r s with
reph i s t h e same a s t h e o r d e r d e s c r i b e d i n the Sanskrit section . 1
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s w h i c h o c c u r i n Gujarat i are illustrated
i n t h e r e a d i n g example s g i v e n below.
The f o l l o w i n g words i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l i s a t i o n of consecutive
consonant c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t is okar, i n t h e same way a s con-
junct c h a r a c t e r s w r i t t e n w i t h r e p h a r e realised:
6dl 6*.dl ^LH d§t P&l^Ct

korta kor-ta^ dharm ghar-m§3 varn. nisar'nii
Reading examples**"
dS <H?t *dOfd H*£tl oUit-t \ d <=td-t *H&
b. ^ f o l l o w i n g another character.
These c h a r a c t e r s a r e f o r m e d b y w r i t i n g a s h o r t , d i a g o n a l stroke
either a g a i n s t the u p r i g h t s t r o k e of a c h a r a c t e r , or b e l o w a rounded
c h a r a c t e r . 5 Two c h a r a c t e r s similar t o t h e Devanagari c h a r a c t e r s are
used i n forming t h e s e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s : ^ for do , and > i . for
Jo .6 The examples g i v e n b e l o w i l l u s t r a t e the characters of t h i s class
which o c c u r i n G u j a r a t i , m o s t l y i n S a n s k r i t and E n g l i s h loanwords.
#i Sid V U S d *U£t Jty

V)i W&l *H1?A& d*l URl§L
1. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 - C I . 3 . i i i . a. C a l l i g r a p h y . 2 , Verbal form.

3. Noun w i t h s u f f i x . L. F o r t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 6 9 .
5. Cf.Sanskrit,Ch.3,3.CI.3.iii.b. 6. i b i d . , C h . 2 , 1 . i . and i i i .
i v . Characters with preceding or f o l l o w i n g ^ .1

The c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s c l a s s w h i c h a r e u s e d i n w r i t i n g Gujarati
are i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e r e a d i n g examples g i v e n below.
a. preceding.
Characters with preceding Q are not u s u a l l y w r i t t e n in Gujarati
e x c e p t i n a few S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s . Some words a r e w r i t t e n e i t h e r w i t h
a conjunct c h a r a c t e r or w i t h s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r s , such as ,
bolke , or <H<&£>-t>al'ke.
In r e p r e s e n t i n g c o l l o q u i a l s p e e c h forms i n modern G u j a r a t i , the
character i s s o m e t i m e s w r i t t e n f o r (^J^ , a s in
for , loher , and o t h e r s i m i l a r w o r d s .
b. following.
C h a r a c t e r s combined w i t h f o l l o w i n g Q occur mainly i n S a n s k r i t
and E n g l i s h l o a n w o r d s .
The f o l l o w i n g w o r d s i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l i s a t i o n of consecutive
c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t i s o k a r , i n t h e same way a s c o n -
j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s class:
bil'kul voT/gonii bod'lii am'lii
ftt©i*t ae-L-ii ate& *<=ieu Kie-i

Meîs £&AI vsaiu êuu
1 . Cf. S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l . 3 . i v . a . and b .
2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 6 9 .
C l a s s U' v o r g i i y c h a r a c t e r s j o i n e d w i t h p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g uusm
characters.
i. vorgiiy characters joined with > o r

*H. ^
a. $X > H o r
preceding a vorgiiy character.
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s w h i c h o c c u r i n G u j a r a t i , m o s t l y in
S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w . The
f o r m a t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r s is similar t o the f o r m a t i o n of the Deva-
n a g a r i c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s , u s i n g t h e form ^ for 3 . 1 , and
u s i n g t h e form " C ^ 3 f o r 5^ when c o m b i n e d w i t h ^ •
b. ^ or ^ following a vorgiiy character.
Only a few of t h e G u j a r a t i characters occur i n t h i s c l a s s . Those
which occur a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n the examples below. The c h a r a c t e r
> kso , i s not c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a c o n j u n c t c n a r a c t e r and i s often
i n c l u d e d i n t h e G u j a r a t i vornomala.^- Words b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h i s a r e
placed i n Gujarati d i c t i o n a r i e s a f t e r words b e g i n n i n g w i t h .
The f o l l o w i n g words i l l u s t r a t e the realisation of consecutive
consonant c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t is akar , i n t h e same way a s
conjunct c h a r a c t e r s : • '
HlUdX '£lftwl_ fedUHl
nuk'san n a s - t o 5 bh£s-no6 dives-ma?
The c h a r a c t e r is written i n some words for^RQS t o represent
the p r o n u n c i a t i o n i n modern G u j a r a t i o f s u c h words a s (d» S 9 n e l
a n d ^ Y , sahej (^Y).
1 . Cf. S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s k . i . a . and b . 2. i b i d . , C h . 2 , 1 . i i i .
3. i b i d . , C h . 2 , l . i . ca-vargah, U. G f . n o t e on $t » under C 1 . 2 . i i . b .
5.. Verbal form. 6. Noun w i t h s u f f i x . 7 . Noun w i t h p a r t i c l e .
i66 G U J A R A T I S E C T I O N
Reading examples^
y^<a £ W l 3I£ <t*d, R.*rtl *U3*l **Cl

W l SkCd GttfcSUl Wfc§d ^ H ^ L ^L^rd
fe-H^L (^Hil g^t
ii. preceding-or f o l l o w i n g onunasik ( ' n a s a l ' ) characters . 2
a. preceding.
Two c h a r a c t e r s occur with preceding (6 , i n the Sanskrit l o a n -
s
words Cty£§U£l »brahmon, , and p j . ^ , c ihn
b. following.
The characters which occur with f o l l o w i n g are i l l u s t r a t e d i n
tbe examples given below. The c h a r a c t e r s and V(£ are sometimes
w r i t t e n t o represent t h e tendency t o a s p i r a t i o n i n some words i n
c o l l o q u i a l speech.
Reading examples 3
-<*l% U L ^ [*U&] d ^ [tih]
Gujarati prose passaged
5*1 ° t*i *dt«WU£ & rld^ *Y, îRdL cldl #ld£l,
<£tR r l d l M £ l «VLv^d ^ Y d R l - H ^ d r l Gdl^ld UeT ° y l R , ^ l
cl^lDl ^ I d ^ U s ^ L L ^ =dil^ C d l R l - f l °vlvS^Cl <d^£l €A
U&4%A & ctl i ^ d l M V dfe; "ideOA <dl<tdRt
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 6 9 . 2. C f . S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s U. i i .
3. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 1 7 0 . k» Sarpha Jodnikosh, by Maganlal
Prabhudas Desai, Uth e d . 19U9, p . 1 6 , pub. Navajivan Prakashan
Mandir, Ahmedabad.
*k (k^vSl ctU^-Cl €>. rL VCVIHL W t d d d R l rlLC^lH-

<H*Adl SidlA fcQA cHL 9lvS^dHL * d U Y 5 d l \<=Udl R l 4 l
H^l. *d5to (RlRlAl YtvS^d ^HdHL-H *4J& %ii &, AMI

Vto^QAl ÎLîclHL <dA fctftUH ^ ( A e>. ^
<=LR 5HUV£rLLHl4l °Rd**U @<Hvl HfcF R e T aAdik Ufc/l
ÛAL-il Vldl& Hl-H (Aêildl HUieiHl V d&l
e>. «=i>id Y d ! (A££HIH! ^HH^ °*td-d 9ui>d Y <=txk

3d *UR e> (A&fcHt ^HAHl-M- d £tR d l M ^ l
d M ^ & l A =*l(dlA ^LaU^bd H f c f Y L H £> * d A "ORI HO d .

G U J A R A T I S E C T I O N
T r a n s c r i p t i o n o f R e a d i n g Examples
Chapter 2.
1.1. no ch© jo dho
ghon p©g nakh cec[ me^h k©kh hh.Qi{ ch©-|;h cjheg

jho-j; gho<^ dhon tok thed^ dom ben ph©1; jed^ pen_
b©d©n p©k©4 jhecjep m©d©d c©m©n phs^sk teged^ gomen
jomer^ beged^ nogod dhemek depe^ tenekh bhejen peahen
dhod^'por^ bho-Ji'kon cek'mek Dhe-fpo ]; -

bed^'che !; -
gej'ken
l.ii. roth per lekh ghor khol bor rej rev leg vey
yov loy char jhol ver red^ kol cay bher joy
lecek cheler veredh jheror^ bherec[ vekhet reten ;tereph
reved^ vered leger; yeven corek pelokh peven bhereri
kel'ter leg'bheg poster led^'ken^ tor'tej deph'ter
1. i i i . res Je"|;h sedh Jon, hes dej yoj ser Jet
lese^ helek seres herekh Jepeth semey heren^ phenes

s e m 1
j e n _ J e r ' b e t sar'ke-j; .kes'ret her'kot veket ser 1
p h e X d e l h&\. baâd dhevel kernel per'vel . hel'ke-j;
2.1. a e ao eo
is uun ek ap e<]h ri^ aj ev^h

uucek iya"t uu~J;h e
t h e v s e d h ogh ubheq iijf
mau leii d e i i geii jeiie deiie leiie
2.1i. ke sev che Da ghii te ca je bhuu dho jii
Jejh roj t duudh lok n

ruup
i i
ciij
k
drdh hit jay
god lav nehi behu mehe pechii aje uubho uge
apo rsi rtu seve teo bhaii chiie juo
boyrii golo varu peyso iriuke rajii pelo divo krpa vise
nijale ujanii ruupiyo tabedarii hojiyarii bhaioe
P.1U9. ek'tha ap'ne bek'rii nek'jo pog'lii al'su kos'bii

pay'Iii •jem'rukh pay'del ko^'val guj ratii f
koseb'cor
cheter c h e f re cheter-vii peked^ pek'cjo pekecj-vo

peser pes'riine pesor-vii mok'lii mokal-vii
TRANSCRIPTION 169
3.i. pa hu k§ii bhoy ph£:k kh£c sSj uugh slic bhes

badh jhakh tevaj madu. pehoc vlîi thau" llba
ii. anand jsntu vssant msr^ endor kenjus gmba somp
Chapter 3 »
Glass 1 .
nokkii lokk&d^ cokkho l a g g u v s c c e beccu i c c h a goccho S9jj9d_
ujjhotli chu-J;t© tt citt D
khsdô p i t t g T , p o t t h g r muddgl buddhi
h 9 i i h i i
oddho grins cgppu bebbe h i m m 9 t reyygt chello hSliii hisso

Class 2.
jukti bhgkti t 9 t k a l C 9 m 9 t k a r gupt t 9 t p a r Jebd ygtn
l 9 g nrukmirîi j 9 n m rgrjg sundgr pgnth argmbh pgrgntu
sembgndh jpan
Class 3 - i -
kyare / 9 k y o khyalu fiakhyo lagyu sughyu slicyo puchyo
jyare k h o j y u suujhyu chu^yo uuthyu p9d_yo kadjiyo bher|yo
jiityo tya athyu vidya / o d h y o medhye manyo nyay p y a r e
apyfl haphyo dgbyCf thobhy u gamyu s u u r y kgryo b o l y o avyu
bhavyu 9V9/y piir'syu monusy kshyu" rnelyu n i k g l y o 9drJ"y
Class 3 . i t .
settv prthvii serv ii/vsr vi/vas sv9bhav
svgpn dve/ dhvgni tottvsjjian
Class 3 » i i t »
a. t©rk muurkh vorg srjit g e r j s n a v e r n o n puurr^ v a r t s n 9 r t h
vidyarthii n i r d 9 yerdhu ©rpgr^ d h s n n d 9 r m i y § k h e r v puurve hors

b. krom r a t r cgndr sgmudr prem prarjii trsri triiju Jukrovar
from Jravar^ agreh© trabu irjgrejii n 9 m r prsmane bhramor
Class 3 - i v .
phalgun k 9 l p g n a kolha k 9 l h 9 i i sv^lp Jilp pralhad
Jlok klej* klas glas slet
Class U.i.
a. m e / k a r l i paj"cim ce/ma pejcattap a/cory dust P ?t s s
p u s k 9 \ duskorm r a s t r vostu rssto pustgk Jastr s t r i l stheT,

sthiti tiroskar sgrrjskrt smeror^ rast
b. p o r i i k s a r 9 k s 9 r ^ Qksar Igksmoi; krs:q 9 p s 9 r a insaph
Class U.ii.
nhavu samhe ( s a m e ) tamhe (tome)
Gujarati prose passage
jodônii J a s t r o p u u t h o y , b o h o T i i J i s t ruuq^hine e n u s e r o t i i hoy, e
bodhu jeflu a v o j y o k c h e tefrCL j , e'thova t e n a k a r ' t a y e , jevii hoy
t e v i i poi\ jocjanii behujonomany one n i j c i t thaii j a y , e vodhare avojyok
che. a j e ongre j i i b h a s a n i i joc|onii bodhii r i i t e J a s t r o j u d d h che em
to kehevayo j n e h i ; k e f l i i y e b a b o t - m a e cjhangadhacja. v a g a r - n i i che.
pan_ t e p r o j a - m a sanga-|;han t a t h a t a l i i m ' b a d h a t a hovane l i i d h e ty§
jocjonii-ma a r a j a k a t a p h e l a v a pami i n a t h i i . angrejii bhasanii jodânii
sarvamany t h a i i c u k i i c h e , tethii jodâniinil b a b e t - m a badhe ekMharu'
lakhan_ jadîi ave c h e . ek v a r a r a j a k a t a - m S t h i i vyavastha utpann thaii
gaii e f l e p a c h i i s u d h a r a k a r v a j h o y t o t e kam prama^-ma ghanu s a h e l u
thaii jay che.
sudharano p r a v a h a many v i k a l p o n i i moryada-mg j v a h i i Joke c h e .

vakhot j a t a v i k a l p o - m a amuk j a t - n i i jodânii j vadbare ruud^h t h a y che
ane b i i j a v i k a l p o avamahy na hoy topan_ v a p a r a j - n e abha've k a l a g r a s t
thaii j a y che ane k h a r i i pacje c h e .

BENGALI SECTION
PREPARED IN COLLABORATION WITH
MISS G. M. SUMMERS
formerly Lecturer in Bengali in the
School of Oriental and African Studies
University of London
1.
C H A P T E R !
The B e n g a l i s c r i p t , a s a w r i t i n g s y s t e m , i s "based on t h e same
s y l l a b i c system as the Devanagari s c r i p t . The c h a r a c t e r s of the
s y l l a b a r y are a r r a n g e d i n t h e same w a y , and t h o u gh t h e m a j o r i t y o f
t h e c h a r a c t e r s seem a t f i r s t s i g h t t o be very d i f f e r e n t i n l i n e and
form from t h o s e of t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t , some o f them a r e recognis-
a b l y of t h e same o r i g i n .
The same s y s t e m o f n o t a t i o n i s u s e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n f o r t h e tran-
s c r i p t i o n of t h e B e n g a l i s c r i p t a s t h a t u s e d i n t h e S a n s k r i t section,
and i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f t h e modern l a n g u a g e s w h i c h a r e written
w i t h t h e Devanagari s c r i p t . As i n t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t , each
c h a r a c t e r of t h e B e n g a l i s c r i p t r e p r e s e n t s a s y l l a b l e consisting
e i t h e r of a vowel or o f a c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d b y t h e f i r s t v o w el of the
vowel s e r i e s . This v o w e l , in Bengali as in Sanskrit, is usually refer-
red t o i n E n g l i s h t e x t b o o k s a s t h e 'inherent' vowel. In r e f e r r i n g to
a consonant c h a r a c t e r o f t h e B e n g a l i s y l l a b a r y , or i n r e c i t i n g the
s y l l a b a r y , the inherent vowel i s , however , t he vowel which i s usually
r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e p h o n e t i c symbol 'o'. In order to p r e s e r v e uniform-
i t y i n t h e s y s t e m a t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n t h r o u g h o u t t h i s work t h e symbol
T
e T
i s used in t h i s s e c t i o n to r e p r e s e n t t h e i n h e r e n t v o w e l , and a s
t h e r e are v a r i o u s o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e q u a l i t y of vowel sounds
used i n r e a l i s i n g t h e B e n g a l i c h a r a c t e r s , t h e s y s t e m a t i c transcription
174 - B E N G A L I S E C T I O N
i n t h i s s e c t i o n i s accompanied, both i n the examples g i v e n in the
t e x t and i n t h o s e g i v e n f o r p r a c t i c e i n r e a d i n g , by a p h o n e t i c tran-
scription. The p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n i s g i v e n i n b r a c k e t s t o dis-
t i n g u i s h i t from t h e s y s t e m a t i c roman t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
I n t h e roman s y l l a b a r y g i v e n b e l o w , t h e s y l l a b l e s a r e represented
in the table i n the systematic t r a n s c r i p t i o n used in the Sanskrit
syllabary. For t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f c e r t a i n a d d i t i o n a l characters
w h i c h do n o t o c c u r i n t h e S a n s k r i t s y l l a b a r y , and f o r t h e phonetic
transcription, the f o l l o w i n g symbols, not included in the All-India
Roman N o t a t i o n , a r e u s e d i n t h i s section:-
i. S y s t e m a t i c roman n o t a t i o n .
po and ph© , f o r t h e r e t r o f l e x f l a p p e d c o n s o n a n t s , r e p r e s e n t e d in
t h e s c r i p t b y m o d i f i e d forms of t h e c h a r a c t e r s corresponding
to 4© and cjh© . 1
y© , f o r t h e m o d i f i e d form of t h e c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o y© ,
2
and r e a l i s e d i n v a r i o u s w a y s , d e s c r i b e d i n Chapter 2.
nj , f o r t h e m o d i f i e r r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e ©nusvar.3
ii. Phonetic notation.
( o ) , f o r t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e i n h e r e n t vowel i n most contexts.
(as) , f o r t h e r e a l i s a t i o n , in certain contexts, of t h e v o w e l tran-
s c r i b e d i n roman n o t a t i o n a s a ; and f o r t h e r e a l i s a t i o n , in
special contexts, of the vowel t r a n s c r i b e d as e .
(")', s u p e r s c r i b e d t o vowel symbols, t o r e p r e s e n t nasalisation.
(*), to represent t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e i n h e r e n t v o w e l , medially,
a s an © - g l i d e , o r a s z e r o - v o w e l , "in c e r t a i n positions.
1 . See C h . 2 , l . i . 2. ibid., l.ii. ©nt©sth© y©. 3 . See Ch.2,3.ii.

ARRANGEMENT OF T H E SYLLABARY J
75
B e n g a l i S y l l a b a r y i n Roman N o t a t i o n
1 2 3 5
CONSONANTS w i t h o Velar Palatal Retro- Dental Labial
flex
Voiceless
Unaspirated ka ca t 9 ta pa
CQ
CD Aspirated kha cha tha tha pha
>
•H
CQ
O
o
•H
Unaspirated J 9
$ da ba
O
H > Aspirated gha Jha dha 1
dha bha
PH
Nasal 9 9
(p-o) 2
n 8
na ma
3
Semivowels ra la va**
ya-'
Fricatives jfa sa^ sa
Aspirate ha
VOWELS a a i ii u uu e ay o av
MODIFIERS N a s a l - nj and Aspirated - h
Notes on t h e s y l l a b l e s marked 1 - 6 i n t h e above table:
1 . The c h a r a c t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s e two s y l l a b l e s a r e m o d i f i e d
to represent th e medial and f i n a l r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e s e characters
as f l a p p e d s o u n d s , w r i t t e n a s pa and pha i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
2. The c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s y l l a b l e i s n o t w r i t t e n a s a
s i n g l e character i n B e n g a l i , b u t only i n combination with other
c h a r a c t e r s , i l l u s t r a t e d b e l o w i n Chapter 3.
176 B E N G A L I S E C T I O N
3. As t h e c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s y l l a b l e i s always realised
i n t h e same way a s t h e c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o j© , a m o d i f i e d
form o f i t i s used to represent y© in certain contexts. The u s e
of t h i s m o d i f i e d character, r e f e r r e d t o a s '©nt©sth© y © , !
and t r a n -
s c r i b e d i n t h i s work a s y© , i s d i s c u s s e d i n Chapte r 2.2.ii.
h. The c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s y l l a b l e i s t h e same a s the
character corresponding to the s y l l a b l e b© .
5. The c h a r a c t e r c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s y l l a b l e occurs only in
Sanskrit loanwords.
6. This v o w e l , syllabic r , occurs only in Sanskrit loanwords.
The c h a r a c t e r s of t h e Eengali s c r i p t are arranged i n the same
groups as the s y l l a b l e s g i v e n i n t h e above t a b l e , and t h e t e r m s used
by B e n g a l i grammarians i n d e s c r i b i n g the characters and t h e i r realis-
a t i o n in reading are s i m i l a r to those given in the Sanskrit section.
These t e r m s a r e S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and when t h e y a r e r e a l i s e d i n read-
ing, t h e same c o n v e n t i o n s a r e o b s e r v e d a s t h o s e u s e d i n modern Bengali
r e a d i n g from a t e x t . They s o u n d , t h e r e f o r e , somewhat d i f f e r e n t from
the Sanskrit terms, t h o u g h when t h e S a n s k r i t and t h e B e n g a l i t e r m s are
p l a c e d s i d e by s i d e , t h e y are r e c o g n i s a b l e as loanwords. The following
examples i l l u s t r a t e the s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s between the two
sets of t e r m s , i n s c r i p t and i n s y s t e m a t i c and p h o n e t i c transcription:
Sanskrit ^T^TR" ©ks©r©m B e n g a l i ^SJ^^f ©ks©r©,, (okkhor)
lo) \m*. viramoh v| viram© (biram)
v©rg© (borgo)
^FcT^ST ontshsth© vs>| antastha (ontostho)
^^"{•T uusman ^"^J uusm© (u/J"8)

5 2
T ^ R T
T V vyajijanam ^5$*7 vyejijsn© (been j on)
Bengali Calligraphy.
In t h e modern t e a c h i n g o f B e n g a l i w r i t i n g , ordinary pens are
g e n e r a l l y u s e d , and c o n s e q u e n t l y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n i s paid to the b a l -
ance or d i r e c t i o n of t h e b r o a d and t h i n s t r o k e s . Formerly, however,
w r i t i n g was t a u g h t w i t h a b r o a d p e n s u c h a s t h a t d e s c r i b e d i n t h e
n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y i n t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . 1
Though t h e relative
position of t h e b r o a d and t h i n s t r o k e s i s n o t s o s t r i c t l y adhere d t o
in w r i t i n g Bengali as i n w r i t i n g the Devanagari s c r i p t , the general
d i r e c t i o n of them i s t h e same a s t h a t i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h o s e notes.
There i s a c o n v e n t i o n a l order of w r i t i n g the strokes i n each
character? the f i r s t s t r o k e i n w r i t i n g m o s t of t h e characters
b e g i n s a t t h e t o p l e f t hand s i d e and t h e l a s t s t r o k e b r i n g s t h e p e n
t o the t o p r i g h t hand s i d e s o t h a t i t i s p o s s i b l e t o p a s s s t r a i g h t on
t o the b e g i n n i n g of t h e n e x t c h a r a c t e r . I f a c h a r a c t er has a h o r i z o n -
t a l h e a d - s t r o k e , or i s c o m p l e t e d w i t h a s h o r t h o r i z o n t a l s t r o k e at
t h e top r i g h t hand s i d e , t h i s s t r o k e i s w r i t t e n l a s t and c a r r i e d on
t o the f i r s t s t r o k e of t h e n e x t c h a r a c t e r i n a word; when s u c h a
s t r o k e i s p l a c e d on t h e l e f t hand s i d e of the c h a r a c t e r , it is written
first. This h e a d - s t r o k e i s r e f e r r e d t o as the 'matra'. The pen s h o u l d
be l i f t e d as r a r e l y a s p o s s i b l e i n w r i t i n g a c h a r a c t e r , or consecutive
characters. A l l the c h a r a c t e r s are w r i t t e n below the l i n e , if ruled
paper i s u s e d , and t h e r e g u l a r a l i g n m e n t i s by t h e t o p of the
characters.
The p r i n t e d forms of t h e c h a r a c t e r s , g i v e n i n t h e t a b l e s in
Chapter 2 , are n o t u s u a l l y u s e d i n m a n u s c r i p t . The c o r r e s p o n d i n g
c u r s i v e forms of t h e c h a r a c t e r s , u s e d i n w r i t i n g , are g i v e n below the
1 . See S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n , Introduction.
N
178 B E N G A L I S E C T I O N
p r i n t e d f o r m s , w i t h n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y when n e c e s s a r y . The e x a m p l e s
g i v e n "below i l l u s t r a t e the g e n e r a l order of s t r o k e s i n w r i t i n g the
characters, some t y p i c a l f o r m s , and t h e s m a l l "but i m p o r t a n t differ-
e n c e s t o he n o t e d b e t w e e n c h a r a c t e r s w h i c h h a ve some s i m i l a r i t y of
form.
^ i
u \5
>
V • & i
v5 m
m
C H A P T E R 2
The B e n g a l i c h a r a c t e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t l j i s c h a p t e r under t h e
same h e a d i n g s a s t b e D e v a n a g a r i c h a r a c t e r s in the Sanskrit section:
Consonant C h a r a c t e r s , Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and S i g n s , and M o d i f i e r s . * •
1. Consonant C h a r a c t e r s .
The c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e a r r a n g e d i n t h r e e g r o u p s : vorgiiy©
( b o r g i y o ) c h a r a c t e r s , ©ntssth© ( o n t o s t h o ) c h a r a c t e r s , and uusm©(uj*j6)
characters. In t h e form i n w h i c h t h e y a r e g i v e n i n t h e syllabary,
they are r e a l i s e d a s s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f an i n i t i a l consonant
f o l l o w e d by t h e f i r s t v o w e l o f t h e v o w e l s e r i e s , r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e
roman t a b l e a s © . The c h a r a c t e r s a r e d e s c r i b e d a s '©kar' (okar),
that i s , ' e n d i n g i n © ' . Each c h a r a c t e r i s r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e syllable
which i t r e p r e s e n t s , w i t h t h e a d d i t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c l e '-kar'; for
example, k©-kar, t © - k a r , p © - k a r . When a c h a r a c t e r i s t o b e realised
without the inherent vowel, t h a t i s , a s t h e c o n s o n a n t e l e m e n t of the
s y l l a b l e only, a short diagonal s t r o k e i s w r i t t e n a t t h e f o o t of the
character. This mark i s c a l l e d 'h©s©nt©' ( h o / o n t o ) , and c h a r a c t e r s
w r i t t e n w i t h t h i s mark a r e r e f e r r e d t o t h u s : ^5 is 'k©-e h o s s n t © '
(ko-e ho/onto)^, 9^ is ' g © - e h©s©nt© !

( g o - e h o / o n t o ) , and s o on. In
r e a d i n g w o r d s , ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l i s e d i n v a r i o u s
1. Compare S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n , C h a p t e r 2 .
2 . ' e n d i n g i n a c o n s o n a n t ' . Cf. S a n s k r i t C h . 2 . 1 . v i r a m e h and h©l©nt©.
3 . 'hsssnt© i n k©'. See a l s o b e l o w , u n d e r i .
180 BENGALI SECTION
c o n t e x t s with z e r o - v o w e l , hut the hosonto i s not u s u a l l y w r i t t e n with
such c h a r a c t e r s i n modern B e n g a l i , a s i t i s assumed t h a t t h e reader

can r e c o g n i s e from a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e w h i c h characters
a r e t o b e r e a l i s e d i n t h i s way. In some v e r b a l forms , however, the
hosonto i s o f t e n w r i t t e n w i t h c h a r a c t e r s t h a t are r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-
v o w e l , and i t i s used in writing Sanskrit texts in Bengali script.
The a b s e n c e o f t h e h o s o n t o i n a c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r c a n n o t , how-
e v e r , b e t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t o be r e a l i s e d with
t h e i n h e r e n t v o w e l . A l t h o u g h t h e w r i t i n g s y s t e m o f B e n g a l i h a s much i n
common w i t h t h e S a n s k r i t w r i t i n g s y s t e m , owing t o i t s o r i g i n , t h e u s e
of a system so c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the S a n s k r i t system f o r w r i t i n g a
modern s p o k e n l a n g u a g e makes n e c e s s a r y a number o f c o n v e n t i o n s b o t h o f
s p e l l i n g and of r e a l i s i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r s i n r e a d i n g . Some of these
c o n v e n t i o n s c o n c e r n t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s . The
Bengali consonant c h a r a c t e r s , as they are given i n the s y l l a b a r y , are
realised, a s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , i n t h e same way a s t h e S a n s k r i t charact-
e r s . When t h e y o c c u r i n w o r d s , h o w e v e r , t h e y a r e r e a l i s e d i n v a r i o u s
ways: as consonants w i t h the inheren t vowel, as consonants w i t h zero-
v o w e l , or a s c o n s o n a n t s w i t h a g l i d e - v o w e l . Further, the inherent
v o w e l , r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e s y s t e m a t i c roman n o t a t i o n by o , i s realis-
ed i n some c o n t e x t s a s ( o ) and i n o t h e r s a s ( o ) . This varying realis-
a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s depends upon c e r t a i n f a c t o r s of
which a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n i s g i v e n i n the n o t e s f o l l o w i n g the first
t a b l e o f c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s - ^ and i n s p e c i a l n o t e s i n t h e discussion
1 . These v e r b a l f o r m s a r e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w , under i i .
2 . R u l e s r e c o g n i s e d by t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l c u t t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e w r i t -
i n g of t h e h o s o n t o a r e g i v e n i n t h e B e n g a l i d i c t i o n a r y 1^4*1 t
( c o l o n t i k a ) , a p p e n d i x , page 3 8 , s u b - s e c t i o n 1+.
3 . See b e l o w , u n d e r i . , R e a l i s a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s .
of vowel c h a r a c t e r s and v o w el s i g n s ! . k t u i n reading a Bengali text
the r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i n many words c a n b e determined
o n l y by a knowledge o f t h e s p o k e n language.
i. C h a r a c t e r s of t h e v o r g i i y © g r o up (
This group c o n s i s t s o f t w e n t y f i v e consonant characters represent-
i n g s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f an i n i t i a l p l o s i v e c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d by
the i n h e r e n t v o w e l . These c h a r a c t e r s f a l l into five classes,
vorg©3, a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f i v e p o s i t i o n s of a r t i c u l a t i o n . The t a b l e
of t h e s e f i v e c l a s s e s may be compared w i t h t h e S a n s k r i t t a b l e of
vorgiiy© consonant characters.
Jko-vorg©^ 1
k© kh© g© gh©
5 -
c©-v©rg©
c© ch© 3"9
jh© -ji©
I - *f
t©-v©rg©
ft i
th© a;©
u
<th© -n 9
t©-v©rg©
*r
t© th© d© dh© n©
* f
- M
p©-v©rg© *r \»
P© ph© b© bh© m©
1 . See b e l o w , under 2 , i i . 2. ( b o r g i y o ) . C f . S a n s k r i t , Ch.2.

l.i. 3. (borgo).Cf. S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,l.i. U. ( k o - b o r g o , e t c . ) .
182 BENGALI SECTION
The c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h i s t a b l e a r e t h o s e used, i n printing.
The c o r r e s p o n d i n g c u r s i v e f o r m s , u s e d i n h a n d w r i t i n g , are g i v e n below.
The c u r s i v e forms d i f f e r from t h e p r i n t e d forms m a i n l y i n an a d a p t a t -
i o n of t h e o r d e r and d i r e c t i o n of s t r o k e s t h a t makes i t p o s s i b l e to
j o i n e a c h c h a r a c t e r t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r by means of a s m a l l
head-strokel. The o r d e r o f s t r o k e s i s g i v e n w i t h any c h a r a c t e r in
w h i c h t h i s o r d e r i s n o t e v i d e n t from t h e form of t h e c h a r a c t e r itself.
ko-vorgo:
ce-vorge: a*
to-vorgo: 6
ta-vorgo:
<5 •r
po-vergo:
Calligraphy of characters:
ko % <^ cho b So \S
jhe ~| ^ Xho f 6 pe V
dho < <f IVf or < ^ §
Calligraphy of words :
•f«7 *«fv5 T=f 3V C5§
Characters w r i t t e n w i t h the hosonto: , k- , v§ » JQ— , Tjf , m- .
The h o s o n t o i s n o t w r i t t e n w i t h \*) , t o . The c o n s o n a n t t- without
a f o l l o w i n g v o w e l i s r e p r e s e n t e d as ^ . This c h a r a c t e r i s referred
to as '^fCS » kh©r]c}a teCkhoijcjo to). 2
1. See n o t e s on c a l l i g r a p h y , Ch.l. 2. ( k h o ^ o t o ) , 'broken to'

The c h a r a c t e r $ • rja , d o e s n o t o c c u r i n i t i a l l y , b u t i t occurs
m e d i a l l y and f i n a l l y i n a few B e n g a l i words and i s o f t e n w r i t t e n w i t h

the h o s o n t o .
The c h a r a c t e r , jia , o c c u r s o n l y i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , in
combination w i t h o t h e r characters^.
The c h a r a c t e r «"| , n e , i s r e a l i s e d a s ( n o ) , e x c e p t when i t is

2
combined w i t h c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e t 8 _ V 8 r
g 9
• I t occurs only in Sanskrit
l o a n w o r d s , and n e v e r initially.
The c h a r a c t e r 3J» , pho , i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d a s a b i - l a b i a l
f r i c a t i v e . When s t r e s s e d , it i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d as a p l o s i v e .
The c h a r a c t e r \5 , bho , i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d a s a p l o s i v e when
i n i t i a l , b u t a s a b i - l a b i a l f r i c a t i v e when m e d i a l or final.
The two c h a r a c t e r s \5" , cLo and Jy , djio occur only initially.
Modified forms of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r m e d i a l l y and f i n a l l y . These
cjo-e Juunyo po- . They a r e u s u a l l y p l a c e d a t t h e end o f t h e vornomala,
b e i n g r e g a r d e d a s s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r s from v5 and ]jf .
R e a l i s a t i o n of t h e i n h e r e n t v o w e l i n akar c o n s o n a n t characters. k
The r e a l i s a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n v a r i o u s w a y s ,
according to the p o s i t i o n of t h e c h a r a c t e r i n a w o r d , and i n special
phonetic c o n t e x t s , f o l l o w s c e r t a i n g e n e r a l r u l e s . Some of t h e s e c o n -
t e x t s can be d e f i n e d o n l y by a d e t a i l e d p h o n e t i c s t u d y of t h e spoken
l a n g u a g e , and numerous e x c e p t i o n s occur. The r u l e s s t a t e d below will,
however, g i v e some g e n e r a l g u i d a n c e f o r reading.
1. See Ch.3,3*Class 2 . i i . b . 2 . i b i d . , Class 2 . i i . a .

3. (dja-e /unno p o ) , ' i n 40 a d o t , p a ' , i . e . t h e pa w r i t t e n by
adding a dot t o 40 . U. F u r t h e r n o t e s on t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of okar
consonant c h a r a c t e r s i n s p e c i a l c o n t e x t s a r e g i v e n b e l o w , under
i i i . , and under 2 . i i .
184 BENGALI SECTION
a. Initial akar c o n s o n a n t characters.
An i n i t i a l akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s usually r e a l i s e d with the
vowel ( o ) , as i n sf^ , g o c ( g o c ) , ^j^f , kob(kob) , u n l e s s the
character i s f o l l o w e d hy a f i n a l n a s a l consonant c h a r a c t e r , when
the i n i t i a l okar c h a r a c t e r i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h t h e v o w e l (o),
as i n \ g p ^ , jan( j o n ) .
b. Medial akar c o n s o n a n t characters.1
i. M e d i a l akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n words o f t h r e e characters,
.of w h i c h t h e f i n a l is akar, are u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d w i t h the vowel
(o), a s i n "^STpSl , kadam(kodom) , ^ f l ^ > nagad(nogod) . 2
ii. M e d i a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a s t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r o f a
four character word, are often r e a l i s e d with z e r o - v o w e l , or w i t h
an o - g l i d e , a s i n ^^SXJ^? , c©k©m©k©(cok'mok)3. Two c o n s e c u t i v e
okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s are not u s u a l l y b o t h r e a l i s e d w i t h the
vowel ( o ) . . .
c. P i n a l akar c o n s o n a n t characters.
i. P i n a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l i s e d i n many words with
zero-vowel, as i n "^x* , c©t©(co{) , , k©b©(kob).5
ii. Pinal ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l i s e d i n some words
w i t h the vowel (o). This r e a l i s a t i o n o c c u r s i n word s of certain

1. T h i s n o t e r e f e r s t o w o r d s c o n s i s t i n g of ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s
o n l y ; f u r t h e r n o t e s a r e g i v e n b e l o w , under 2 . i i . , f o r t h e r e a l i s a t -
i o n of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s i n words i n w h i c h v o w e l s i g n s o c c u r .
2. See S . K . C h a t t e r j i , v3t^t5J^K "^hftcTf <T5t^ T • r
bhasapreka/©
bangala vyaksrsn©, p p . 3 2 f f . ; pub. C a l c u t t a U n i v e r s i t y , 1939-
3. For t h e method u s e d i n t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f m e d i a l and
f i n a l c h a r a c t e r s i n words t o w h i c h t h e s e n o t e s r e f e r , s e e a b o v e ,
C h . l . , and b e l o w , a f t e r n o t e c .
1+. For t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f ©kar c h a r a c t e r s i n compound w o r d s , s e e n o t e
c. below.
5. Final c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel are not u s u a l l y w r i t t e n
w i t h t h e h e s s n t © . T h i s mark i s u s e d i n n o t e s a. and b . t o s i m p l i f y
the t r a n s c r i p t i o n of examples o c c u r r i n g b e f o r e the r e a l i s a t i o n of
final characters i s discussed.
grammatical c a t e g o r i e s , s u m m a r i s e d later-*-; and i n c e r t a i n other
w o r d s , u s u a l l y words o f two c h a r a c t e r s , w h i c h c a n be recognised
o n l y by a knowledge o f s p o k e n B e n g a l i , e . g . ^S"\5 , kote(koto).
\S"5[ , teme( t o m o ) . When s u c h w o r d s o c c u r a s t h e f i r s t p a r t of a
compound word, t h e f i n a l character, t h o u g h m e d i a l i n t h e compound
word, i s s t i l l r e a l i s e d i n t h i s way. 2
The word TF^§ , mote , i s r e a l i s e d i n two w a y s , t h e same
w r i t t e n form r e p r e s e n t i n g two w o r d s o f d i f f e r e n t meaning i n t h e
spoken l a n g u a g e : ^ r \ 5 > (mot), 'idea', 'opinion , 1

or 'purpose',
and TT\5 , (moto), 'similar', 'like*.
As t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s w i t h t h e vowels
( o ) and ( o ) v a r i e s n o t o n l y i n t h e c o n t e x t s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , b u t also
i n some o t h e r c o n t e x t s w h i c h a r e d e s c r i b e d l a t e r 3 , and some w h i c h c a n -
not be d e f i n e d by any g e n e r a l s t a t e m e n t , the f o l l o w i n g system i s used
i n t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s i n t h i s work:
a) I n i t i a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h ( o ) or
with ( o ) , accordin g t o n o t e a. above.
b) Medial akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d a s a s y l l a b l e with
the inherent vowel are t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h (o) or w i t h (.0) ,
according to note b. above; t h o s e r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel or
w i t h an e - g l i d e are t r a n s c r i b e d t h u s : (k'),(p').
c) P i n a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l are
t r a n s c r i b e d as f i n a l c o n s o n a n t s ; t h o s e which are r e a l i s e d w i t h
t h e vowel (0) a r e t r a n s c r i b e d w i t h ( o ) , a c c o r d i n g t o n o t e c.^"

1 . See b e l o w , under i i i . 2 . For e x a m p l e s o f s u c h compound w o r d s ,
s e e b e l o w , under i i . R e a d i n g e x a m p l e s .
3 . Further n o t e s on t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s a r e
g i v e n b e l o w , under i i i . and u n d e r 2 . i i . Vowel S i g n s .
1+. V a r i a t i o n s from t h e s e g e n e r a l r u l e s may o c c u r i n c e r t a i n w o r d s , b u t
such v a r i a t i o n s are o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e of t h i s work.
186 BENGALI SECTION
Reading examples-*-
1. One c h a r a c t e r w o r d s , r e a l i s e d a s c o n s o n a n t s w i t h t h e v o w e l (o).
^ ^ 1 *t Tf U T> *t *t
1. Final characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel:
•n? ^ tjfe ts^

ii. Final characters r e a l i s e d with ( o ) : .
^ 5 T 3 ^ " v 5 Spl rfl> s f v s vSfvJ " ^ T T s T 5 " v 3
iii. Initial c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h (o),> f i n a l w i t h zero-vowel:
3. Three c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e b . i . and c.i.
T F 1 > 3 5 ^T5?p TSf^T^ *T&3?
2+. Four c h a r a c t e r w o r d s ; r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e b . i i . and c.i.
F&'fTj ^*sj> ?FFÊ *tT>*tT>
5f\5Si\5 W&^T W W
ii. C h a r a c t e r s o f t h e o n t o s t h © group( ^ ) 2
There a r e f o u r c h a r a c t e r s i n t h i s g r o u p , a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f o u r of
t h e v©rg©, a s shown i n t h e roman s y l l a b a r y ^ . They may b e compared w i t h
t h e D e v a n a g a r i c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g group**.
y© r© 1© v©
Cursive forms: ^ ?r «f *r
Words: £pf Zf^Jf
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 6 . 2. (ontostho).
3. See roman t a b l e , C h a p t e r 1 . U. S e e S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , l . i i .
The c h a r a c t e r TJ , t r a n s c r i b e d i n t h e roman n o t a t i o n a s yo ,
i s r e a l i s e d as ( j o ) . It corresponds, as the f i r s t character in this
group, t o t h e o n t e s t h o c h a r a c t e r Z[ , y© , i n t h e S a n s k r i t syllabary.
It i s r e f e r r e d to as ' o n t o s t h o y o ' ( o n t o s t h o j o ) , to distinguish it
from v5f , jo , r e f e r r e d t o a s 'vorgiiy© j©'(bo.rgiyo j o ) . The s e m i -
vowel c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e S a n s k r i t c h a r a c t e r If i s represented in
B e n g a l i by a m o d i f i e d form o f t h i s c h a r a c t e r . |J , r e f e r r e d to as
' o n t s s t h © y o ' ( o n t o s t h o o ) . T h i s c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d i n v a r i o u s ways
a c c o r d i n g t o i t s p o s i t i o n and p h o n e t i c c o n t e x t , and i s d i s c u s s e d later
in a specia l note^.
The c h a r a c t e r ^ , t r a n s c r i b e d i n t h e roman n o t a t i o n a s vo , is
r e a l i s e d as ( b o ) . It corresponds, as the fourth character i n this
group, t o t h e o n t o s t h o c h a r a c t e r , vo , i n t h e S a n s k r i t syllabary.
I t i s r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s work a s ' o n t o s t h o v o ' ( o n t o s t h o bo) i n order
to d i s t i n g u i s h i t , in discussion, from t h e t h i r d c h a r a c t e r i n the
po-vergo, ' v o r g i i y © b © ' ( b o r g i y o b o ) . A l t h o u g h v o r g i i y © b© and
antssth© v© a r e t h e same i n f o r m and i n r e a l i s a t i o n , the character
i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s y l l a b a r y i n b o t h t h e vorgiiy'© and t h e ©ntssth©
g r o u p s , and S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s w h i c h a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e D e v a n a g a r i
script with i n i t i a l <| , v© , a r e p l a c e d i n B e n g a l i d i c t i o n a r i e s in
a separate s e c t i o n f o l l o w i n g words w i t h i n i t i a l , 1© . A know-
l e d g e of S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s i s n e e d e d i n o r d e r t o r e c o g n i s e w h i c h
words are t o be found among w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h v o r g i i j f e b© and which
among t h o s e b e g i n n i n g w i t h ©nt©sth© v© . I n t h e more modern B e n g a l i
d i c t i o n a r i e s t h e t e n d e n c y i s t o p l a c e a l l words b e g i n n i n g w i t h this
c h a r a c t e r i n one s e c t i o n , a f t e r w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h , ph© .
1 . See n o t e on ©nt©sth© y© , u n d e r 2 . i i . below.

188 BENGALI SECTION
a n t a s t h a va i s , h o w e v e r , r e c o g n i s e d a s d i f f e r e n t from v a r g i i y a ha
when i t i s combined w i t h a n o t h e r character. 1
Reading examples 2
1. Of t h e o n t o s t h a c h a r a c t e r s , only o c c u r s a s a word.
i. Pinal characters r e a l i s e d with zero-vowel:
wm *pr ^ TO.vr*\
ii. Pinal character r e a l i s e d with (o):
3. Three c h a r a c t e r words.3
<jt?«?t sr^rif *t*R

i|. Pour c h a r a c t e r words.^
^^3"^ ^F^J^S?r 3^1^
iii. C h a r a c t e r s o f t h e uusma group( ^"SJ )5
T h i s group o f c h a r a c t e r s includes three characters r e a l i s e d as
fricative c o n s o n a n t s w i t h t h e vowel ( o ) , and one c h a r a c t e r realised
a s an a s p i r a t e w i t h t h e v o w e l ( o ) . The c h a r a c t e r s a r e a s s o c i a t e d with
c
f o u r o f t h e v a r g a , a s shown i n t h e roman s y l l a b a r y . 0
They may b e com-
pared w i t h the Devanagari c h a r a c t e r s o f t h e same g r o u p . ^
Jo sa sa and ha
Cursive forms: *Wf
Words: T^f
1!S
1. See C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 3 . i i . 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 6 .
3. See a b o v e , n o t e s b . i . and c . i . U. See a b o v e , n o t e s b . i i . and
c . i . and i i . ( c o m p o u n d s ) . 5. ( u j / o ) . 6. See C h . l .
7 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 1 . i i i .
The t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s "*f , ^ and ^ are r e a l i s e d , a s (jo), ex-
c e p t when t h e y a r e combined i n a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r w i t h c e r t a i n other
charactersl. They a r e d e s c r i b e d , for instance, in spelling, as
' t a l o v y o J"e'(talobbo J o ) , ' m u u r d h a n y a s o ' (murdhonno Jo) and ' d o n t y a so 1
(donto J o ) . TFJ o c c u r s o n l y i n S a n s k r i t loanwords.
The c h a r a c t e r , ho , i s t h e l a s t c h a r a c t e r of t h e Bengali
syllabary. Two o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s , ^» , kso and ^ , jjia , e a c h r e -
presenting s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f two c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d by t h e
vowel ( o ) , are o f t e n p l a c e d a f t e r the consonant characters in the
okseromala. They do n o t , h o w e v e r , p r o p e r l y b e l o n g t o t h e syllabary,
and i n t h i s work t h e y a r e d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , in the appropriate classes
of c o n j u n c t characters . 2
Reading examples-^
1 . Of t h e uusma c h a r a c t e r s o n l y "*f o c c u r s a s a word.
2 . Two c h a r a c t e r w o r d s .
i. Pinal character r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel;
*r t?-*t *r*r
ii. Pinal character r e a l i s e d w i t h (o):
*TV5 "SR "$\5 "SIT

3. Three c h a r a c t e r words**
^\5F ^H** ^f*P

If. Pour c h a r a c t e r words"^
ii. *r^F3 "SRvs^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^FT^Sp ^ T ? ^ ?
1 . See C h . 3 . 3 . C l . U . i . a . 2 . i b i d . C 1 . 2 . i i . b . and C l . U . i . b .
3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 6 . k - R e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e s b . i . and
c . i . a b o v e. 5 . Words i n l i n e i . r e a l i s e d a s i n n o t e s b . i i . and
c . i . ; words i n l i n e i i . r e a l i s e d a s n o t e c . i i . ( c o m p o u n d s ) .
190 BENGALI SECTION
R e a l i s a t i o n of okar consonant c h a r a c t e r s i n v e r b a l forms.
The r e a l i s a t i o n o f m e d i a l and f i n a l akar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s in
c e r t a i n grammatical c a t e g o r i e s i s made a c c o r d i n g t o t h e g e n e r a l rules
given below. No c o m p r e h e n s i v e s t a t e m e n t can b e made w h i c h c o v e r s all
c a t e g o r i e s , b u t t h e s e r u l e s g i v e some g u i d a n c e i n r e a d i n g from t h e
script. The o n l y c o m p l e t e g u i d e i s a k n o w l e d g e of t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e ,
a. V e r b al b a s e s e n d i n g i n an ©kar c o n s o n a n t character.
i. Verbal b a s e s w i t h o u t suffixes.
The f i n a l ©kar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r of a v e r b a l b a s e i s real-
ised with zero-vowel; e.g.
^7?T 35-3 F^T ?RS

b©l©(bol) k©r©(kor) c©l©(col) baka(bok)
The form o f t h e v e r b d e s c r i b e d g r a m m a t i c a l l y a s t h e 'second
person s i n g u l a r of the present imperative, i n f e r i o r form' is
w r i t t e n i n t h e same way a s t h e b a s e , and r e a l i s e d i n t h e same
way. The f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h i s form of t h e v e r b i s often writ-
ten with the h a s a n t a ; e.g.
b a l a or b a l ( b o l ) k a r a or k e r ( k o r ) beka or b a k ( b o k )
ii. Verbal b a s e s w i t h suffixes.
When a s u f f i x b e g i n n i n g w i t h , or c o n s i s t i n g o f , a consonant
c h a r a c t e r i s added t o a v e r b a l b a s e , the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of the
b a s e i s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l o r w i t h an a - g l i d e . Examples of
t h i s r e a l i s a t i o n a r e g i v e n b e l o w , under n o t e b .
The g r a m m a t i c a l f o r m s d e s c r i b e d a s t h e 'Second p e r s o n of the
simple present t e n s e ' and t h e ' s e c o n d p e r s o n o f t h e p r e s e n t im-
perative' a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e same way a s t h e v e r b a l b a s e ; b u t

are d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e "base i n r e a d i n g a l o u d hy t h e realis-
a t i o n of t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h t h e vowel ( o ) . Examples:
, bala(bolo) , ^SjtJ , k a r a ( k o r o ) , ^|"^ , poro(poro)
This r e a l i s a t i o n o c c u r s w i t h s i m i l a r g r a m m a t i c a l forms o f a l l verbs
which have o n l y okar c h a r a c t e r s in the base. In the 'second person'
of the ' f u t u r e imperative' in which the f i r s t okar c h a r a c t e r is
realised with ( o ) , the f i n a l character i s w r i t t e n w i t h the vowel
s i g n of o' . L
In the verb , boss , the i n i t i a l character in
b o t h grammatical forms i s r e a l i s e d w i t h ( o ) ; e . g . <^3?[ , (bojo).
The r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e i n i t i a l akar c h a r a c t e r of a v e r b a l base
w i t h t h e vowel ( o ) i s s o m e t i m e s shown by w r i t i n g t h e mark * a f t e r
the c h a r a c t e r , as i n <35$J » k a r e ( k o r i o ) , ^CS^T » k a r o ( k o r o ) ! .
b . Verbal forms w i t h s u f f i x e s c o n s i s t i n g o f akar c o n s o n a n t characters.
The v e r b a l s u f f i x e s ^5 , t a ( t o ) , , ba(bo) and c«T ,
la(lo) ar e added t o v e r b a l b a s e s t o form v a r i o u s 'tenses' , 2

In
t h e s e v e r b a l forms t h e f i n a l akar c h a r a c t e r of the base i s realis-
ed as d e s c r i b e d i n n o t e a . i . , and i f the base c o n s i s t s o f two akar
consonant c h a r a c t e r s t h e i n i t i a l character also is realised with
the vowel ( o ) . Examples:
^^\5 35^5*1
koro-bo(kor'bo) kara-ta(kor'to)3 kara-la(kor'lo)^
1 . See b e l o w , 2 . i i , n o t e a . i i . 2 . S u f f i x e s of t h e t e n s e s d e s c r i b e d a s
' f u t u r e s i m p l e ' ( b o ) , ' p a s t h a b i t u a l ' ( t o ) and ' p a s t i n d e f i n i t e ' ( l o ) .
3 . In c o l l o q u i a l B e n g a l i t h e s e q u e n c e T^f^T , - r l - , a r i s i n g from t h e
a d d i t i o n of a s u f f i x b e g i n n i n g w i t h e?| , or t h e s e q u e n c e 7 t K 5 * - r t -
N
a r i s i n g from t h e a d d i t i o n o f a s u f f i x b e g i n n i n g w i t h \ 5 , t o a v e r b -
al base ending i n ^ , a r e r e a l i s e d r e s p e c t i v e l y a s ( - 1 1 - ) and
( - t t - ) , as i n t h e v e r b a l forms ^S^cTf , ( k o l l o ) and ?|5j5"t5 ,
( k o t t o ) . This r e a l i s a t i o n w o u l d b e made i n r e a d i n g from a B e n g a l i t e x t
w r i t t e n i n t h e c o l l o q u i a l s t y l e . S e e f u r t h e r n o t e s on t h e r e a l i s a t i o n
of v e r b a l forms under 2 . i i , and l a t e r i n C h . 3 » 3 . C l . l .
192 BENGALI SECTION
2 . Vowel C h a r a c t e r s and Vowel S i g n s .
Vowel c h a r a c t e r s a r e w r i t t e n i n B e n g a l i , a s i n S a n s k r i t , to
r e p r e s e n t s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f a v o w e l o n l y , and v o w e l s i g n s are
added t o c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s t o r e p r e s e n t s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g o f an
i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t f o l l o w e d by one o f t h e v o w e l s i n t h e s e r i e s given
below. These c h a r a c t e r s may b e compared w i t h t h e D e v a n a g a r i vowel
c h a r a c t e r s and v o w e l s i g n s , g i v e n i n t h e S a n s k r i t section.
i. Vowel C h a r a c t e r s .
a i ii u - uu
r2 e
5 ey
^3 <Jo ' av
Cursive forms:
^ a S v3 &
^ ^ %*T «W v3Si
The s u p e r s c r i b e d s t r o k e s i n t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s a r e w r i t t e n l a s t , start-
i n g from t h e matra and w r i t i n g u p w a r d s .
The c h a r a c t e r s "^f , a , and 5 j j , a , a r e r e f e r r e d t o a s ^|<^ \5f ?
s v a r i i a ( J o r i o) and ^5f| , s v a r i i a (.fori a)->. The o t h e r v o w e l
c h a r a c t e r s are r e f e r r e d t o as the vowel which each r e p r e s e n t s .
The c h a r a c t e r s ^ and v§ are d e s c r i b e d as , hrasva**,
'short', and t h e c h a r a c t e r s ^ and ^5 a r e d e s c r i b e d a s y^^J ,
diirgha^, 'long'. The ' s h o r t ' and t h e 'long' vowels are r e a l i s e d in
reading with very l i t t l e d i s t i n c t i o n o f q u a l i t y , b u t c e r t a i n words
1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 2 . i . and i i . 2 . ' s y l l a b i c r ' ; see Ch.l.Vowels.

3. svora, ' v o w e l ' ; s v a r i i a , 'vowel-character a ' . For t h e r e a l i s a t -
ion of the f i r s t vowel c h a r a c t e r i n c e r t a i n contexts, see special
n o t e s under i i . b e l o w . U. ( h r o j f o ) . 5. ( d i r g h o ) .
are always w r i t t e n w i t h t h e 'short 1

v o w e l s and o t h e r s a l w a y s w i t h the
' l o n g ' v o w e l s . Examples of p a i r s o f w o r d s o f w h i c h t h e meaning is
d i s t i n g u i s h e d hy t h e w r i t i n g o f t h e 'short' or t h e 'long' vowel, and
i n which a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d i s t i n c t i o n m u s t h e made i n r e a d i n g , are
given later. 1
The vowel , syllahic r , o c c u r s o n l y i n some S a n s k r i t loan-
words. The vowel c h a r a c t e r s , s y l l a h i c rr , <fo , s y l l a h i c 1 , and
^ , s y l l a h i c 11 , a r e u s e d i n p r i n t i n g S a n s k r i t t e x t s i n B e n g a l i
script. The c h a r a c t e r I s
r e a l i s e d as (ri).
The c h a r a c t e r 4 » e , i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d as ( e ) , hut varies
i n c e r t a i n c o n t e x t s w h i c h a r e d e s c r i b e d b e l o w , under Vowel S i g n s .
The c h a r a c t e r tip , ©y , i s r e a l i s e d a s t h e d i p h t h o n g ( o i ) , and
the c h a r a c t e r \^ , ©v , i s r e a l i s e d a s t h e d i p h t h o n g (ou).
Reading examples2
1 , Vowel c h a r a c t e r s only
W| ^ ^ 4 i? \3 $
2 . Vowel c h a r a c t e r s and ©kar c o n s o n a n t characters
i. Pinal characters r e a l i s e d with, z e r o - v o w e l :
^rr& ^ § ^mi ^ \s?i
^ 1 > * T ^SH ^TpF

V 3 v 5 ^ f v § ? T 5 N § ^ < 1
ii. Pinal characters r e a l i s e d w i t h (o):

^"*T VSv5 V3^T v^-q ^T5 ^sf
\3^f
1 . See b e l o w , under i i . Vowel S i g n s , R e a d i n g e x a m p l e s .

2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , s e e p . 2 2 7 .
o
194 BENGALI SECTION
ii. Vowel S i g n s .
Vowel s i g n s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e v o w el c h a r a c t e r s , a r e given
h e l o w added t o t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r . As t h e v o w e l © is the
i n h e r e n t v o w e l of e a c h o f t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e form in
which t h e y are g i v e n i n the s y l l a h a r y , t h e r e i s no v o w e l s i g n corres-
ponding t o the vowel c h a r a c t e r \5f .
ka ki kii ku kuu kr ke koy ko k©v
S p e c i a l forms o f some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s w i t h v o w e l signs:
« *P ?» •» ^ ^
gu ru ruii J*u hii hr
The v o w el s i g n s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e c h a r a c t e r s ^ , and ^ ,
used in writin g S a n s k r i t , added t o ^ , are <^ , ^ and <^»> .
Vowel s i g n s w h i c h a r e p l a c e d on t h e l e f t s i d e of t h e consonant
c h a r a c t e r w i t h w h i c h t h e y a r e t o he r e a l i s e d a r e w r i t t e n h e f o r e the
consonant c h a r a c t e r ; o t h e r s i g n s a r e added a f t e r the consonant
character has heen w r i t t e n . The o r d e r of w r i t i n g t h e s t r o k e s in
c h a r a c t e r s w i t h vowel s i g n s is i l l u s t r a t e d in these cursive forms:
(5T TV *PnT gfl" C*C Of £f C*fr
3T§r ejpf cWl~ ^trzfm ^rc-rcr ^nrw z m o s
Characters w i t h vowel s i g n s are r e f e r r e d t o i n s p e l l i n g thus:
C^* , ( k o - e e k a r ) , ' t h e s i g n of v£) i n ^5 '; ^ , (go-e hroj/o ukar).
The s i g n of s y l l a h i c r i s r e f e r r e d to as ( r i k a r ) or (riphola).l
1 . For e x a m p l e s o f s p e l l i n g w o r d s , s e e h e l o w , end o f C h . 3 .
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY i9S
Reading examples
\S^g *Nfa ^rfC^t Tftvs ^ CF^ 3 # f ^ t $?P
c^rfSr f*ra ?jm ^tc^r ^f*r ftf^ ^fl c^t^t

c^rr^ #f%^t f^tft YWWf%r wrrf^*rr fSnF*rrfV
R e a l i s a t i o n o f okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , and c e r t a i n vowel
characters in s p e c i a l contexts.
In r e a d i n g B e n g a l i words from t h e s c r i p t , t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of
okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i n w o r d s w h i c h have v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s or
vowel s i g n s p r e s e n t s c e r t a i n d i f f i c u l t i e s ; and t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f
some of t h e vowel c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s v a r i e s i n s p e c i a l contexts,
such as t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f c e r t a i n o t h e r v o w e l s i n f o l l o w i n g syllables.
The n o t e s g i v e n b e l o w p r o v i d e some g e n e r a l g u i d a n c e i n r e a d i n g from
the s c r i p t , but a k n o w l e d g e o f B e n g a l i p r o n u n c i a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y f o r
c o r r e c t r e a l i s a t i o n of s u c h w o r d s .
a. R e a l i s a t i o n of okar c o n s o n a n t characters. 2
i . When an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s a s t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r
of a t h r e e c h a r a c t e r word p r e c e d i n g a f i n a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h a vowe l
sign, i t i s usually r e a l i s ed with zero-vowel, or w i t h an a - g l i d e ;
e. g.
amora(am'ra) badale(bod'le) jhagara(jhog'ra)
•J;ukari( t u k ' r i ) m a m a l a ( m a m ' l a) J"amane( Jam'ne)
2 . These n o t e s c o m p l e t e t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of akar
c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s ; s e e a b o v e , n o t e s g i v e n on p p . 1 8 3 and 1 9 0 .
BENGALI SECTION
When t h e f i n a l c h a r a c t e r o f s u c h words i s o k a r , t h e m e d i a l
character i s r e a l i s e d as described in previous notes . The
f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e t h i s r e a l i s a t i o n a f t e r an i n i t i a l
character w i t h a vowel sign:
vSl^S f^\s*T QFtFf

bhare.t ( b h a r o t ) pitele(pitol) kebola(kebol)
When an okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s i n a word o f f o u r o r more
characters, i t i s r e a l i s e d with o , w i t h z e r o - v o w e l , o r w i t h an
o-glide, according t o i t s p o s i t i o n in r e l a t i o n to characters with
vowel s i g n s . The f o l l o w i n g e x a m p l e s i l l u s t r a t e t h e v a r y i n g real-
i s a t i o n of t h e se c h a r a c t e r s i n d i f f e r e n t contexts:
kamobe/©(kom'be/) g o l e j o g e ( g o l jog)
1
m a r o p i { o ( m a r 'pi-j;)
J"atokara( J o t ' k o r a ) same j o d a r o ( Jomo j ' d a r )
ii. The r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r of v e r b -

a l b a s e s h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a b o v e . The f o l l o w i n g v e r b a l f o r m s a r e
1
further i l l u s t r a t i o n s of this realisation:
*rr?re wfsre
parebe(par'bo) J*unele( J u n ' l o ) aseteCaJ"'to)
The s u f f i x e s i n t h e s e f o r m s may be w r i t t e n w i t h t h e o k a r ; e . g .
parebo(par'bo) Junelo(Jun'lo) asato(aj'to)
S i m i l a r l y t h e forms i n which the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r of t h e b a s e are

r e a l i s e d w i t h ( o ) may b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e forms i n w h i c h
the f i n a l c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d w i t h z e r o - v o w e l b y w r i t i n g this
character with the okarj e . g .
koro(kor) koro(koro) koro(koro) kore(koro) koro(koro)
maro(mar) maro(maro) maro(maro) lekho(lekho) lekho(lekho)

i i i . When two words o f d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g a r e w r i t t e n i n t h e same
way and d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y b y t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e f i n a l okar
c h a r a c t e r of one o f t h e word s w i t h ( o ) , t h i s r e a l i s a t i o n i s often
i n d i c a t e d by w r i t i n g t h e o k a r , a s i n t h e s e p a i r s : <3*tc7f ( k a l ) ,
'time', ^5"pf (kalo) or ^f(j^ft (kalo) , 'black'; \5fc*f (bhal) , ' f o r e -
head', \^\e?f (bhalo) or \5tG*Tf (bhalo) , 'good'.
b . The r e a l i s a t i o n o f c e r t a i n v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s i s affected

by t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f o t h e r v o w e l s i n f o l l o w i n g syllables.
i. The c h a r a c t e r n3J , o r t h e i n h e r e n t v o w e l o f an akar c o n s o n a n t
c h a r a c t e r , i s r e a l i s e d a s ( o ) when i t i s f o l l o w e d by one o f t h e
c h a r a c t e r s , or c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n s , for i , ii , u or uu .
e.g. \5ff3 *pf|- ^3njc?I

ati(oti) dhonii( dhoni) atula(otul)! J"abu ja( J o b u j )
When t h e c h a r a c t e r "^3f r e p r e s e n t s the negative prefix, however,
the u s u a l r e a l i s a t i o n o f i t a s ( o ) i s n o t a f f e c t e d by t h e o c c u r -
rence o f one of t h e s e v o w e l s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g s y l l a b l e ; e . g .
^3T^7J, adhiira(odhir) , ^3f\JpT , atula(otul) . 2
iii. The c h a r a c t e r S\ , or t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g s i g n , i n i n i t i a l
p o s i t i o n i s of t e n r e a l i s e d a s (ae) u n l e s s i t i s f o l l o w e d by a
1 . A proper name. 2. 'incomparable'.

198 BENGALI SECTION
character with the vowels i , ii , u or uu ; e . g .
h e l a ( h s 3 l a ) nek©Fa(neek'pa) em©n©(eemon) emeni(em'ni)
ek©(eek) ek©ta(sek \a) T

ek©-|;ii( e k ' f i ) ek©-J;u( e k -j;u)
1
The v e r h a l formOfC^fis r e a l i s e d i n two w a y s . When i t r e p r e s e n t s

t h e form d e s c r i b e d g r a m m a t i c a l l y a s ' s i m p l e p r e s e n t , third person'
i t i s r e a l i s e d a s (dsskhe). When i t r e p r e s e n t s t h e form d e s c r i b e d
as 'pas t p a r t i c i p l e ' , it i s r e a l i s e d as (dekhe).
Reading e x a m p l e s , i l l u s t r a t i n g the note s give n above. 1
1. i. F i n a l ©kar c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h zero-vowel
fo-q p #f*t cft^t c^r *jsrr*r ^^fC^
ii. F i n a l ©kar c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d w i t h (o)
. ^ S f%\5 C^tfe YF c^rT^r CTffi C*ft\5

2 . M e d i a l ©kar c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d a s d e s c r i b e d i n n o t e a.i.
st^Ti *tt*ta *IT«f*r c*M«. 0 ? ^
3. Verbal f o r m s , r e a l i s e d a s d e s c r i b e d i n n o t e a. i i .
(7W *IT^ *Th£ vgrt^ vsffq %v5^ fl5F3CTt
Wv5 WCSt •^BftfST ^ft^rC^Tt f^3fv5 Tg*R
U. ©kar c h a r a c t e r s r e a l i s e d a s d e s c r i b e d i n n o t e b.i.
?t ^ ^ ^ft ^ ift ^ ^f^R
^*j?r ^j^s TpTj^r
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s , s e e p.227.
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY *99
R e a l i s a t i o n of the m o d i f i e d c h a r a c t e r , 'ontostho yo'. 1
The c h a r a c t e r , r e f e r r e d t o as ' o n t o s t h © y © ( o n t o s t h o o) is
a m o d i f i e d form of t h e ©nt©sth© c h a r a c t e r 1»J , y© . This modified
c h a r a c t e r has b e e n i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e B e n g a l i s c r i p t as a g r a p h i c
d e v i c e f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g s o u n d s w h i c h c a n n o t h e r e p r e s e n t e d hy t h e
©ntssth© c h a r a c t e r s and , since i n modern B e n g a l i ©nt©sth© y©
i s r e a l i s e d hy t h e same sound a s v o r g i i y © j© and ©nt©sth© v© i s real-
i s e d hy the same sound a s v o r g i i y © h©. 2
The c o n t e x t s i n w h i c h t h i s c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s , and t h e realisation
of i t i n r e a d i n g , are i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g notes,
a. As the c h a r a c t e r <£J i s r e a l i s e d i n modern B e n g a l i a s ( j o ) , a means
of r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e B e n g a l i e q u i v a l e n t of t h e s e m i - v o w e l y© which
occurs i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y . Sanskrit loanwords
which are w r i t t e n i n t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t with the character ZJ"_,
y© , are w r i t t e n i n B e n g a l i w i t h ©nt©sth© y©, and t h i s character
is realised in various ways, i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e examples given
below-^:
i, r e a l i s e d a s an i n t e r s y l l a b i c vocalic glide, as in
^tf^RS *rh|3r TftSPP

mayiko(mayik) mayur©(mayur) niy©m©(niyom) day©k©( dayok)
deya(doya) maya(maya) ayoj©n©(ayojon)
1. See a b o v e , under l . i i . ©nt©sth© c h a r a c t e r s . 2 . For a h i s t o r i c a l

d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s c h a r a c t e r , s e e S . K , C h a t t e r j i , The O r i g i n and
Development of t h e B e n g a l i L a n g u a g e , pub. U n i v e r s i t y of C a l c u t t a .
3 . A d e t a i l e d p h o n e t i c a n a l y s i s i s o u t s i d e t h e s c o p e o f t h i s work,
and t h e r e f o r e t h i s v o c a l i c g l i d e , t h e q u a l i t y o f w h i c h may v a r y
according to the vowels p r e c e d i n g or f o l l o w i n g i t , i s r e p r e s e n t e d
in the phonetic t r a n s c r i p t i o n by ( y ) i n the examples g i v e n i n
n o t e s a . , b . and c.
200 BENGALI SECTION
ii. ][J realised finally as a v o c a l i c g l i d e o f an e - l i k e quality,
as in
j©y©(;joy) s©m©y©( Jbmoy) vis©y©(biJoy)

<9
tf^r ^tn 35171 atn
p©ric©y©(poricoy) daye(day) kays(kay) rays(ray)
or r e a l i s e d a s an i n t e r v o c a l i c g l i d e f o l l o w e d by t h e inherent
vowel r e a l i s e d as ( o ) , as in
om (Tin c^tti (%n

deyo(deyo) 1
neyo(neyo) 1
peyo(peyo) dheyo(dheyo)
q jeyo-(o j e y o ) komoniiyo(komoniyo) vorgiiyo(borgiyo) 2
b. ontostho yo i s w r i t t e n t o r e p r e s e n t the B e n g a li e q u i v a l e n t of
certain diphthongs i n l o a n w o r d s from o t h e r modern l a n g u a g e s , and
i s used i n combination with other characters to represent the
Bengali e q u i v a l e n t of i n i t i a l characters combined w i t h y©2 in
such loanwords:-
i. The r e a l i s a t i o n i n modern B e n g a l i o f t h e v o w e l c h a r a c t e r ,
ey , i s (oi). Loanwords from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s i n which the Deva-
nagari e q u i v a l e n t of t h i s diphthong o c c u r s , or i n w h i c h the
character representing y© in these languages i s r e a l i s e d with
the p r e c e d i n g vowel as a diphthong, are w r i t t e n i n Bengali with
©ntssth© y©, a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w .
1. Compare t h i s r e a l i s a t i o n w i t h t h e words w r i t t e n i n t h e same way i n

note c . i i . below.
2. The c h a r a c t e r <f\ r e p r e s e n t s - r g - . See C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 3 . i i i . a .
3. See S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , C o n j u n c t C h a r a c t e r s , C l a s s 3 . i .
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY 20I
3>J , o k a r , r e a l i s e d m e d i a l l y as a front v o c a l i c g l i d e w i t h an
e-like quality, as in
\SrtsrsiT
<
kayada(kayda) jay©ga(jayga)
payesa(payj)
, ekar, r e a l i s e d m e d i a l l y a s an i n t e r s y l l a b i c vocalic
g l i d e , as in
kayedo(koyed) ayesa(aye/)
ii. o n t o s t h o y© i s w r i t t e n a l s o i n some E n g l i s h l o a n w o r d s a s a
means of r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e E e n g a l i pronunciation of t h e diphthongs
i n such words a s 'chair' , CS^Jl^ ( c e y a r ) , and ' c a r e ' (,^«Kj|^f ( k e y a r ) .
iii. When t h e c h a r a c t e r T[ , y© , i s combined w i t h an initial
consonant c h a r a c t e r in a conjunct character^, it is realised as
zero. Some l o a n w o r d s u s e d i n m o d e r n B e n g a l i a r e w r i t t e n i n H i n d i ,
i n the Devanagari s c r i p t , with i n i t i a l conjunct characters of
Class 3 « i . j that i s , combined w i t h the character representing y© .
Such w o r d s , as l o a n w o r d s in Bengali, are w r i t t e n in Bengali script
w i t h an i n i t i a l e k ar c h a r a c t e r f o l l o w e d by ©ntssth© y©, as in
t h e s e words : C?fV] | ©ffj p e y a l a ( p e y a l a ) , C^jSJt^f p e y a r s ( p e y a r ) .
c. ©ntssth© y© i s w r i t t e n i n some w o r d s i n o r d e r t o a v o i d writing
a vowel c h a r a c t e r i n a m e d i a l or f i n a l position. This use of
©ntssth© y© o c c u r s i n words and i n g r a m m a t i c a l forms.
1. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3.Class 3 . i . , and b e l o w , Ch.3,3.Class 3.i.

BENGALI SECTION
i. JJ i n w o r d s , r e a l i s e d a s an i n t e r s y l l a b i c v o c a l i c glide
f o l l o w e d by t h e i n h e r e n t vowel o r t h e vowel r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e
vowel s i g n , as in
OTOI
meye(meye) koyeko(koyek) photuya(photuya)
Jiyoro( Jiyor) J*iya(jiya) poyalo(poyal)
ii. i n grammatical forms, i n which i t is written medially

w i t h a v o w e l s i g n r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e vowel o f a p a r t i c l e , when
a p a r t i c l e c o n s i s t i n g o f a vowel o n l y i s added t o a word e n d i n g
i n a v o w e l . The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e t h i s u s e of H '
V e r b a l forms i n w h i c h f i n a l "5J , akar or e k a r , is realised
as an i n t e r s y l l a b i c v o c a l i c g l i d e a f t e r t h e vowel i and a f t e r
the i n h e r e n t v o w e l , which i n t h i s c o n t e x t i s r e a l i s e d as (o);
a s i n t h e s e forms w h i c h a r e d e s c r i b e d g r a m m a t i c a l l y a s 'past
participles', o c c u r r i n g in the l i t e r a r y language -
boliya(boliya) dekhiya( dekhiya) J"uiya( J u i y a ) giya(giya)

and i n t h e s e c o l l o q u i a l f o r m s , d e s c r i b e d i n t h e same way -
giye(giye) diye(diye) hoye(hoye) Juye(juye) peye(peye)
Verbal forms i n w h i c h f i n a l "^1 i s

r e a l i s e d as a v o c a l i c
g l i d e w i t h an e - l i k e q u a l i t y , a s i n t h e s e forms w h i c h a r e d e s -
c r i b e d grammatically as 'present tense , third person' -
nsyo(noy) royo(roy) payo(pay) janaye(janay) beroye(beroy)

The v e r b a l forms ($fj$ and C^t^T a r e r e a l i s e d r e s p e c t i v e l y a s (deey)
and (neey). 1
Noun forms i n w h i c h t h e 'genitive 1

suffix vi}<J , e r e ( e r ) is
added t o nouns e n d i n g i n a v o w e l , and noun and pronoun forms in
which t h e ' l o c a t i v e ' suffix v£} , e ( e ) i s w r i t t e n as o n t o s t h o yo
after a final vowel; o n t o s t h o yo r e a l i s e d as a v o c a l i c g l i d e -
*rtan* f%oj?r ^fcsra i%<m

mayero(mayer) jhiyer©(jhiyer) b©uyer©(bouyer) duiyer©(duiyer)
^ru srr^mr wr^srm g&kui

payo(pay) thanayo(thanay) amayo(amay) tomay©(tomay)
d. As t h e o n t o s t h o c h a r a c t e r <| , vo , i s r e a l i s e d a s (bo) i n modern
Bengali, t h a t i s , i n t h e same way a s t h e v o r g i i y © c h a r a c t e r <| ,
b© , a g r a p h i c method o f r e p r e s e n t i n g word s t r u c t u r e involving
the semivowel vo i n loanwords becomes n e c e s s a r y . This semivowel
i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n B e n g a l i by w r i t i n g t h e v o w e l c h a r a c t e r \3 , o ,
f o l l o w e d by ©ntssth© y©. T h i s c o m b i n a t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r s i s used
in the f o l l o w i n g examples of l o a n w o r d s , i n which is realised
as a back v o c a l i c g l i d e , t r a n s c r i b e d here p h o n e t i c a l l y as (-v)
haoya(haova) poya(poova) d.ak©oyala( c|akovala) deoyali (deovali)
This method of r e p r e s e n t i n g a b a c k v o c a l i c g l i d e i s u s e d a l s o in
v e r b a l forms i n w h i c h a s u f f i x b e g i n n i n g with (a) i s added t o a
base c o n s i s t i n g of one c h a r a c t e r , as in
hooya(hoova) yaoyan©(jaovano) paoya(paova)
1 . Compare t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s e f o r m s w i t h t h a t of t h e two words

w r i t t e n i n t h e same way, g i v e n a b o v e i n a . i i .
204 BENGALI SECTION
3. Modifiers.
Three m o d i f i e r s a r e u s e d i n w r i t i n g B e n g a l i . These a r e marks
added t o c h a r a c t e r s t o r e p r e s e n t some m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e syllable
it represents. The f i r s t two m o d i f i e r s r e p r e s e n t n a s a l i s a t i o n , and t h e
third represents aspiration. These m o d i f i e r s may be compared w i t h t h e
corresponding modifiers of the Devanagari script . 1
i. T>3f-f^P5. > c e n d r o - b i n d u , and v5pJ^f?T » onus v a r a ,

a. cendro-bindu 2
VI/
When t h e mark i s w r i t t e n above a c h a r a c t e r , t h e v o w e l of the

s y l l a b l e whic h t h e c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s i s r e a l i s e d w i t h nasalisation.
T h i s mark c o r r e s p o n d s i n f o r m , t h o u g h n o t i n t h e way i n w h i c h i t is
r e a l i s e d , w i t h t h e mark c a l l e d e n u n a s i k e i n S a n s k r i t ,
c e n d r e - b i n d u added t o v o w e l characters:
vsrr f ^ T5 W a i? ^3
e a I Ii u uu e ey 6 ev
c e n d r e - b i n d u added t o t h e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r w i t h vowel s i g n s :
w w w t ^ ^ o ^ ^ o ^ r c ^ T
ke ka ki kii kii KUU ke key ko kev
Characters w r i t t e n w i t h cendre-bindu are r e f e r r e d to i n spelling
t h u s : ( j o r i a-e c o n d r o b i n d u ) , ( k o - e condrobindu h r o j J o ikar).
Readin g examples-^
I*• "Ss ft ft dr I «r % ctr f*

^5 ^ 5tE C^F T5t v5 C7lt& f Tpf C?C*f
^sfw editor f$*r -^tffen fr^rfe

1 . See S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . and i i . 2. (condro-bindu).
3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e page 2 2 8 . F i n a l ekar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s
realised with zero-vowel.
b. ©nusvar©!
The term a n u s v a r a i s u s e d i n B e n g a l i t o r e f e r t o t h e mark £ ,
r e a l i s e d as ( n ) . I t may o c c u r f i n a l l y , or m e d i a l l y , w r i t t e n a s an
a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e h o s o n t o form o f the character \§ , no . These
examples i l l u s t r a t e the w r i t i n g of the onusvar:
ehorrj(ebon) sim(jin) arrjti( an-J;i) irrjraj©( i n r a j ) sarrj(jan)
Some words may he w r i t t e n e i t h e r w i t h t h e o n u s v a r or w i t h :
rorrj(ron) or ran(ron) barrjla(banla ) or banla(banla)
The ©nusvar o c c u r s i n many S a n s k r i t loanwords preceding a c h a r a c t -
er of the ©ntssth© or t h e uusm© g r o u p , and e s p e c i a l l y i n words w h i c h
have the S a n s k r i t p r e f i x w r i t t e n i n Devanagari as Tflq , s©m . The
r e a l i s a t i o n of t h e ©nusvar i n B e n g a l i , as -n , may he compared w i t h
t h e v a r i o u s ways of r e a l i s i n g t h e ©nusvar of t h e D e v a n a g a r i s c r i p t in
p
the same S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s i n o t h e r p a r t s o f India.
Examples: ^f^C^jT^t s©rrjyog©( Jon j o g ) "ST^T^f s©mrag©( Jonrag)
^f^^tf s©myad©( Jonhad) v5f5"Sf ©rr) J©( on Jo)
Sfo'Sff^ s©msar©( Jon J a r ) f%° ^ sirrjh©( J i n h o )
Reading examples^
'Tv fes its ^rt«r *f$H*r *rs^rr fefo
"SR^KS *TT$33 T^^T- ^ ^ 3 ^
1. ( o n u j j o r ) . In t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n o f e x a m p l e s , i n roman n o t a t i o n , t h e
©nusvar i s t r a n s c r i b e d a s rr) i n o r d e r t o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e
character ^ , transcribed as n . 2 . Cf. S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i . c .
3. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n of e x a m p l e s , s e e p . 2 2 8 .
2o6 BENGALI SECTION
ii. "f^^^T, visarg©. 1
The s i g n g w r i t t e n a f t e r a c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s a s p i r a t i o n follow-
i n g t h e v o w e l of t h e s y l l a b l e w i t h w h i c h t h e c h a r a c t e r is realised.
I t o c c u r s m a i n l y i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , and i s w r i t t e n i n a few
Bengali exclamations t o e x p r e s s e m p h a s i s . When t h e v i s a r g e i s written
with a f i n a l character, it i s r e a l i s e d as a s p i r a t i o n a f t e r the final
syllable. When i t occurs medially, it i s r e a l i s e d a s t h e d o u b l i n g of .
the f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r , a s i n TJg^T , duhkhe(dukkho).
Examples:
bah(bah) uh(uh) punah(punoh) n i h j e ^ a ( n i J" J*e J") atahpara( otoppor)

*f*T8 ^TS fto^T ^STWRT
*f\5ffs ^wp? ^C5\5tg ijg^Ti ?rrgw?

f^rg^ran ^f%gc*m wfrm t^g^m^f ijg^
The c o m p l e t e s y l l a b a r y , arranged i n the t r a d i t i o n a l order, is
g i v e n on t h e f o l l o w i n g p a g e . The S a n s k r i t v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s , "^Jj
and ffc a r
e n
°t i n c l u d e d in the s y l l a b a r y . This t a b l e , w i t h the order
o f c h a r a c t e r s w i t h v o w e l s i g n s g i v e n above under Vowel S i g n s - 5 , shows
the order i n which the c h a r a c t e r s are p l a c e d as the i n i t i a l characters
of words i n d i c t i o n a r i e s . Characters w i t h the onusvar p r e c e d e the
same c h a r a c t e r s w i t h t h e c a n d r a - b i n d u , and b o t h p r e c e d e characters
w i t h o u t t h e a n u s v a r or c a n d r a - b i n d u b u t f o l l o w e d by a n o t h e r consonant
character.
1 . ( b i j o r g o ) . Cf. S a n s k r i t , C h . 2 , 3 . i i .
2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 8 . 3. See a b o v e , u n d er 2.ii.
CHARACTERS OF T H E SYLLABARY
^1
5f
5. Numerals
The B e n g a l i numeral s a r e w r i t t e n thus:
"i * U 8 tt Kb <l lr fc> io

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8 10
6. Punctuation
In B e n g a l i p r o s e w r i t i n g t h e e nd o f a s e n t e n c e i s marked hy an
u p r i g h t s t r o k e of t h e same h e i g h t a s t h e u p r i g h t s t r o k e o f a c h a r a c t -
e r . This mark i s r e f e r r e d t o a s "Cfff^j , d a r i . Other p u n c t u a t i o n
marks are u s e d as i n E n g l i s h . This system i s i l l u s t r a t e d in the
prose p a s s a g e a t t h e end o f t h i s s e c t i o n . 1
The s y s t e m o f punctuation
used i n B e n g a l i v e r s e i s t h e same a s t h a t u s e d i n S a n s k r i t , h u t i n
2
much modern v e r s e t h e p r o s e s y s t e m i s used.
1 . See end of C h . 3 . 2 . See S a n s k r i t , Ch.2,3.ii. Reading e x a m p l e s .

C H A P T E R 3
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Consonant c h a r a c t e r s may be combined t o r e p r e s e n t two or more
c o n s o n a n t s w h i c h a r e t o b e r e a l i s e d c o n s e c u t i v e l y , w i t h o u t an i n t e r -
vening vowel. C h a r a c t e r s formed i n t h i s way a r e r e f e r r e d t o in
Bengali as ^SrPF.^ » yuktakôrol.
1. C o n s t r u c t i o n of Conjunct Characters.
B e n g a l i c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d t o some e x t e n t by
t h e same m e t h o d s a s t h e D e v a n a g a r i c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s , d e s c r i b e d in
2
t h e S a n s k r i t s e c t i o n . These methods v a r y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e form o f
t h e c h a r a c t e r s t o be combined.
i. The c h a r a c t e r w h i c h i s r e a l i s e d a s t h e s e c o n d c o n s o n a n t may b e
subscribed to the f i r s t character; e.g.
^ ^ 3 ^
kko nta pte hmo
ii. The c h a r a c t e r s t o b e j o i n e d may b e w r i t t e n consecutively,
without the usual i n t e r v e n i n g space; e.g.
m *m m
ngha echo dgo dhvo
iii. If the f i r s t c h a r a c t e r h a s a s t r o k e w h i c h c a n be u s e d a s p a r t of
the second c h a r a c t e r , t h e c h a r a c t e r s may be j o i n e d a s i n these
examples: *5f
ddo bde ndo bjo
1. (juktakkhor). 2. See S a n s k r i t , Ch.3. 1 .

i v . The form of e i t h e r t h e f i r s t o r t h e s e c o n d c h a r a c t e r may "be m o d i -
f i e d i n o r d e r t o make p o s s i b l e t h e w r i t i n g of t h e two c h a r a c t e r s
as one c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r . These m o d i f i c a t i o n s vary according to
the form of t h e c h a r a c t e r s t o be j o i n e d ; e.g.
tto ttho kto Jlt^ 9

^t* 18
v. The c h a r a c t e r s \5 > T\ , and , h a v e s p e c i a l forms w h i c h are

u s e d when t h e y a r e c o m b i n ed w i t h o t h e r c h a r a c t e r s ; e.g.
3* ^ \^ 4 ^
tko 1
tpo kya tyo rko kro
v i . I f any c h a r a c t e r s c a n n o t b e c o m b i n e d by any o f t h e s e m e t h o d s ,
t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of them w i t h o u t an i n t e r v e n i n g vowel i s indicat-
ed by w r i t i n g t h e f i r s t c h a r a c t e r w i t h the hosonto.
The m o d i f i e d forms of some o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , w r i t t e n a s t h e

second p a r t of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r , are r e f e r r e d t o as the syllable
which t h e f u l l c h a r a c t e r r e p r e s e n t s and t h e p a r t i c l e *|»©ir , phola
( p h o l a ) ; e . g . TfTp^ft" , yo-phola( jophola) , <Hj»5TT » vo-phola(bophola).
The m o d i f i e d forms of t h e c h a r a c t e r s Tf , , <S| , 55| , used i n
forming c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s , a r e a l s o r e f e r r e d t o i n t h i s w a y . ^
2 . C o n t e x t s and R e a l i s a t i o n o f C o n j u n c t Characters.
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s i n B e n g a l i o c c u r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g contexts:
i. In B e n g a l i w o r d s , t h a t i s , w o r d s n o t b o r r o w e d from S a n s k r i t or
from modern l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
ba<ô(boa$o) potton(potton) muiâ(mur]DJ3)
1. See a b o v e , C h . 2 , l . i . khanô t o . 2 . For s p e l l i n g terms used i n r e -

f e r r i n g to conjunct c h a r a c t e r s , s e e e n d of t h i s c h a p t e r .
p
210 BENGALI SECTION
ii. I n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s , e i t h e r words u s e d commonly i n B e n g a l i , or
words u s e d i n t h e l i t e r a r y l a n g u a g e o n l y ; e.g.
n^r 3T§>
pontha(pontha) J*ebde( Jobdo) ra^-J;re(ras"l;ro)
I n t h e c l a s s e s o f c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n b e l o w , under 3 . ,
conjunct c h a r a c t e r s are i n c l u d ed which are used o n l y i n w r i t i n g
Sanskrit. Some o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s do n o t o c c u r i n B e n g a l i texts,
t h o u g h words i n c l u d i n g them a r e f o u n d i n B e n g a l i dictionaries,
i i i . I n l o a n w o r d s from o t h e r l a n g u a g e s ; e.g.
khaji j a r a ( k h o n j o r ) ma^-(;ara(ma^-j;ar) carbbi( corbbi)
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s a r e r e a l i s e d a s s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g of two
or more c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d by a v o w e l . The r e a l i s a t i o n of ekar c o n -
junct characters i n v a r i o u s p o s i t i o n s f o l l o w s i n general the rules
a l r e a d y g i v e n f o r t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of e k a r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s . In
d e s c r i b i n g the r e a l i s a t i o n of i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r s , the inherent
vowel i s p h o n e t i c a l l y t r a n s c r i b e d as ( o ) , as i n t h e t r a n s c r i p t i o n of
the c h a r a c t e r s of the syllabary.
The r e a l i s a t i o n i n modern B e n g a l i o f ekar c o n s o n a n t characters
with zero-vowel, or w i t h an e - g l i d e , in certain positions i n words
g i v e s r i s e t o a problem of s p e l l i n g . T h i s r e a l i s a t i o n of s u c h charact-
e r s i n words of t h r e e o r more c h a r a c t e r s , and i n v e r b a l b a s e s w i t h
suffixes a d d e d , h a s b e e n i l l u s t r a t e d above^-. The r e a l i s a t i o n of ekar
consonant c h a r a c t e r s w i t h zero-vowel i n such c o n t e x t s often results
i n t h e s p e a k i n g o f two c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n t s i n a way s i m i l a r t o the
r e a l i s a t i o n of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r . Examples of B e n g a l i words in
1 . See a b o v e , Ch.2.2.ii.
which t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of s e p a r a t e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s i s s i m i l a r to
t h a t of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e g i v e n b e l o w w i t h t h e v a r i o u s classes".
3. C l a s s e s of C o n j u n c t C h a r a c t e r s i n B e n g a l i .
The B e n g a l i c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s are arranged i n t h i s chapter in
the same f o u r c l a s s e s a s t h e D e v a n a g a r i c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n i n t h e
Sanskrit s e c t i o n . A l l the c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n in the Sanskrit section
have e q u i v a l e n t s i n t h e B e n g a l i s c r i p t , and a l l t h e e x a m p l e s g i v e n in
t h a t s e c t i o n can be w r i t t e n i n B e n g a l i s c r i p t . The r e a d i n g e x a m p l es
g i v e n w i t h each c l a s s of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s i n c l u d e some l e a r n e d
loanwords which may be f o u n d i n l i t e r a r y texts.
C l a s s 1 . Two s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r s joined. 1
These c h a r a c t e r s r e p r e s e n t s y l l a b l e s c o n s i s t i n g of a 'doubled'
consonant f o l l o w e d b y a v o w e l .
-kko -kkha -ggs -ggho -cca m

-echo -JDS -3 jho —
t
-tt* -ttha -q.dha -tto -ttho -ddo -ddha ft
-nna
-ppo -ppho -bba -bbho
-yyo — -lis — -J Jo —i -ssa
The c h a r a c t e r ?j i s r e a l i s e d as (nno). The c h a r a c t e r TJ3 is
r e a l i s e d as ( j j o ) , or when i t i s a k a r , a s ( j j e e ) . The c h a r a c t e r >|>J ,
which o c c u r s o n l y i n l o a n w o r d s , i s r e a l i s e d as (sso).
1 . Compare S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 . 3 . Class 1.
212 BENGALI SECTION
When a s u f f i x w i t h an i n i t i a l c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i s added t o a
verbal base with a f i n a l okar c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r , the r e a l i s a t i o n of
t h e c o n s e c u t i v e c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e v e r b a l form i s s i m i l a r t o t h e real-
i s a t i o n of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s . Examples:
<P"^"v3 , korota(kotto) , T
fT^«TT'^| , parolama(pallam). 1
i f ^ t r i ? ^9fv5 ^rasr f ^rfB^r

Sttr \STsfhf *w?P3 §®a ceK ^rnr
C l a s s 2 . Two vorgiiyô c h a r a c t e r s joined.^
These c h a r a c t e r s occur mainly i n S a n s k r i t loanwords. The series

of Devanagari c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s , g i v e n in the S a n s k r i t section,
i n c l u d e s many c h a r a c t e r s w h i c h o c c u r i n t h e j o i n i n g o f words i n com-
p o u n d s , i n p h r a s e s and i n s e n t e n c e s i n a S a n s k r i t t e x t . The c h a r a c t e r s
o c c u r r i n g i n a S a n s k r i t t e x t p r i n t e d i n B e n g a l i s c r i p t c a n be recognis
ed w i t h a k n o w l e d g e o f S a n s k r i t ; b u t i t i s beyond th e s c o p e of this
work t o i n c l u d e a l l t h e p o s s i b l e combinations of c h a r a c t e r s in this
class. The c h a r a c t e r s g i v e n b e l o w may o c c u r i n a B e n g a l i l i t e r a r y text
i. sir W
-kto -tko -tkho -gdo -dg© -gdho -dgha
ii.
f "5 If
-tpa -tpho -pto -dbo -bda -dbhe -bdh©
1 . These forms a r e sometimes* w r i t t e n , f o r i n s t a n c e , i n d i a l o g u e , w i t h

c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s . Cf. n o t e s i n C h . 2 , 1 . i i i .
2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 8 . 3 . Cf. Sanskrit,Ch.3,3.CI.2.i.-iv.
ii.a. ^1 2? 3?
-nke -rjkh© -rjgh© -J1C9 -jichg -P-j© -jijh©
f % nj *T
-iit 9 -nt hs
-ri^h© -nt9 -nth9 -nd9 -ndh9
*f
-mp© -mph© -mbs -mbh©
S p e c i a l ukar form
ntu
The n a s a l c o n s o n a n t o f t h e k©-v©rg©, i n t h e f i r s t group a b o v e ,

may be r e p r e s e n t e d a l t e r n a t i v e l y b y t h e o n u s v a r . 1
The c h a r a c t e r
<£p , joined with a character of the co-vorgo, i s r e a l i s e d as
(n-). The c h a r a c t e r <f , j o i n e d w i t h a c h a r a c t e r of the
•[o-vergo, i s r e a l i s e d as (n_-).
%
-cjio jjio -tn©
w w
-dne
The c h a r a c t e r o c c u r s o n l y i n t h e S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d "SjnEfef »
yacjia, r e a l i s e d a s ( j a c n a ) or a s (jacinga).
The c h a r a c t e r ^ i s r e a l i s e d i n i t i a l l y a s ( g o ) ; and m e d i a l l y
as ( g o ) , w i t h n a s a l i s a t i o n o f t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , a s i n
T^jpy jjiano(gsen) , and ^ j \o&f , ajna(aggse). This character

i s n o t c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r , and i t i s often
included i n the oksoromala a f t e r the consonant characters^.
in. ^ ?f *U ^ If ^ ^
-kma -gno -gmo -ghn© -tmo -dm© -pn©
The c h a r a c t e r ^ , tm©, i s r e a l i s e d a s ( t t o ) , often with nasal-
i s a t i o n of t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , as in "^TTlfl" , a t m a ( a t t a ) .
The c h a r a c t e r T\f , dm©, i s r e a l i s e d a s ( d d o ) , w i t h nasalisation
1. See a b o v e , C h . 2 , 3 . i . b . 2. Words b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h i s c h a r a c t e r
are p l a c e d i n d i c t i o n a r i e s a f t e r w o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h O^f .
214 BENGALI SECTION
of t h e f o l l o w i n g v o w e l , e x c e p t i n words i n common u s e , s u c h a s
"*i>V| , pedmo(podd6, poddo).
l v
- <SJ ^ **T
-nmo -nmo -nmo -mno
The f o l l o w i n g examples i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l i s a t i o n of consecutive
c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t i s ekar, i n a way s i m i l a r t o t h e
realisation of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s class:
V e r b a l forms ^Pr^T ^ftvS ^SFTOT*?
kadebe(kad bo) t
kapete(kap' to) Junetame( J"un'tam)
Other words *|'MWf^b ^TFS^rT ^Tv5^Tf^

panemeric e ( p a n m o r i c ) p a t e k u y a ( p a t k u y a ) h a t e c h a n i ( h a t c h a n i )
1 1 1
Reading examples 1
i- " 1 % ^T^fT^ Tg^^R %WTv5 ^Rgv5 nî T^^T Fî
^^TT 5 * ^ 3 ^*JTv3 ^ f e ^
ii.-^jsfTO ^-^f ^vfT^ TSf^cff *rr^rr
^ *rni *rsr ^ 3 flr^n" *r^t *rtffe
Class 3 . Characters joined with entesthe characters,
i. Characters joined with following .2
All t h e. c h a r a c t e r s of the Bengali s y l l a b a r y occur i n t h i s class
except V§ . ne and £fi , no . These c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s a r e formed
by a d d i n g t h e s t r o k e $ , referred to as yephela(jophola) t o another
character, thus: ^ , k y e ,\*>^ , t y e ,^(3 , p y e , **f$ , /ye .
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p .2 2 8 . 2. Cf. S a n s k r i t , Ch.3»3.Class 3 . i .

Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s may h e f o r m e d h y c o m h i n i h g t h r e e c h a r a c t e r s ; e.g.
t ktyo, » ntyo, , ndhyo, , tmyo.
Characters w r i t t e n with y o p h o l a are r e a l i s e d i n v a r i o u s ways;
and the o c c u r r e n c e o f a c h a r a c t e r c o m b i n e d w i t h y o p h o l a i n certain
c o n t e x t s a f f e c t s t h e q u a l i t y o f some o f t h e vowels.
a. R e a l i s a t i o n of c h a r a c t e r s w i t h yophola.
When an i n i t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s w r i t t e n w i t h y o p h o l a i t i s r e a l i s e d a s
as z e r o - y o p h o l a and t h e v o w e l o f t h e s y l l a b l e , e.g.
nyuuno(nun) dhyey©(dheyo) jyotiso(jotij)
When a m e d i a l or a f i n a l character i s written with yophola, the
c h a r a c t e r i s r e a l i s e d a s t h e d o u b l i n g of t h e c o n s o n a n t represented
by the c h a r a c t e r w i t h w h i c h y o p h o l a i s written.1; e . g .
vakkyo(bakko) rajyo(rajjo) puny-o(punno)
b . R e a l i s a t i o n of v o w e l s a f f e c t e d b y y o p h o l a .
An okar c h a r a c t e r p r e c e d i n g a c h a r a c t e r w i t h y o p h o l a i s realised
with the inherent vowel as ( o ) , e.g.
^TO M\53 vsr^ra

onye(onno) sobhyo(Jobbho) kolyo(kollo) 2
tal©vy©(talobbo)
I f an i n i t i a l c h a r a c t e r w i t h y©ph©la i s ©kar, t h e vowe l i s real-
i s e d a s (ee) , u n l e s s t h e ©kar c h a r a c t e r i s f o l l o w e d by an i k a r or
an i i k a r c h a r a c t e r , when i t i s r e a l i s e d as ( e ) 3 ; e.g.
vyotha(b8etha) vy©thii(bethi) v y s j i j©n©(bien jon) vy©tiit©(betito)
1 . For examples of m e d i a l c h a r a c t e r s , s e e b e l o w , under n o t e b .

2 . Cf. t h e v e r b a l form ^5^«?f , k © r © l © ( k o l l o ) , Ch. 2 , 1 . i i i . n o t e b .
3 . Cf. n o t e on r e a l i s a t i o n of v o w e l c h a r a c t e r s and s i g n s , C h . 2 , 2 . i i . b .
216 BENGALI SECTION
I f a c h a r a c t e r w i t h y o p h o l a i s a k a r , t h e vowel i s r e a l i s e d a s (ee) ,
nyayoCnsey)- - 1
dhyane( dhsen) vyakhyane(bffikkheen) kenya(konnee)
In t h e word^C^T^T > u d y o g o , a S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d i n w h i c h t h e
c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r a r i s e s from t h e j o i n i n g o f t h e p r e f i x
, ut- ,
w i t h t h e word C^ft^T > y o g a , the medial character i s r e a l i s e d as (djo) ,
t h e word b e i n g r e a l i s e d a s ( u d j o g ) . 2
T h i s r e a l i s a t i o n may b e c o n -
t r a s t e d w i t h t h e r e a l i s a t i o n o f t h e c h a r a c t e r w i t h y o p h o l a i n f<Pf5T,
v i d y a ( b i d d e e ) . N o t e a l s o "Sf?^ , s o h y o ( Jo j jho) .
R e a d i n g examples-^
<TT^ ^Tv5 C^rfnS\5t gSv5 C5otf3 CS^Jt S
yc&n fs^T ^raft ^rero qsrr oth ^
ii. Characters with f o l l o w i n g "?f .h
This c l a s s of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s c o n s i s t s of c h a r a c t e r s combined
w i t h o n t o s t h o v o , c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h t h e Devanagari c h a r a c t e r s joined
with the ontostho character , vo . These c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s occur
o n l y i n S a n s k r i t l o a n w o r d s . When <^ , o r i t s m o d i f i e d f o r m , occurs
as t h e s e c o n d p a r t o f a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r , i t i s r e f e r r e d to as
vophola(bophola). I t i s w r i t t e n w i t h some c h a r a c t e r s i n t h e f u l l
form, j o i n e d t o t h e p r e c e d i n g c h a r a c t e r by t h e m a t r a , a s i n iffi ,
dhvo, , hvo ; or i n t h e m o d i f i e d f o r m , added t o t h e f o o t of a
1. Cf. t h e v e r b a l form r e a l i s e d a s (neey) i n t h e n o t e on o n t o s t h o y e

on p . 2 0 3 . 2 . Also r e a l i s e d as (uddog).
3 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 9 . U. C f . S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C l a s s 3 . i i .
character, as i n f , kv© , , tv© , , jv© . The form of the

character <f , rvo , i s d i s c u s s e d , l a t e r , under iii.a.
The f o l l o w i n g are e x a m p l e s o f c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s formed hy com-
bining three characters: ^ , ttvo , , ddhv© , ^ , ktvo.
In t h e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s c l a s s , © n t s s t h © v© i s re-
garded as a s e p a r a t e c h a r a c t e r f r o m v o r g i i y © b©, a l t h o u g h i n t h e
s y l l a b a r y t h e two c h a r a c t e r s a r e t h e same. Words b e g i n n i n g w i t h an
i n i t i a l conjunct character of t h i s c l a s s are p l a c e d in dictionaries
a f t e r words b e g i n n i n g w i t h c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s formed by c o m b i n i n g a
consonant c h a r a c t e r w i t h a f o l l o w i n g .
When v o p h s l a i s w r i t t e n w i t h an i n i t i a l character, it is real-
i s e d as zero.; e . g .
^t^t w w r
svamii(jami) jval©(jal) tv©kt©(tokto) dvad©J©( d a d o j )
When v©ph©la i s w r i t t e n w i t h a m e d i a l or a f i n a l character, it

i s r e a l i s e d as the f i r s t p a r t of the conjunct character doubled, with
z e r o - r e a l i s a t i o n of v©ph©la, a s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g examples:
©nv©h©(onnoho) iiJv©r©(iJJor) viJv©(biJJo) konv©(konno)

The c h a r a c t e r "5^" , hv© , i s r e a l i s e d a s a v - g l i d e f o l l o w e d by a
b i l a b i a l a s p i r a t e , as i n pj^qcTf , bihv©l©(bivvhol).
In S a n s k r i t w o r d s , u s e d a s l e a r n e d l o a n w o r d s i n l i t e r a r y Bengali,
a p r e f i x ending i n a h©s©nt© c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r may be added t o a
word w i t h i n i t i a l ©ntssth© v s . In t h e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r which
r e s u l t s , and i n t h e c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s w h i c h a r i s e from t h e joining
2*8 BENGALI SECTION
o f two words i n a compound, v o p h o l a i s r e a l i s e d a s ( b - ) ; e . g .
udvigno(udbigno) sodvyevohare(/odbebohar) rgvedo(rigbed)

The words t^^ff*^ , udvano(uddan) , and f ^ ^ l , v i d v a n o ( b i d d a n )
are e x c e p t i o n s t o t h i s g e n e r a l rule.
The r e a l i s a t i o n , o f v e p h o l a , i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e above e x a m p l e s ,
r e s u l t s i n a s i m i l a r i t y o f r e a l i s a t i o n o f two o r more words w h i c h a r e
t h e same i n t h e s p o k e n l a n g u a g e and d i s t i n g u i s h e d o n l y i n w r i t i n g ;
e.g. , d h a n i i , and $fl<jp| , d h v a n i , r e a l i s e d a s ( d h o n i ) ,^
f*r3^T?T » J i k a r o , and ^Wj.^ , s v i i k a r e , r e a l i s e d a s ( j i k a r ) , 2
*f«J , J"oro, '^n<r , s o r a , and , svoro , r e a l i s e d as ( / o r ) 5
Reading examples^-
iii. Characters joined w i t h preceding or w i t h f o l l o w i n g ^ .

a. ^ preceding another character.5
*s
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s o f t h i s c l a s s a r e formed b y w r i t i n g a s t r o k e
r e f e r r e d t o a s (,<j^p , r e p h s ( r e p h ) , above t h e c h a r a c t e r b e f o r e w h i c h
<J i s t o be r e a l i s e d .
T h i s s t r o k e i s p l a c e d a t t h e r i g h t hand s i d e o f a n y o t h e r s u p e r -
s c r i b e d s t r o k e , and i s t h e l a s t s t r o k e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r t o b e w r i t t e n .
e,g
* ^ £ ^ \s• Y a4 c¥f
-rko -rco -v\o -rto -rpa -rkii -rke -rkov
The c h a r a c t e r s >F>\Sl» 3, T , p
F,^f, , s
T,Î and ^
1 . ' m a s t e r ' and ' s o u n d ' , 2 . ' h u n t i n g ' and ' a g r e e m e n t ' .
3 . ' a r r o w ' , ' c r e a m ' and ' v o i c e ' . U. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 2 9 .
5. C f . S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . i i i . a .
are o f t e n w r i t t e n i n t h e i r d o u b l e d f o r m w i t h r e p h © l ; e.g.
, rtto, , rggo, *zf , rmmo, , rvvo
In some w o r d s , i n c l u d i n g v e r b a l f o r m s , the r e a l i s a t i o n of okar
consonant c h a r a c t e r s w i t h z e r o - v o w e l in certain positions leads to the
r e a l i s a t i o n of j^" before a n o t h e r c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r i n a way similar
t o the r e a l i s a t i o n of r e p h e , as i n t h e s e examples:-
Verbal f orms: *Pf|"<<p3 » p a r o t a ( p a r ' t o , p a t t o ) , ^sf^<f , mar© 2v©( m o l l o)
Other words : T f ^ ^ j " ^ , derobaro( dor'bar) , ^f^^t^f , s e r o k a r o ( Joir'kar)
Reading examples*r
\54 *j*f ^T*T îfi ^jt^
?fl^v5 ^pft f%M*f stfrta
b. following another character.3
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s class a r e formed by s u b s c r i b i n g the
stroke r e f e r r e d to as r o p h o l a ( r o p h o l a ) to a consonant character. The
characters with rophola which occur i n B e n g a l i , mostly in Sanskrit
l o a n w o r d s , a r e i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s g i v e n b e l o w .
The f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r s illustrate the calligraphy of charact-
e r s w i t h r o p h o l a , w i t h some s p e c i a l f o r m s ; and some c o n j u n c t charact-
e r s formed by j o i n i n g t h r e e characters:
kro gro jro tro dro pro bhro Jr© hr©
5 » * 5 -3T "5 W 1
dru dhruu Jru tru -r)gr© -ndr© -ktr© -ndhr©
1. The r u l e s of o r t h o g r a p h y o f C a l c u t t a U n i v e r s i t y , given in the

B e n g a l i d i c t i o n a r y T>*jf!^ , p . 5 9 7 , recommend t h a t t h i s p r a c t i c e be
discontinued. 2. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 3 0 .
3*. C f . S a n s k r i t , C h . 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . iii.a.
220 BENGALI SECTION
Reading e x a m p l e s !
srm cm ^ t$ 5 ^ a t m fSs
fsv5 ^ tfrsfar ^ 1 ^t§3 ^1*3

iv. Characters with preceding c5| or w i t h f o l l o w i n g c*f . 2
a. cv| preceding another character.
Characters joined w i t h preceding «*J a r e formed hy w r i t i n g the

second character e i t h e r immediately a f t e r , or b e l o w , *f , thus:-
% , Iks , f[ , lgs , ^ , lp© , ^ , lm© . Only a few of
the Bengali c h a r a c t e r s occur with p r e c e d i n g of\ , and t h e s e are
i l l u s t r a t e d below i n the reading examples.
b. c?J following another character.

These c h a r a c t e r s a r e formed by w r i t i n g 5 f at the f o o t of the
c h a r a c t e r a f t e r which i t i s t o be r e a l i s e d , thus -
^ , kl© , £T , gl© , $ , pi© , $ , ml© , $f , Jl© . The
character i s not combined w i t h «<f in a conjunct c h a r a c t e r , but
t h e two c h a r a c t e r s a r e w r i t t e n c o n s e c u t i v e l y , thus • When «*f ,
or a m o d i f i e d form of i t , i s added t o a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r a s t h e second
p a r t of a c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r , i t i s r e f e r r e d to as laphala(lophola).
Only a few of t h e s e c h a r a c t e r s o c c u r , m o s t l y i n S a n s k r i t loanwords.
Those w h i c h o c c u r a r e i l l u s t r a t e d b e l o w i n t h e r e a d i n g e x a m p l e s .
The r e a l i s a t i o n of c o n s e c u t i v e c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e
first i s ©kar and i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s , i n a way s i m i l a r t o t h e real-
i s a t i o n of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s c l a s s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n these
2 . Cf. S a n s k r i t , Ch. 3 , 3 . C I . 3 . i v . a . and b .
words : f^T<pYf , b i l 9 k u l 9 ( b i l 'kill) , " ^ p 3 c ^ , matglgbgdnot'lob).
Reading examples-*-
3Fte c s w s r m a m csrr^ ^sffa ^rr?
Class U. v o r g i i y g c h a r a c t e r s j o i n e d w i t h p r e c e d i n g or following
u u s m 9 characters,
i. C h a r a c t e r s combined w i t h p r e c e d i n g "*]" , ^ or "9\
a. •*]" , or "5f preceding another character. 2
C h a r a c t e r s which o c c u r w i t h p r e c e d i n g "*f :-
-Jc9 -Jch9 -Jna Jmo
Characters which occur w i t h p r e c e d i n g :-
-^ko ~?t 8
~?t n s
"~ l sr 8
~^P 9
-sph9 - s m 9
Words w i t h c u r s i v e forms:
The c h a r a c t e r combined w i t h t h e c h a r a c t e r s of t h e \9-vorg9 ,
except with , 'no , i s r e a l i s e d as (so). When combined w i t h f(
the conjunct c h a r a c t er i s r e a l i s e d as (jno). The c h a r a c t e r s "Sip" ,
sko , "^^j" , sp9 , and , spho a r e r e a l i s e d as (Jko) , ( j p o ) and
(jpho) i n o r d i n a r y s p e e c h , b u t may b e r e a l i s e d a s ( s k o ) , (spo) and
(spho) i n formal s p e e c h . "*J , Jno , i s u s u a l l y r e a l i s e d as (sno).
1. For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see p.230. 2. Cf. Sanskrit, C h . 3 , 3 , C l a s s h. i .

222 BENGALI SECTION
Characters which occur w i t h p r e c e d i n g "Sf :-
^ ^ ^ ^ ™f N
"tr
sko skho st© sth© sn© sp© sph© sm©
The c h a r a c t e r combined w i t h c h a r a c t e r s of t h e t©-v©rg© is
r e a l i s e d a s ( s ) . N o t e t h e form of t h e c h a r a c t e r , stu .
The c h a r a c t e r s , Jm© , and ^ , sm© , ©kar or akar, are
realised initially as (J5) and (J"a) , a s i n t h e words ^Cf^f , Jm©J*ru
(josru) and ^fjSJ^S , smar©k©( J a r o k ) . These two c h a r a c t e r s , and ^ ,
sm© , a r e r e a l i s e d m e d i a l l y and f i n a l l y a s ( / J o ) , a s i n t h e words
'^'"Q' , uusm©(uJ".fo) and \3~*t\ , bh©sm©(bho j Jo) .
Conjunct c h a r a c t e r s of C l a s s e s 1 . , 2 . and 3 . may o c c u r w i t h pre-
c e d i n g uusm© c h a r a c t e r s , such a s -
^ , -stv© , § , -£t r s
> If » -str© , , -stv© .
The f o l l o w i n g words i l l u s t r a t e the r e a l i s a t i o n of consecutive
c o n s o n a n t c h a r a c t e r s , when t h e f i r s t is ©kar i n c e r t a i n p o s i t i o n s , , in
a way s i m i l a r t o t h e r e a l i s a t i o n of c o n j u n c t c h a r a c t e r s of t h i s class:
" rr^|v5
!:3:
> asstsCaT'to) 1
f>*f*Tt > c©J"©ma ( c o J"'ma)
Reading examples 2
b. Characters joined with following "5J or "SJ . 3
Three c h a r a c t e r s occur in t h i s group, i n Sanskrit loanwords:
^ , ks© , , - t s © and , -ps© . I n w r i t i n g S a n s k r i t i n Bengali
1. Verbal form. 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , see p.230.

3. Cf. S a n s k r i t , Ch.3,3.Class k.i.b.
s c r i p t , however, c h a r a c t e r s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a l l t h e c h a r a c t e r s
given i n the Sanskrit s e c t i o n a r e u s e d . The c h a r a c t e r "^J" , - k s o ,
occurs i n E n g l i s h l o a n w o r d s .
Cursive forms i n words -
£ ^ n * r f * w r w r « w l < § N > ( • w f r f a
The c h a r a c t e r i s not c a l l i g r a p h i c a l l y a conjunct character,
and i t i s o f t e n i n c l u d e d i n t h e s y l l a b a r y a f t e r t h e consonant
characters. I t does n o t , h o w e v e r , b e l o n g p r o p e r l y t o t h e s y l l a b a r y ,
as i t r e p r e s e n t s a s y l l a b l e c o n s i s t i n g o f two c o n s o n a n t s f o l l o w e d b y
the vowel o . W o r d s b e g i n n i n g w i t h t h i s c h a r a c t e r are p l a c e d i n
d i c t i o n a r i e s a f t e r words b e g i n n i n g w i t h ^ , kvo . I t i s r e a l i s e d
i n i t i a l l y a s ( k h o ) and m e d i a l l y a n d f i n a l l y a s ( k k h o ) . The r e a l i s a t -
ion o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s , k s r j o , an d "^f , ksmo , i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n
these examples:
3j^r
kgnuto(khnuto) tiiksno( tikkhno) suuksmo( Jukkho)
When an okar c h a r a c t e r i s f o l l o w e d b y ^* , t h e i n h e r e n t vowel
i s r e a l i s e d a s ( o ) , a s i n Jff^T , J l o k s n o ( J l o k h n o ) j and i f ^ is
a k a r , t h e vowel s i g n may b e r e a l i s e d a s (se) , a s i n t h e s e words -
<f^t , r e k s a ( r o k k h a , rokkhse) , "SJ^JT > yok^ma( jokkhss).
Reading examples 2
^nra *rftftre xs^fht^ *j*r *t*&?t
1. Cf. n o t e on 3 under Clas-s 2 . above.

224 BENGALI SECTION
ii. ^ j o i n e d w i t h ©nunasik© ( ' n a s a l ' ) characters . 1
Three o f t h e ©nunasik c h a r a c t e r s a r e j o i n e d w i t h
J^T -hn© -hn© -hm©
The c h a r a c t e r s ^ and a r e r e a l i s e d a s ( n h o ) , and t h e
c h a r a c t e r "5Jf i s r e a l i s e d a s ( m h o ) .
Bengali prose passage^
^*rc*rt w(7Tt ^cafe ^rrftvsi ^c*r gc*r ^ * r r ^ c s ^sf^rcafu

^rrms csffisrar ^c?rf§i smosh *ri$ i ^srar f N n ^ ^c?r-
^c?rfSi *Trf%c3ra ^n*rr xsrera ^ c ^ r qc=? m^cs?
*m?r etches i ^ f f a s -ft^ ^cafSt s s w ^ r f ^ - ^faft
ewer t%^re3 * n f 5 of^ra . vb ( s f t ^ ^ t

f^Tra •HJ*flN C^TQ3 ^PT, v3*R G5T<5ft ^3 a*RTS "R^TS-
«IW # r & t - ^ ! ^ C^t\5S \5T3 TOUTS OSWSiS
TO^TO ^f%v5 Tftft ^ < fq&Cv5 FIT! ^TT I ^ m t -
gsiws c * r 5 ^ r r c ? * r e f 5 *?ttow
1 . C f . S a n s k r i t , Ch. 3 , 3 . CI. ii. 2 . For t r a n s c r i p t i o n , s e e p . 2 3 0 .

3 . R a h i n d r a n a t h T a g o r e , g i k s a n a V i k i r a n a , an a d d r e s s on u n i v e r s i t y -
t r a i n i n g , puh. U n i v e r s i t y of C a l c u t t a , 1 9 3 3 .
TO, fl^f CT-^rtCT c%5u <7r^rf(7T ^^QJTT ^re^m ^ i
Examples of B e n g a l i s p e l l i n g t e r m s , including conjunct characters:
( p o , goe g o , cjoe Junno po)
(hoe h r o j j o i k a r , d o n t o Joe h o j o n t o , donto Joe akar)
( t o e h r o j j o i k a r , b o e b o p h o l a , khor]c(o t o )
( t a l o b b o J o , koe t o t a t e h r o j j o ikar)
( b o r g i y o j o e jioe a k a r , donto no)
(borgiyo j o , donto noe mophola)
(c|hoe h r o j j o u k a r , murdhonno n o e djho t a t e h r o j j o i k a r , to)
(joe jopholae condrobindu t a t e akar)
TO ( d o n t o J o , d o n t o n o e dhoe jophols., t a te akar)
(dirgho i , t a l o b b o Joe b o p h o l a , reph ro)
( j o r i a, ontostho joe reph)
( d o n t o J o , boe b o p h o l a t a t e reph)
( h r o j j o u , coe c h o e r o p h o l a , ontostho 0)
( t a l o b b o Joe l o p h o l a t a t e okar, ko)
(donto Jo, o n u j j o r , donto Joe ko t a t e r i p h o l a , to)
(noe h r o j j o i k a r , talobbo Joe e o , o n t o s t h o 0)
* ( d o n t o Joe t o e r o p h o l a t a t e d i r g h o
( t a l o b b o Joe h r o j j o i k a r , k h y o e akar)
ikar)
( g o e r o p h o l a t a t e d i r g h o i k a r , murdhonno Joe mophola)

226 BENGALI SECTION
T r a n s c r i p t i o n of R e a d i n g E x a m p l e s 1
Chapter 2.
l.i. kg che ng pg
1
dg cjhg tg kho thg
ko cho no po do c|ho t 9
to kho tho
DO F°
ngdg ngkhg T ^ 9 9
pgdg khgrg jhoro gh©"];© pgthg tg^g
nod nokh -|;ok pod khor jhop ghof poth to{
kgtg bofo ghong pet© gotg poto joro ngtg tgtg
koto boro ghono pofo goto poto joro noto toto
bong jene mans kene

bon jon mon kon
phe-(;gkg kotgkg jeget ghg-j;gkg

phojjok kotok jogot ghofok
ceôpg^g koêke^© kgcgmgco cjhekemeke khg^gkhg^g

cof'P ! 0
kof'kof koc'moc djiok'mok kho-fkhot
thekothgk© gepeggp© ^gpgôpg tgkgtgkg dhopgdhgpg
thok'thok gor'gop T°P'T°P tok'tok dhop'dhop
l.ii. kglg ghgrg malg pgrg bglg rgkg dglg rgthg phol©
kol ghor mol por bol rok dol roth phol
joto
•joto
bodolg golgdo m©l©j© nggorg gglong

bodol golod moloj nogor golon
kheretoro pholgkgrg kglgrgvg

khorotor pholokor kolorob
l.iii. Jovg sgbg dojg sgkhg

Job Job doj Jokh
Jgtg sgmg hgtg hgrg

/oto Jomo hoto horo
sohgrg sohoj© sgrglg holgphg

Johor Johoj Jorol holoph
1 . B r a c k e t s a r e o m i t t e d i n t h e p h o n e t i c t r a n s c r i p t i o n i n o r d e r t o make
i t p o s s i b l e t o p l a c e t h i s t r a n s c r i p t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y b e l o w e a c h word
in the systematic t r a n s c r i p t i o n .
TRANSCRIPTION 227
khos©kh©s© t©s©t©s© t©l©t©l© cjh©l©cjh©l©

kho/'kho/ to/'toj tol'tol d h o l ' dhol
8©hocore s©m©t©l© gh©n©r©s© gh©n©k©ph© m©d©k©t© jelsksr©

/ohocor Jomotol ghonoro/ ghonokoph modokof jolokor
2.i. i l e oy ©v
i l e oi ou
at© it© ut© am© rn© uun© er© or© iid©

*t it »t am rin un er or- id
is© it©lo it©r© is©t ut©r© ud©k© et©t

i/ itol itor i/ot utor udok etot
el©m© otsn© evssdh© ©vr©t© ©vs©n©
elora oton oujodh ourot ou/on
ii/o op© ©r© ©p© en© ogh© ot© ©vm© iit© ©g©
i/o opo oro opo eno ogho oto oumo ito ogo
it© ib© ukh© ut© ©yk© olo os©
ito ibo ukho uto oiko olo 0/0
2.11. ca thu se go kuu jhi m m©v nr chi
ca thu /e go ku jhi /i mou nri chi
otu rsi alo dao yui c|heu ruti krpa guru
otu ri/i alo dao jui djieu rufi kripa guru
mot a /i/u ruupa mane hrdi niiti hur i i novka
raofa /i/u rupa mane hridi niti huri nouka
godhuli jiivilca kumarii dagabaji kopotika nirupadhi

godhuli jjbika kumari dagabaji kopotika nirupadhi
p. 198. tin© dudh© duur© niil© cokh© megho /rgal© motaleb©

tin dudh dur nil cokh megh Jrigal motaleb
jut© tit© guurh© mrg© chot© dr^h© m©vn© sol© dhsvt© mrt©
juto tito gurho m r i g o c h o t o d r i p h o mouho /olo dhouto mrito
caker© sahss© pather© pagol© k©v/©l© dev©r©

cakor Jaho/ pathor pagol kou/ol dehor
tomora tuk©ra kamera cup©pi mucoki tal©pat© g©g©n©bhela

tom'ra fuk'ra kam'ra cup pi
1
muc ki f
tal'pat gogon'bhela
lekh lekh© thak thak© jan jan© jitob© jitobo
lekh lekho thak thako jan jano jit'bo jit'bo
/unot© /un©to jagsl© jagolo b h i j©t© tul©b© /unol©
/un'to /un'to jag'lo jag'lo bhij'to tul'bo Jun'lo
b©i k©i kh©i nodii y©di ysti boli besi so-lil©

boi koi khoi nodi jodi joti boli bo/i /olil
228 BENGALI SECTION
calita sahito jamidara abhidhana galita palita

col i t Johit jomidar obhidhan golito polito
polu p©tu madhura marut baluka phatura bahut
polu pofu modhur morut boluk photur bohut
3 . i . a. era ora Ska ha ci co t^ ta dha ro bhui
er or ak ha ci C O \v. ta dha ro bhui
yui tusa thai caca cheka dârâ ghota kudala bedhe
jui tuf thai cac chek djar ghof kudol bedhe
jaka dari khopa dhudhula poci/o hakapi
jaka dari khopa dhudhul pocij" hakapi
b. nam t ]
s n
gam arrjja damJana Jarrjsa ^ J i 9 r r j t ; h srrj vamjo
nor) t J
3r gan onJo donjon Jorjja t 9t^h o o n D
arjJo
samghata samvit pamju sutararrj avatarrjsa narrjjuka
Jorjghat Jorjbit parjju Jutorarj o b o t o n Jo norj Juk
sarrjyamana vamJadhara samjodhana sairjghatika karrjsaha
Jorj jomon borj Jodhor Jorj Jodhon Jarjghatik korj Joha
ii. aruh sarah pun ah sahah nihsukha atahpara
oruh Joroh punoh Johoh niJJukh otoppor
Jatayuh nabhahsad acetah duhsamaya bahsadana
Jotayuh ' nobhoJJod ocetah dujjomoy bajJodon
nihkarana havih Jesa vanavkah nihkasana duhsaha
nikkaron hobijjej bonoukah nikkajon dujJoho
Chapter 3«
Class 1.
pakka kakkhata paggara kaccara iccha l a j ja kujjhatika
pokko kokkhof poggo£ koccor iccha l o j ja kuj jhofika
that t a udjLiina sar^râvata uttara utthana cavdda Juddha kanna

thatt a
ucJdJLn Jonnoboto uttor utthan couddo Juddho kanna
chappara c h a b b i Ja ummeda Joyya phulla manajjanti hissa

choppor - chabbiJ ummed Jo 0 d« phullo monoj'janti hijja, hissa
visani\a sahayya saddara tibbat paricchanna vrddha citta
bi-Jonno Jahajjo Joadar tibbot poricchonno briddho citto
Class 2.
i . J a k t i - vagdana udgamana udghata adbhuta Jabda utpatha dagdha
J o k t i bagdan udgomon udghat odbhut Jobdo utp.oth dogdho
gupta utkara utphulla utpanna camatkara utkhata satkorja

gup t o utkor utphullo utponno comotkar utkhat Jofkon
TRANSCRIPTION 229
ii. ©lankar© J"©nkh© ssngst© ssnghstsn© ©jicsl© lanchsna ©jijsli

olonkar /onkho Jorjgoto /onghofon oncol lanchona onjoli
jhQjijhato konôkii kon^ha parjcja. a^hur|dhitg Janti panthii ninda

jhonjhaj; konjjoki kor^fha pancâ c]hur]c{hito /anti ponthi ninda
©ndha sompgdg lgmphg gmbgrg sgmbhgvg jpang jijjiasa pgtnii pgmkti
ondlio /ompod lompho ombor Jorabhob gsen jiggee/a p o t n i ponkti
iii. /9kma sonlsgn© atma pna vagmn

Jokka Jorjlogno attS pna baggi
i v . unmogn© jonm© nimnokt© vanmey© ssnmas©
unmogno jonmo nimnokto banrjoy JonmaJ"
Class 3 . i «
vaky© khyat© yogyota cygvgng cyutg jyoti jyetha
bakko kheeto joggota cobon cuto joti jeatha
thyan qhyaqa pur]y© ygtyacarg gtyuttgmg gtygyg sgtyg

punno jottsecar ottuttomo ottoy /otto
bhrtyer© mitthya ggdyg dyumgni gbadhyg dbyang dhyey© nyay©

bhritter mitthes goddo dumoni obaddho dheen dheyo ntsy
nyuune upsnyas© pyang rsvpy© gbhyasa myao kglyano talovyg
nun uponnse/ peen rouppo obbheaj meeo kolleen talobbo
vyonjsn© /yam© monusyo syoda s s h y © udyana sgndhya sonkbyeyo

bsenjon J*8=m monuJ"/o Jod J o j j h o uddsen /ondhss Jonkheyo
Class 3.ii.
kvocit pokvo ucchvaso jval© tvsra tottvo dhvonsa vilvo
kocit pokko ucchaj* jal tora totto dhonfo billo
iiJvoro svocche ©nves©r[© svode/e sorosvotii /vaso jihva
iJJor Joccho onne/on /odej /oro//oti /a/ jibha
Class 3 « i i i .
a. terk© muurkhe vorgiiyo diirghg varcc© muurcchong s a r j j u v©rn©
torko murkho borgiyo dirgho barcco raurcchon / o r j u borno
korttgvyg
kortobbo
podarthg kerdd©-];© ©rddh© durnam© ssrp© s©m©rp©n© dh©rm© msryyada
podartho kordot ordho durnam /orpo /omorpon dhormo morjseda
durlgbh©
durlobh
230 BENGALI SECTION
vghirbhutg s s r v v a mgr/gng msrssrâ ggrhgrjg aryyg visgrgg sgrddarg

bohirbfruto /orbo mor/on mor/on gorhon arjo biJorge Jordar
iii.b. kruddbg gramg ghreyg vajrg putrg drgvyg prg:qamg priyg

kruddho gram ghreyo bojro putro drobbo pronam priyo
bhrgmgrg vyggrg a/rayg sgmra-J;g srutg srmi vgdhrg vrgtg Jrii

bhromor beegro asroy J"omra{ sruto sm bodhro brot sri
hrita g/ru prarthgna andhrg ucchrgyg sarjkrantg paktrg sgrjgrghg

hrito osru prartbona andhro ucchroy /orjkranto poktro /orjgroho
Class 3.iv.
ulka vglgita phalgurjg ul-|;a gglpg gulpbg prggglbhg gulmg ulbg

ulka bolgito phalgun ulfa golpo gulpho progolbho gulmo ulbo
klanta glepgng plavong tablakg mlang Jlokg gjliilg hladg

klanto glepon plabon toblok mlan Jlok o/lil hlad
C l a s s U. i .
a. p o / c a t ni/ceyg n i / c h i d r g a/cgryg p r a j n g n i s k r t g ngs"tg jyesthg

pojcat nijcoy nijchidro a/corjo p r o s n o n i / k r i t o noJ-J;o jeJ"t n o
nip^n-urg krsng ni^pgtti nisphglg grii^mg skgndg skhglitg

ni/fhur krijno nifpotti ni/phol grij/o skondo skholito
stgbdba spor/g
stobdho spor/o
smgrgr^g svasthg snano snigdhg spgs"J;g sphu-J;itg vismgyg

Joron Jostho snan snigdbo spoTô sphutito bi/Joy
smrti strii rasjro

srlti stri rajfro
b. gksarg pariksitg tgtksgrjat suuk^mg arksg mgtsgrg vipsa

okkhor porikkhito totkhonat Jukkho arkkho m o t / o r bip/a
gpsgra khinng k^viiirjg

op/ora khinno khinno
C l a s s U. i i .
gpgrahng ahnikg cihng mgdhyahng brghma prahr]g puurvvahng

oporanho anhik cinho moddhanho bromba pranho purbbanho
TRANSCRIPTION 231
Bengali prose passage
ekedine epeksakrte elpeveyase y e k h a n e amare J e k t i chile tekhene

sekdin opekkhakrito olpoboyje j o k h o n amar Jokti chilo tokhon
kekhane kekhene i m r e j i s a h i t y a mukhe mukhe bamla k a r e J u n i y e c i . amare

kokhono kokhono i n r e j i J a h i t t o mukhe mukhe h a n l a k o r e J u n i y e c i . amar
Jrotara imreji janetene s a v a i . tavu tara s i ikar a karecena imreji

srotara inreji jan'ten Jobai. tohu tSra fikar korecen inreji
s a h i t y e r a v a n i i bamlabhaâye t a d e r e mahe s e h e j e s a r a p e y e c e . vastuta

Jahitter hani banlabhajay tader mone J o h o j e Jara p e y e c e . hostuto
adhunika / i k ^ a i m r e j i h h a s a v a h i n i i h a l e i amadera manera p r o v e J e p e t h e

adhunik Jikkha i n r e j i h h a / a b a h i n i h o l e i amader moner p r o b e J" ' p o t h e
tara anekakhani mara y a y e . i m r e j i khanara { ^ b i l e aharera jaîla

tar onek'khani mara j a y . i r j r e j i khanar -jêlslXe aharer joj;il
paddhati yara a b h y a s t a nay emana b a i p l i i r e chele b i l e t e pari debara

poddhoti j a r i o b b h o s t o noy gemon b a n a l i r chele b i l e t e papi debar
pathe p i encjo o k o m p a n i i r a c j i n a r e kameray yakhana k h e t a b a s e takhana

pothe p i end^ o kompanir acinar k a m ' r a y jokhon k h e t e b o j e tokho n
bhojyo o r o s o n a r o modhyapathe ka"|;a c h u r i r a d e v t y e t a r a pekpe badha-

b h o j j o o r o / o n a r moddhopothe k a f a c h u r i r doutto t a r pokkhe b a d h a -
g r a s t a b o l e i bheropuuro b h o j e r a m a j h a k h a n eo k s u d h i t e je"|;herere d a v i i
grosto b o l e i bhor'pur bhojer majh'khaneo khudhito jo{horer dabi
sempuurne mi"|;0te c a y e n a . amadera Pikâra b h o j e o s e i daj*a, - ache

Jompurno m i f ' t e c a y n a . amader fikkhar bhojeo Jei doja, - ache
s a v a i o t h e c a majhepathe a n e k a k h a n i e p e c e y e haye yaya. e ya b a l e c i e

Jobi o t h o c o m a j h ' p o t h e o n e k ' k h a n i opocoy hoye jay. e ja b o l ' c i e
k e l e j i yejjiere kotha, amara a j a k e r a a l o c y a viâya e niye neye.

k o l e j i jogger kotha, amar a j ' k e r alocco bijoye e niye noy.
amare visoye"|;a s e r v v e s a d h a r o n e r e Jiksa niye. Jiksare jalera kala.

amar b i / o y | ; a J orb o / a d h a r o n e r Jikkha niye. Jikkhar j o l e r kol
c a l a n o r o k o t h a n o y e , p a i p a y e k h a n e p a v c h a y e na s e k h a ne paniiyera
calanor kotha noy, paip j e k h a n e p o u c h o y na Jekhane paniyer
vyavasthara kotha. matrbhasaye s e i v y a v a s t h a yadi gospedere ceye p r o -

bsebosthar kotha. m a t r i b h a j a y J e i beebostha jodi gojpoder ceye pro-
Jest© na h e y e t e v e e i v i d y a h a r a d e j e r e m e r u v a s i i menere upaye hobe k i i
J o s t o na hoy t o b e e i biddashara d e j e r m o r u b a j i moner upay hobe k i .

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I N T R O D U C T I O N T O THE

PROFESSOR J. R. FIRTH, O.B.E., M.A.

Geoffrey Cumberlege, Publisher to the University

First published 1953

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN

Chapter 1 . Arrangement of the Syllabary 1 1

Chapter 2 . Characters of the Syllabary 1 5

Chapter 3 . Conjunct Characters 3 3

Transcription of reading examples 5 1

Chapter 3« Conjunct Characters 75

1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi 75

Hindi prose passage 81+

Transcription of reading examples 85

Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 9k

Chapter 3 . Conjunct Characters 118

Marathi prose passage 129

Transcription of reading examples 1 3 0

Chapter 3 » Conjunct Characters 1 5 7

1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Gujarati 1 5 7

Gujarati prose passage 1 6 7

Transcription of reading examples 1 6 8

Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 179

1. Construction of Conjunct Characters 2 0 8

Bengali prose passage 2 2 5

Transcription of Reading Examples 2 2 6

The script traditionally referred to as the Devanagari Script

is used in writing Sanskrit and, of the modern, languages of northern

is a slightly modified form of the Devanagari script, and the scripts

used in writing Bengali and Panjabi are related to the Devanagari

script, though this relation is apparent in only some of the charact-

ed in their own particular way from the original Sanskrit, a number

of conventions have become necessary in reading from the script, con-

realisation of the characters as they are used for writing Hindi,

established in each language, are described in the various sections

of this work. Though the Bengali script differs considerably from

the Devanagari script in the form of most of the characters, the

study of it is included in this work because the writing system is

the conventions used in the other modern languages. An examination

of these conventions makes possible an interesting comparison both

between the writing of these four languages and that of Sanskrit,

and between the writing of the modern languages themselves.

The origin of the name 'Devanagari' is obscure. The shorter

form of the name is Nagari'(nagarii), which has been variously inter-

preted. It is thought by some to be tbe name given to the writing of

'tbe people of the city'(nagaram, 'a city'); by others it is said to

derive its name from the Nagar Brahmans of Gujarat.

The system of roman notation used in this text for transcribing

the Devanagari characters is the All-India Roman Notation^. Three

minor modifications have been introduced in this text in order to

These modifications are :-

i. The use of the vowels i ('short' i) and ii ('long' ii) instead

of the vowels y and i ; and of the vowels u ('short' u )

and uu ('long' uu ) for the vowels w and u .

mark of nasalisation known as the anusvar.

iii.The placing of a micron above the letter y in the diphthong ay ,

and above the letter v in the diphthong av , thus: ay , av .

This mark distinguishes the transcription of the diphthongs from

the transcription of combinations of characters which are real-

ised in certain contexts as s-y and 9-v , not distinguishable

in ordinary speech, in the modern languages, from the diphthongs.

Besides these modifications, it is necessary to make certain

additions to the notation in order to represent characters used in

modified characters used in Hindi and Bengali. The complete notation