MATH 101 - Informal Limits Continued: S Sial

Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity
MATH 101 - Informal limits continued
S Sial
Dept of Mathematics
LUMS
revised 12 Sep 2019

Outline
Difference formulas
Continuous functions
Squeeze theorem
Limit of sin(x)/x at 0
Limits at infinity
Difference formulas
Difference formulas
Difference of squares
Recall
a2 − b 2 = (a − b)(a + b)
Difference of cubes
Recall
a3 − b 3 = (a − b)(a2 b 0 + a1 b 1 + a0 b 2 ) = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b 2 )
Difference of positive integer powers
For n a positive integer
an − b n =
(a − b)(an−1 b 0 + an−2 b 1 + an−3 b 2 + · · · + a2 b n−3 + ab n−2 + a0 b n−1 )
(a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b 2 + · · · + a2 b n−3 + ab n−2 + b n−1 )
Difference formulas
Difference formulas can help us do some limits.

Example
Limit
x −b x−
b
lim 3 3
= lim
x→b x − b x→b (x− b)(x + xb + b 2
2
1
= lim 2
x→b x + xb + b 2
1
= 2
b + b · b + b2
1
=
3b 2
Example
Limit
x −b −b)
(x
lim = lim

x→b x 4 − b 4 x→b (x 3 + x 2 b + xb 2 + b 3 )
−b)(x
1
= lim 3
x→b x + x b + xb 2 + b 3
2
1
= 3
b + b · b + b · b2 + b3
2
1
=
4b 3
Example
For n a positive integer
x −b x−b
lim = limx→b (x−b)(x n−1 +x n−2 b+···+b n−1 )
x→b x n − bn
1
= limx→b x n−1 +x n−2 b+···+b n−1
= nb1n−1
Idea
A function is continuous at a point if the function value and the
limit value are the same at the point. There is no hole or break in
the graph of the function at the point.
Real-valued f : U → V conts at x0 if
a) f (x0 ) defined.
b) limx→x0 f (x) exists.
c) limx→x0 f (x) = f (x0 )
Limit evaluation
If f conts at x0 its limit at x0 is f (x0 ).
Examples of functions conts at all reals

polynomials, sin, cos, exp
Examples of functions conts ’most’ reals

tan/cot/sec/csc except at .., 1/x except at ... , log except at ...
Example
f : R → R defined by
f (x) = 1 + x + x 2
Evaluate
lim f (x)
x→π
As polynomials are continuous everywhere, the limit can be found

by evaluating the function at π.
Rules for conts fns
Sum
If f : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R and g : U ⊂ R → V ⊂ R conts at x = x0
then f + g is conts at x0 .
Rules for conts fns
Difference
then f − g is conts at x0 .
Rules for conts fns
Product
then f · g is conts at x0 .
Rules for conts fns
Quotient
then f /g is conts at x0 unless g (x0 ) = 0.
Example
Evaluate
x2 + 4
lim
x→3 x 3 − 1
Example contd
What kind of fns are we dealing with?

The numerator is a polynomial, the denominator is a polynomial.
Polynomials are conts everywhere so their quotient is conts
everywhere except where the denominator is zero.
Example contd
So
x2 + 4 32 + 4
lim =
x→3 x 3 − 1 33 − 1
13
=
26
1
=
2
Squeeze/Sandwich/Pinching theorem
Idea
It may be difficult to find the limit of a function at a point. If we
can squeeze it between two other functions that have the same
limit at the point, then we may be able to find the limit of the
original function.
Squeeze/Sandwich/Pinching theorem
Suppose
lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

x→x0 x→x0
and g is a function such that
f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x)

on an interval containing x0 (except possibly at x0 itself).
Then
lim g (x) = L
x→x0
Example
Evaluate

21
lim x sin
x→0 x
Example contd
Recall
The sin function (where it is defined) takes values between -1 and
+1.
So for x 6= 0
−1 ≤ sin(1/x) ≤ 1
Example contd
Multiplying by x 2
−x 2 ≤ sin(1/x) ≤ x 2
Example contd
Consider the limits of the bounding functions
lim −x 2 = 0 = lim x 2
x→0 x→0
Example contd
Then by the squeeze theorem
lim f (x) = 0
x→0
Example contd
Note
We use the squeeze theorem to avoid thinking about the
’squeezed’ function and evaluate the simpler limit of the
’squeezing’ functions instead.
Example
f : R → R defined by
(
x 2, x ∈Q
f (x) =
0, x 6∈ Q
Evaluate
lim f (x)
x→0
Example contd
Note
f (x) can take two values, 0 and x 2 . And for all reals x
0 ≤ 0 ≤ x2
0 ≤ x2 ≤ x2
Example contd
Then for all reals x
0 ≤ f (x) ≤ x 2
For the bounding functions, we can use
0, x 2
Example contd
Limits of the bounding functions
lim 0 = 0 = lim x 2
x→0 x→0
Example contd
Then by the squeeze theorem
lim f (x) = 0
x→0
A famous limit
There is a proof in the text for
sin(x)
lim = 1
x→0 x
Example
Evaluate
sin(9x)
lim
x→0 x
Example contd
Is this a known form? Almost.
So we do some algebraic manipulation to put it in a known

form.
Example contd
Evaluating
sin(9x) sin(9x)
lim = lim 9
x→0 x x→0 9x
sin(9x)
= 9 lim
x→0 9x
= 9·1
Exercise
Evaluate
sin(x)
lim
x→0 9x
Exercise
Evaluate
sin(x 2 )
lim
x→0 x
Limits at infinity
Limits at infinity
Limits at infinity
Notation
lim f (x) = L
x→∞
means that as x gets arbitrarily large and positive the value f (x)
becomes arbitrarily close to L.
Limits at infinity
x 2 + sin(x) x 2 (1 + sin(x)/x 2 )
lim = lim
x→∞ x2 − 1 x→∞ x 2 (1 − 1/x 2 )
1 + sin(x)/x 2
= lim
x→∞ 1 − 1/x 2
lim(1 + sin(x)/x 2 )
=
lim(1 − 1/x 2 )
1
=
1
= 1
Limits at infinity
Similarly
lim f (x) = L
x→−∞
means that as x gets arbitrarily large and negative the value f (x)
becomes arbitrarily close to L.
Squeeze theorem for limits at infinity
A version of the squeeze theorem works for limits at infinity
Example
Noting that
−1 ≤ sin(x) ≤ + 1
Evaluate
sin(x)
lim
x→∞ x

MATH 101 - Informal Limits Continued: S Sial

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Outline Difference formulas Continuous functions Squeeze theorem Limit of sin(x)/x at 0 Limits at infinity

MATH 101 - Informal limits continued

revised 12 Sep 2019

Difference of positive integer powers

For n a positive integer

Difference formulas can help us do some limits.

For n a positive integer

Examples of functions conts at all reals

Examples of functions conts ’most’ reals

As polynomials are continuous everywhere, the limit can be found

Rules for conts fns

Rules for conts fns

Rules for conts fns

Rules for conts fns

What kind of fns are we dealing with?

lim f (x) = L = lim h(x)

and g is a function such that

f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h(x)

Consider the limits of the bounding functions

Then by the squeeze theorem

Then for all reals x

For the bounding functions, we can use

Limits of the bounding functions

Then by the squeeze theorem

There is a proof in the text for

Is this a known form? Almost.

So we do some algebraic manipulation to put it in a known

Squeeze theorem for limits at infinity

A version of the squeeze theorem works for limits at infinity

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