Vectors 1

Chapter

0
Vectors
Introduction of Vector
ˆ  A
Since, A  ˆ .
A  A A
Physical quantities having magnitude, direction and obeying A
laws of vector algebra are called vectors.
Thus, we can say that unit vector gives us the direction.
Example : Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, ˆ
(7) Orthogonal unit vectors i , ˆj and k̂ are called
force, impulse, weight, thrust, torque, angular momentum, angular
orthogonal unit vectors. These vectors y
velocity etc.
If a physical quantity has magnitude and direction both, then it must form a Right Handed Triad (It is a
coordinate system such that when we Curl ˆj
does not always imply that it is a vector. For it to be a vector the third
condition of obeying laws of vector algebra has to be satisfied. the fingers of right hand from x to y then x
we must get the direction of z along k̂
Example : The physical quantity current has both magnitude
thumb). The î
and direction but is still a scalar as it disobeys the laws of vector z
Fig. 0.1
algebra. ˆi  x , ˆj  y , kˆ  z
Types of Vector x y z

(1) Equal vectors : Two vectors A and B are said to be equal  x  xˆi , y  yˆj , z  z kˆ
when they have equal magnitudes and same direction. (8) Polar vectors : These have starting point or point of
application . Example displacement and force etc.
(2) Parallel vector : Two vectors A and B are said to be
(9) Axial Vectors : These represent rotational effects and are
parallel when
always along the axis of rotation in accordance with right hand screw
(i) Both have same direction. rule. Angular velocity, torque and angular momentum, etc., are
(ii) One vector is scalar (positive) non-zero multiple of another example of physical quantities of this type.
vector. Axial vector Axis of rotation
(3) Anti-parallel vectors : Two vectors A and B are said
to be anti-parallel when
(i) Both have opposite direction.
Anticlock wise rotation Clock wise rotation
(ii) One vector is scalar non-zero negative multiple of another
vector. Axis of rotation Axial vector
(4) Collinear vectors : When the vectors under consideration Fig. 0.2
can share the same support or have a common support then the (10) Coplanar vector : Three (or more) vectors are called
considered vectors are collinear. coplanar vector if they lie in the same plane. Two (free) vectors are
(5) Zero vector (0 ) : A vector having zero magnitude and always coplanar.
arbitrary direction (not known to us) is a zero vector. Triangle Law of Vector Addition of Two Vectors
(6) Unit vector : A vector divided by its magnitude is a unit vector.
Unit vector for A is  (read as A cap or A hat).
 2 Vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two sides of a  R | R | | A  B |  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
triangle taken in same order
B B
then the resultant is given by C
the closing side of triangle in R  AB
opposite order. i.e. R  AB
B B B sin
R  AB
A B
O 
OB  OA  AB A  
Fig. 0.3
O A N
A B cos
(1) Magnitude of resultant vector Fig. 0.5
AN
In  ABN , cos    AN  B cos  Special cases : R  A  B when  = 0o
B
R  A  B when  = 180o
BN
sin    BN  B sin  R A 2  B 2 when  = 90
o
B
(2) Direction
In OBN , we have OB 2  ON 2
 BN 2
B CN B sin 
tan   
R ON A  B cos 
B B sin
  Polygon Law of Vector Addition
O A A N If a number of non zero vectors are represented by the (n –
B cos 1) sides of an n-sided polygon then the resultant is given by the closing
Fig. 0.4 side or the nth side of the polygon taken in opposite order. So,
 R 2  ( A  B cos  )2  (B sin  )2 R  ABCDE
 R 2  A 2  B 2 cos 2   2 AB cos   B 2 sin 2  OA  AB  BC  CD  DE  OE

 R 2  A 2  B 2 (cos 2   sin 2  )  2 AB cos  D D C

 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  E C

 R  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  E B
(2) Direction of resultant vectors : If  is angle between
A and B, then B

| A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos  O A
A
If R makes an angle  with A, then in OBN , Fig. 0.6
Note :  Resultant of two unequal vectors can not be zero.
BN BN
tan     Resultant of three co-planar vectors may or may not
ON OA  AN
be zero
B sin 
tan    Resultant of three non co- planar vectors can not be
A  B cos  zero.
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition Subtraction of vectors
If two non zero vectors are represented by the two adjacent
sides of a parallelogram then the resultant is given by the diagonal of Since, A  B  A  ( B) and
the parallelogram passing through the point of intersection of the two
vectors. | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
(1) Magnitude
 | A  B|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos (180 o   )
Since, R 2  ON 2  CN 2 R sum  A  B
Since, cos (180   )   cos 
 R  (OA  AN )  CN
2 2 2

 | A  BB|  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
 R 2  A 2  B 2  2 AB cos 
 1
2 A
180 – 
B

R diff  A  ( B )
Fig. 0.7
 Vectors 3

Rectangular Components of 3-D Vector

R  R x  R y  R z q or R  R x ˆi  R y ˆj  R z kˆ
Y

Ry R
Rx

Rz
X

Z
B sin 
tan  1  Fig. 0.9
A  B cos 
If R makes an angle  with x axis,  with y axis and  with
B sin (180   )
and tan  2  z axis, then
A  B cos (180   )
R R
 cos   R  l
x x
But sin(180   )  sin  and R x  R y2  R z2
2

cos(180   )   cos 
y y R R
 tan  2 
B sin   cos   R  m
A  B cos  R x  R y2  R z2
2

Resolution of Vector Into Components R R

 cos   R  n
z z

Consider a vector R in X-Y plane R x  R y2  R z2

2
Y
as shown in fig. If we draw orthogonal
vectors R x and R y along x and y Where l, m, n are called Direction Cosines of the vector R and
axes respectively, by law of vector Ry R l2  m 2  n2 
addition, R  R x  R y
 R x2  R y2  R z2
X
Now as for any vector ˆ
A  An Rx cos 2   cos 2   cos 2   1
Fig. 0.8 R x2  R y2  R z2
so, R x  ˆi R x and R y  ˆjR y

so R  ˆi R x  ˆjR y
Note :  When a point P have coordinate (x, y, z)
then its position vector OP  xˆi  yˆj  z kˆ
…(i)
 When a particle moves from point (x1, y1, z1) to (x2,
But from figure R x  R cos 
y2, z2) then its displacement vector
…(ii)

and R y  R sin  …(iii) r  ( x 2  x 1 )ˆi  (y 2  y1 )ˆj  (z 2  z 1 )kˆ

Since R and  are usually known, Equation (ii) and (iii) give the
magnitude of the components of R along x and y-axes respectively.
Here it is worthy to note once a vector is resolved into its
components, the components themselves can be used to specify the
vector as
(1) The magnitude of the vector R is obtained by squaring
and adding equation (ii) and (iii), i.e.
Scalar Product of Two Vectors
(1) Definition : The scalar product (or dot product) of two
vectors is defined as the product of the magnitude of two vectors with
cosine of angle between them.
Thus if there are two vectors A and B having angle 
between them, then their scalar product written as A . B is defined
as A . B  AB cos 

R  R x2  R y2 (2) Properties : (i) It is always a scalar

which is positive if angle between the vectors is B
(2) The direction of the vector R is obtained by dividing acute (i.e., < 90°) and negative if angle between
equation (iii) by (ii), i.e. them is obtuse (i.e. 90°< < 180°). 

(ii) It is commutative, i.e.

tan   (R y / R x ) or   tan 1 (R y / R x )
A.B  B. A
A
Fig. 0.10
 4 Vectors
(iii) It is distributive, i.e. A . (B  C )  A . B  A . C Magnetic flux through an area is given by
d   B ds cos  …(i)
(iv) As by definition A . B  AB cos 
But by definition of scalar product B . d s  Bds cos 
 A.B 
The angle between the vectors   cos
1
  ...(ii)
 AB 
  So from eqn (i) and (ii) we have
(v) Scalar product of two vectors will be maximum when
cos   max  1, i.e.   0 o , i.e., vectors are parallel
d  B . d s or    B.ds

(iv) Potential energy of a dipole U : If an electric dipole of

( A . B)max  AB
moment p is situated in an electric field E or a magnetic dipole of
(vi) Scalar product of two vectors will be minimum when moment M in a field of induction B, the potential energy of the
| cos  |  min  0, i.e.   90 o dipole is given by :

( A . B)min  0 U E   p . E and U B   M . B

i.e. if the scalar product of two nonzero vectors vanishes the Vector Product of Two Vectors
vectors are orthogonal.
(1) Definition : The vector product or cross product of two
(vii) The scalar product of a vector by itself is termed as self vectors is defined as a vector having a magnitude equal to the product
dot product and is given by ( A)2  A . A  AA cos   A 2 of the magnitudes of two vectors with the sine of angle between them,
and direction perpendicular to the plane containing the two vectors in
i.e. A  A. A accordance with right hand screw rule.
(viii) In case of unit vector n̂ C  AB
ˆ .n
n ˆ  1  1  cos 0  1 so Thus, if A and B are two vectors, then their vector
ˆ .k
ˆ  ˆi . ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  k
ˆ .n
n ˆ 1 product written as A  B is a vector C defined by
C  A  B  AB sin  n
ˆ
(ix) In case of orthogonal unit vectors ˆi , ˆj and k̂ ,
ˆ  k
ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . k ˆ . ˆi  1  1 cos 90   0

(x) In terms of components

A . B  (iA x  jA y  k A z ). (iB x  jB y  k B z )

 [ A x B x  Ay By  A Z B z ]

(3) Example : (i) Work W : In physics for constant force work

Fig. 0.12
is defined as, W  Fs cos  …(i)
But by definition of scalar product of two vectors, The direction of A  B, i.e. C is perpendicular to the
F. s  Fs cos 
plane containing vectors A and B and in the sense of advance of a
…(ii)
right handed screw rotated from A (first vector) to B (second
So from eqn (i) and (ii) W  F.s i.e. work is the scalar vector) through the smaller angle between them. Thus, if a right
product of force with displacement. handed screw whose axis is perpendicular to the plane framed by A
(ii) Power P : and B is rotated from A to B through the smaller angle
dW ds between them, then the direction of advancement of the screw gives
As W  F.s or  F. [As F is the direction of A  B i.e. C
dt dt
constant] (2) Properties
or P  F .v i.e., power is the scalar product of force with (i) Vector product of any two vectors is always a vector
perpendicular to the plane containing these two vectors, i.e.,
 orthogonal to both the vectors A and B, though the vectors A
velocity. ds 
and B may or may not be orthogonal.
 dW ds  B
 As  P and  v (ii) Vector product of two vectors is not commutative, i.e.,

 dt dt 

 A  B  B  A [but   B  A]
(iii) Magnetic Flux  :
Here it is worthy to note that
O

Fig. 0.11
 Vectors 5

| A  B | | B  A |  AB sin  (i) Torque   r  F

i.e. in case of vector A  B and B  A magnitudes are (ii) Angular momentum L  r  p

equal but directions are opposite. (iii) Velocity v    r
(iii) The vector product is distributive when the order of the
(iv) Force on a charged particle q moving with velocity v in
vectors is strictly maintained, i.e.
a magnetic field B is given by F  q (v  B)
A  (B  C )  A  B  A  C
(v) Torque on a dipole in a field  E  p  E and
(iv) The vector product of two vectors will be maximum when
sin   max  1, i.e.,   90 o B  M  B

ˆ
[ A  B]max  AB n Lami's Theorem
i.e. vector product is maximum if the vectors are orthogonal. In any  A B C with sides a, b , c

(v) The vector product of two non- zero vectors will be minimum sin  sin  sin 
 
when | sin  |  minimum = 0, i.e.,   0 o or 180 o a b c
180 – 
[ A  B]min  0

i.e. if the vector product of two non-zero vectors vanishes, the
vectors are collinear. c b
(vi) The self cross product, i.e., product of a vector by itself
  180 – 
vanishes, i.e., is null vector A  A  AA sin 0 o n
ˆ 0

(vii) In case of unit vector 180 –  a

ˆ  0 so
ˆ n
n that
ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0 Fig. 0.14
i.e. for any triangle the ratio of the sine of the angle containing
ˆ
(viii) In case of orthogonal unit vectors, ˆi , ˆj, k in the side to the length of the side is a constant.
accordance with right hand screw rule : For a triangle whose three sides are in the same order we
establish the Lami's theorem in the following manner. For the triangle
ˆj ˆj shown

a  b  c  0 [All three sides are taken in order] …(i)

k̂  …(ii)
a  b  c
î î
Pre-multiplying both sides by a
k̂ Fig. 0.13 a  (a  b )  a  c  0  a  b  a  c
ˆ,
ˆi  ˆj  k ˆ  ˆi
ˆj  k and kˆ  ˆi  ˆj  ab  ca …(iii)
And as cross product is not commutative,
Pre-multiplying both sides of (ii) by b
ˆ , k
ˆj  ˆi  k ˆ  ˆj  ˆi and ˆi  k
ˆ  ˆj
b  (a  b )   b  c  b  a  b  b  b  c
(x) In terms of components
  a  b  b  c  a  b  b  c
ˆi ˆj kˆ …(iv)
A  B  Ax Ay Az
From (iii) and (iv), we get a  b  b  c  c  a
Bx By Bz
Taking magnitude, we get | a  b | | b  c | | c  a |
 ˆi ( A y B z  A z B y )
 ab sin(180   )  bc sin(180   )  ca sin(180   )
 ˆj( A z B x  A x B z )  kˆ ( A x B y  A y B x )
 ab sin   bc sin   ca sin 
(3) Example : Since vector product of two vectors is a vector,
Dividing through out by abc, we have
vector physical quantities (particularly representing rotational effects)
like torque, angular momentum, velocity and force on a moving charge sin  sin  sin 
in a magnetic field and can be expressed as the vector product of two   
a b c
vectors. It is well – established in physics that :
 6 Vectors
Relative Velocity  
be , then
(iv) If the angle between 1 and  2
(1) Introduction : When we consider the motion of a particle,
we assume a fixed point relative to which the given particle is in
motion. For example, if we say that water is flowing or wind is

 r12  12   22 – 21 2 cos   1/2
.

blowing or a person is running with a speed v, we mean that these all

(3) Relative velocity of satellite : If a satellite is moving in
are relative to the earth (which we have assumed to be fixed).

Y equatorial plane with velocity v and a point on the surface of earth
Y s
P

with v relative to the centre of earth, the velocity of satellite
e
r
PS '
r relative to the surface of earth
PS
X   
S
rS ' S vse  v s  v e
S X
So if the satellite moves form west to east (in the direction of
Fig. 0.15
rotation of earth on its axis) its velocity relative to earth's surface will
Now to find the velocity of a moving object relative to another
moving object, consider a particle P whose position relative to frame S be v se  v s  v e
 
is rPS while relative to S is r
PS 
. And if the satellite moves from east to west, i.e., opposite to the

 motion of earth, v se  v s  (v e )  v s  v e

If the position of frames S relative to S at any time is r
S S
(4) Relative velocity of rain : If rain is falling vertically with a
  
then from figure, r  r   r  
PS PS S S 
velocity v R and an observer is moving horizontally with speed v
M
Differentiating this equation with respect to time
     
the velocity of rain relative to observer will be v
drPS dr dr RM  v R  v M
 PS   S S
dt dt dt which by law of vector addition has magnitude
    
or v PS  v PS   v S S [as v  d r /dt ] v RM  v R2  v M
2

or
   direction   tan 1 (v M / v R ) with the vertical as shown in
v PS   v PS  v S S
fig.
(2) General Formula : The relative velocity of a particle P1
  – vM 
moving with velocity v1 with respect to another particle P2 moving vR
vR
  
vR 
  
with velocity v 2 is given by, v r = v1 – v 2 vM vM
12

v1 Fig. 0.17
v2
P2
(5) Relative velocity of swimmer : If a man can swim relative
Fig. 0.16 P1

to water with velocity v and water is flowing relative to ground with
(i) If both the particles are moving in the same direction then :
 
 r12  1 –  2 velocity v R velocity of man relative to ground v M will be given

(ii) If the two particles are moving in the opposite direction, by:
then :      
r12  1   2 v  v M  v R , i.e., v M  v  v R

(iii) If the two particles are moving in the mutually So if the swimming is in the direction of flow of water,
perpendicular directions, then: vM  v  vR
r12  12   22
 Vectors 7

And if the swimming is opposite to the flow of water, w r

vM  v  vR
AB  r t 2   r or AB  w
m m
(6) Crossing the river : Suppose, the river is flowing with
 
velocity  r . A man can swim in still water with velocity  m . He is
standing on one bank of the river and wants to cross the river, two
cases arise.

(i) To cross the river over shortest distance : That is to cross the
river straight, the man should swim making angle  with the upstream  All physical quantities having direction are not vectors. For
as shown. example, the electric current possesses direction but it is a scalar
 quantity because it can not be added or multiplied according to the
A vr B rules of vector algebra.

 A vector can have only two rectangular components in plane
  and only three rectangular components in space.
vr
w  v
vm  A vector can have any number, even infinite components.
 (minimum 2 components)

 Following quantities are neither vectors nor scalars : Relative
Upstream O Downstream
density, density, viscosity, frequency, pressure, stress, strain,
Fig. 0.18 modulus of elasticity, poisson’s ratio, moment of inertia, specific
Here OAB is the triangle of vectors, in which heat, latent heat, spring constant loudness, resistance, conductance,
      reactance, impedance, permittivity, dielectric constant,
OA  v m , AB   r . Their resultant is given by OB   . The permeability, susceptibility, refractive index, focal length, power of
direction of swimming makes angle  with upstream. From the lens, Boltzman constant, Stefan’s constant, Gas constant,
triangle OBA, we find, Gravitational constant, Rydberg constant, Planck’s constant etc.
 Distance covered is a scalar quantity.
 
cos   r Also sin   r  The displacement is a vector quantity.
m m
 Scalars are added, subtracted or divided algebraically.
Where  is the angle made by the direction of swimming with  Vectors are added and subtracted geometrically.
the shortest distance (OB) across the river.
 Division of vectors is not allowed as directions cannot be
Time taken to cross the river : If w be the width of the river, divided.
then time taken to cross the river will be given by  Unit vector gives the direction of vector.
w w  Magnitude of unit vector is 1.
t1  
  m2 –  r2  Unit vector has no unit. For example, velocity of an object is 5
ms–1 due East.
(ii) To cross the river in shortest possible time : The man should 
i.e. v  5 ms 1 due east.
swim perpendicular to the bank.

The time taken to cross the river will be: v 5 ms 1 (East)
vˆ     East
| v| 5 ms 1
w
t2 
m So unit vector v̂ has no unit as East is not a physical quantity.

A vr B  Unit vector has no dimensions.
 ˆ .k
ˆi . ˆi  ˆj . ˆj  k ˆ 1

 
 ˆi  ˆi  ˆj  ˆj  kˆ  kˆ  0
w vm vr

 ˆ , ˆj  k
ˆi  ˆj  k ˆ  ˆi , k
ˆ  ˆi  ˆj

 ˆ  k
ˆi . ˆj  ˆj . k ˆ . ˆi  0
Upstream O Downstream          
 A  A  0 . Also A  A  0 But A  A  A  A
Fig. 0.19
     
In this case, the man will touch the opposite bank at a distance Because A  A  A and A  A is collinear with A
AB down stream. This distance will be given by:  Multiplication of a vector with –1 reverses its direction.
 8 Vectors
 
ˆ B
If A  B , then A = B and A ˆ . R max  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 0  | P  Q |
  
ˆ  B
If A  B  0 , then A = B but A ˆ .  Resultant of two vectors will be minimum when  = 180° i.e.
vectors are anti-parallel.
 Minimum number of collinear vectors whose resultant can be
Rmin  P 2  Q 2  2 PQ cos 180  | P  Q |
zero is two.
Thus, minimum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal to the
 Minimum number of coplaner vectors whose resultant is zero difference of their magnitude.
is three.  Thus, maximum value of the resultant of two vectors is equal
 Minimum number of non coplaner vectors whose resultant is to the sum of their magnitude.
zero is four. When the magnitudes of two vectors are unequal, then
 Two vectors are perpendicular to each other if
 
A. B  0 .
R min  P  Q  0
 
  [| P | | Q |]
 Two vectors are parallel to each other if A  B  0 .  
Thus, two vectors P and Q having different magnitudes can
 Displacement, velocity, linear momentum and force are polar
never be combined to give zero resultant. From here, we conclude
vectors.
that the minimum number of vectors of unequal magnitude whose
 Angular velocity, angular acceleration, torque and angular resultant can be zero is three. On the other hand, the minimum
momentum are axial vectors. number of vectors of equal magnitude whose resultant can be zero
is two.
 Division with a vector is not defined because it is not possible  
to divide with a direction.  Angle between two vectors A and B is given by
 
A. B
 Distance covered is always positive quantity. cos    
| A| | B|
 The components of a vectors can have magnitude than that of  
the vector itself.  Projection of a vector A in the direction of vector B
 
A. B
 The rectangular components cannot have magnitude greater  
than that of the vector itself. | B|
 
 When we multiply a vector with 0 the product becomes a null  Projection of a vector B in the direction of vector A
 
vector. A. B
 
 The resultant of two vectors of unequal magnitude can never | A|
  
be a null vector.  If vectors A, B and C are represented by three sides
 Three vectors not lying in a plane can never add up to give a ab, bc and ca respectively taken in a order, then
  
null vector. | A| | B| | C |
 
 A quantity having magnitude and direction is not necessarily a ab bc ca
vector. For example, time and electric current. These quantities  The vectors ˆi  ˆj  kˆ is equally inclined to the coordinate
have magnitude and direction but they are scalar. This is because axes at an angle of 54.74 degrees.
they do not obey the laws of vector addition.      
 If A  B  C , then A . B  C  0 .
     
 A physical quantity which has different values in different  If A . B  C  0 , then A . B and C are coplanar.
 
directions is called a tensor. For example : Moment of inertia has  If angle between A and B is 45°,
different values in different directions. Hence moment of inertia is a    
then A . B | A  B |
tensor. Other examples of tensor are refractive index, stress, strain,     
density etc.  If A1  A 2  A 3  ......  A n  0 and
 The magnitude of rectangular components of a vector is A1  A 2  A 3  ......  An then the adjacent vector are
always less than the magnitude of the vector inclined to each other at angle 2 / n .
    
 If A  B , then A x  B x , A y  B y and A z  B z .  If A  B  C and A 2  B 2  C 2 , then the angle between
          
 If A  B  C . Or if A  B  C  0 , then A, B and A and B is 90°. Also A, B and C can have the following values.
 (i) A = 3, B = 4, C = 5
C lie in one plane.
   
(ii) A = 5, B = 12, C = 13

 If A  B  C , then C is perpendicular to A as well as (iii) A = 8, B = 15, C = 17.

B .
     
 If | A  B | | A  B | , then angle between A and B
is 90°.
 Resultant of two vectors will be maximum when  = 0° i.e.
vectors are parallel.