AICLL 2019
The Second Annual International Conference on Language and Literature
Corresponding Author:
Ambalegin
abhi140475@gmail.com
Received: 1 July 2019
Accepted: 18 July 2019
Published: 31 July 2019
Ambalegin and Tomi
Arianto. This article is distributed
under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use
and redistribution provided that
the original author and source
are credited.
Selection and Peer-review under
the responsibility of the AICLL
2019 Conference Committee.
: Ambalegin and Tomi Arianto, (2019), “A Phonology-based Study: English Pronunciation Inconsistency” in
Volume 2019
Universitas Putera Batam (UPB), Batam, Indonesia
English is not a one-to-one relationship between letters and pronunciation. There is mostly
no correspondence between written word and spoken word. English pronunciation
inconsistency made EFL learners erroneous while pronouncing. This phonology-based
study discussed the English pronunciation inconsistency qualitatively. It identified the
inconsistency of vowels and consonants pronounced in words and the areas of English
pronunciation inconsistency. This study applied Yule, Finegan, and Kelly’s theories. a is
sounded as /eɪ/ /ə/ /æ/ /ɑ:/ / :/ /I/ /ɒ/; e is sounded as /i:/ /e/ /ə/ /ɑ:/ /u:/; i is sounded as /
ʌI/ /I/ / :/ /ɑ:/; o is sounded as /əʊ/ /ɒ/ /ʌ/ /ɑ:/ /ʊ/ /I/ /ə/ / :/ /wʌ/; and u is sounded as /jʊ/ /
ʌ/ /I/ /ə/ /e/ /ʊə/. c, d, g, j, n, p, s, t, w, x, y, z are pronounced inconsistently. c is sounded
as /s/ /tʃ/ /k/ /ʃ/; d is sounded as /d/ /dʒ/ /t/; g is sounded as /g/ /dʒ/ /f/; j is sounded
as /dʒ/ /h/ /j/; n is sounded as /n/ /ŋ/; p is sounded as /p/ /f/; q is sounded as /k/; s
is sounded as /s/ /z/ /ʃ/ /ʒ/; t is sounded as /t/ / / / / /tʃ/ /ʃ/; w is sounded as /w/ /ʊ/;
x is sounded as /ks/ /kʃ/ /ɡz/ /z/; y is sounded as /ə/ /i/ /ai/ /j/; and z is sounded as /
z/ /ts/. The areas of inconstancy in English pronunciation occur in; same letter different
sounds; same sound different letters; silent letters; and sound production with no letters.
consonants, inconsistency, pronunciation, vowels
Once I spoke to my lecturers, because I mispronounced the words. They asked me,
“What you said?” I became so embarrassed. I remembered my tears were on my
cheeks. This experience was from the sixth semester English Department Student.
Indeed, the problem in pronouncing the English words occurs for EFL learners. Fraser
(as cited in Gilakjani, 2016) explained that being able to speak English includes a number
of sub-skills of which pronunciation is by far the most important (other sub-skills of
speaking include vocabulary, grammar, and pragmatic), and she argued that with good
pronunciation, a speaker is intelligible despite other errors; with poor pronunciation,
understanding a speaker will be very difficult, despite accuracy in other areas. Cogni-
tively, five problem areas among the EFL leaners’ reluctance on speaking English are
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grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, structure and meaning (Ambalegin, Suhardianto,

& Kaprawi, 2017, p. 123).
Poor pronunciation is one factor that makes EFL learners reluctant to speak English
(Ambalegin et al., 2017, p. 125). L1 errors of pronunciation very commonly involve
switching sounds between words that are separated from each other; such switches
suggest that the pronunciation of words must be prepared in batches prior to pro-
nunciation (Carter & Nunan, 2001). Hinofotis and Baily (as cited in Ahmadi & Gilakjani,
2011) stated that the fault which most severally impairs the communication process in
ESL/EFL learners is pronunciation, not vocabulary or grammar. Pronunciation is one of
the important elements to convey idea or information in terms of oral way. Pronunciation
is the manner where someone utters a word (Ambalegin & Arianto, 2018, p. 122).
Based on the interview of the English Department Students, while they were learning
English pronunciation, they learned the phonetic symbols and learned to pronounce
some English words as well as in the module. They didn’t learn when a was
pronounced as /eɪ, ə, æ, ɑ:, :, I, or ɒ/ because the module shows mostly the phonetic
symbols and the correct pronunciation of phonetic symbols. Teaching pronunciation
actually is very crucial for the EFL learners. Teaching pronunciation is usually focused
on the articulation of consonants and vowels, and suprasegmental. However, many
teaching materials still do not make clear that pronunciation is just one tiny piece of the
whole course credits. Seidlhofer (as cited in Celce-Murcia, 2001) stated, “pronunciation
is never an end in itself but a means of negotiating meaning in discourse, embedded in
sociocultural and interpersonal contexts”. Pronunciation instruction needs to be taught
as communicative interaction along with other aspects of spoken discourse such as
pragmatic meaning and nonverbal communication.
Incorrectness of English pronunciation occurred on local TV advertisement. There
were advertisements advertising the local orchid plant and hotel. The female informants
pronounced orchid as /ɒrtʃIt/ and comfortable as /kɒnfɒrtebəl/. There were many
English words which are pronounced incorrectly. The common English words that
people nowadays pronounced incorrectly are finger as /fInʝer/, orchid as /ɒrtʃIt/,
examine as /ekzemʌIn/, invite as /InpIt/, paste as /pʌste/, entrepreneur as /enterprenər/,
mild as /mIl/, paradise as /pʌrʌdIs/, etc. Seidlhofer (Carter & Nunan, 2001, p. 61) noted
that the errors of pronunciation that learners of English from different language
backgrounds make are systematic and not accidental. Kenworthy (1987, pp. 4-7)
mentioned the more differences of sound characteristics of the native language from
English, the more difficulties L1 speakers will find to pronounce English.

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The phenomenon of English word mispronunciation in society is not a mistake for

Indonesians. Ideally, the spelling system should closely reflect pronunciation and in
many languages that indeed is the case. Each sound of English language is represented
by more than one written letter or by sequences of letters; and any letter of English
represents more than one sound, or it may not represent any sound at all. There is
lack of consistencies. Commenting on these inconsistencies, English forcefully and
uncompromisingly expresses the opinion that the spelling of English is so far as its
relation to the spoken word. English pronunciation on the other hand has undergone
many far-reaching changes since Caxton’s time which is one of the obvious reasons
why there is no correspondence between the written word and the spoken word.
English shows the inconsistency in pronouncing the word because one single letter
of the English alphabet can be pronounced differently in different words. Lagefoged
(2006, p. 35) stated that most of the sound symbols are the same letters used in
spelling the English words, but there are a few different. English is defective. One
single letter of the alphabet cannot stand with one single phonetic symbol. Mostly the
pronunciation textbooks showed the phonetic symbols but did not show one letter in
the alphabet for one phonetic symbol in words. This study conducted the research
neither the mispronunciation of EFL learners nor the reason why the EFL learners’
mispronunciation. This study focused on the inconsistency mapping of English word
pronunciation in term of the different sounds of each letter in the alphabet in words.
It is very important to know how each letter acts in English words. This study identified
different sounds for each letter. By mapping the sound representing the letter, it could
be easy to detect the sound produced in words. Failure to represent pronunciation
accurately and consistently is the English learners’ intrusion. Pronunciation plays a
central role in both our personal and our social lives: as individuals, we project our
identity through the way we speak, and also indicate our membership of particular
communities (Seidlhofer as cited in Carter & Nunan, 2001, p. 56). At the same time, and
sometimes also in conflict with this identity function, our pronunciation is responsible for
intelligibility: whether or not we can convey our meaning (Seidlhofer as cited in Carter
& Nunan, 2001, p. 56).

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Air passes through different shapes of the mouth, and different positions of the tongue
and the lips, and the air streams relatively unblocked to narrow passages except at the
glottis; it is the vowels produced (Finegan as cited in Ambalegin & Suryani, 2018).
Lagefoged & Disner (2012) described that vowels are a production of sounds with
relatively little obstruction in the vocal tract. Based on the characteristics of the
articulation, there are three categories vowel sounds; closed vowel sounds /i:, ɪ, ʊ, u:/,
mid vowel sounds /e, ə, :, :/, and open vowel sounds /æ, ʌ, ɑ:, ɒ/.

The long and short vowels are important in English to distinct feature in the language.
Ship as /ʃip/ and sheep as /ʃi:p/ have different meaning because of different vowel
sound length. The long vowel is shown by a colon (McMahon, 2002).

There are some letters which are not pronounced in English words. Also vowels often
tend to be omitted in English. For instance, fruit is pronounced as /fru:t/ that there is no
i pronounced. Vowels are omitted in some contexts because some extended
following syllabic consonants /l, m, n/ in the syllable will absorb the vowel sound such as
gaggle as /gægl/, bottom as /bɒtm/, and important as /imp :tnt/.

All vowels are nasalized when air passes through the nose and through the mouth.
Nasalized vowels are indicated by a tilde (∼) that is marked above the vowels.

Finegan (2008) stated that in case the tongue starts in one place and glides to another
when a vowel sound is produced called diphthong. Kelly (2004) also mentioned that
diphthong is the combination of two vowels where tongue glides from one vowel
articulation to another vowel position. Based on the characteristics of the articulation,

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three categories diphthong sounds; centering diphthongs /ɪə, ʊə, eə/, closing
diphthong ending in /ɪ/ (/eɪ, ɪ, aɪ/), and closing diphthong ending in /ʊ/ (/əʊ, aʊ/).

English does not really have triphthong because no phonemic sequence of three vowel
sounds occupies the same syllable in English. All components of a triphthong must
occur in the same syllable. Roach (2012) stated that English triphthongs have the most
complicated vowel sounds as they are difficult to be pronounced, and recognized. A
triphthong is the combination of three vowel sounds where tongue rapidly and
uninterruptedly moves away from first vowel articulation to another vowel position, then
to a third vowel. Roach (2012) listed the triphthongs with five close diphthongs with
schwa /ə/ eɪə (as in mayor, crayon), aɪə (as in choir, buyer), ɔɪə (as in loyal, royal), əʊə (as
in lower, mower), and aʊə (as in flower, coward).

English consonants have 24 phonemes. Consonants are sounds produced with a lot
of tightness in the mouth as air comes up from the lungs and gets squashed. The
consonants in English pronunciation is included in segmental phonemes (Low, 2015).
A consonant is pronounced by a partial or complete close of vocal tract (Finegan,
2015). Speech sound is able to be characterized based on the articulatory properties.
The consonants are described in three characteristics: voicing, place of articulation,
and manner of articulation (Low, 2015). Completely, Low (2015) described three term
labels describing the main characteristic.

It can be seen by distinguishing between /s/ and /z/. When /z/ and /s/ are pronounced,
the position of tongue within the mouth remains the same, but these sounds are
definitely different from the vibration in the larynx when pronounces /z/. It is called
voicing (Low, 2015).

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Place of articulation shows the different sound because of the airstream in the lips,
oral cavity, nasal, pharynx and glottis (Low, 2015). Places of articulation; ,
, , , , , and can be seen the detail below
(Yule, 2014).

The sound is produced using upper (bi) and lower lips (labia) such as symbol [p]
(voiceless /p/), symbol [b] (voiced /b/) and symbol [m] (voiced /m/). Symbol [w]
is bilabial in , ,

The sound is produced using upper teeth and the lower lip such as symbol [f] ,
symbols [p] (voiceless /f/), and symbol [v] (voiced /v/) and , and
(the final sounds /f/ and /v/).

The tongue tip behind upper front teeth pronounces dental sound. Think and teeth are
voiceless dentals symbolized with theta /θ/. The, there, then, feather are voiced dental
symbolized with /ð/, usually called “eth.”

The sound is produced using front tongue on the alveolar ridge such as , , ,
and . /t, s/ are voiceless whereas /z, n, d/ are voiced. /l/ in and and /r/
in and is other alveolar.

Hard palate is behind the alveolar ridge, a hard part in the mouth roof. Front tongue and
hard palate produces palatals or alveo-palatals. She and church are voiceless palatals.
sh is symbolized as /ʃ/ and ch is symbolized as / /. Measure is voiced

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as / ʒ/ . udge i s also voiced palatals symbolized as / /. / j/ i s t he other voiced palatal

such as you and yet.

Soft palate or velum is back in the mouth roof; beyond the hard palate. Back of the
tongue against the velum produces velars. A voiceless velar is symbolized as /k/ such
as and . A voiced velar is heard in , , and
symbolized as /g/. is represented by /ŋ/. /ŋ/ is nasal voiced velar because the air
flows through nasal cavity.

Glottal is pronounced with no tongue and other parts of the mouth actively. /h/ occurs
in . /h/ is voiceless glottal. Glottis is between vocal folds in larynx.
When the glottis opens and the air passes out of the mouth freely, /h/ is produced.

Manner of articulation is the way English consonants pronounced. According to Yule

(as cited in Maiza, 2014), manner of articulation in consonants are consists of stops,
affricative, nasal, liquid, fricative and glides which stated below.

Stop or plosive experiences from blocking or stopping effect of the air stream
Phonemes /b, d, g, k, p, and t/ are pronounced by some stopping of the air stream and
letting it go unexpectedly.

The combination of stopping and some friction produces voiceless affricates /ʧ/ and voiced
affricates /ʤ/.

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The position of velum is lowered and the air streams, and then finally flows out through
the nose to produce voiced nasals /m, n and ŋ/.

The air stream flows around the sides of the tongue as the tongue tip touches the
alveolar ridge. It is described as voiced liquids in /r/ and lateral voiced liquid /l/.

/f, v, , , s, z, ʃ, and ʒ/ are pronounced when the air stream is almost blocked and air is
pushed through the very narrow opening. Fricatives occur when there is a friction as the
air is pushed through.

The voiced glides are /w/ and /j/. They are also semi-vowels because they can act as
vowel /i/ and /ʊ/. Tongue glides to or from the vowels’ position when glide is
pronounced.

This study adapted the qualitative-descriptive method (Creswell, 2012). The object of the
research is the inconsistent sound patterns of the words. The English words represented
by phonetic symbols were the data to identify the pronunciation inconsistency. The data
were collected by applying the competence in identity method and non-participatory
technique (Sudaryanto, 2015). This study designed the adaptation of a referential identity
method (Sudaryanto, 2015) in conducting the analysis. This method was applied to
identify the relationship between letters and sounds which are produced inconsistently.

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1. The sound of letter < >

• /eɪ/ is pronounced in the words such as bake, cake, hate, lady, able, day, say,
Quaker (not for share, hare, daddy, warm).
• ə is pronounced in words such as , , , ,
, , (not for , , ) .
• is pronounced in words such as , , (not for
, , , , ).
• /ɑ:/ is pronounced in words such as far, car, are, bar (not for war).
• ͻ

• is pronounced in word such as

, .
• is pronounced in word such as .

2. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as , , , ,
.
• is pronounced in words such as , , , ,
• /ə/ is pronounced in words such as letter, later, father, mother, enter, center
• ɑ
• is pronounced in words such as
.

3. The sound of letter < >

• /aɪ/ is pronounced in words such as light, high, bicycle, glide, spider, iconic,
item, I, lime, shine, wine (not for wing, wind).
• /ɪ/ is pronounced in words such as hit, pig, sin, italic, it, lick, idiom, think,
blink, thing, wing, sing.
• is pronounced in words such as , , , .
• is pronounced in words such as , .

4. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as
(not for ) .

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• is pronounced in words such as ,

, .
• is pronounced in words such as
(not for ).
• / is pronounced in words such as , , ,
-.
• is pronounced in words such as , (not for
).
• is pronounced in a word such as
• is pronounced in words such as
• is pronounced in a word such as
• is pronounced in words such as , .

5. The sound of letter < >

• ʊ/ is pronounced in a word such as , ,

(not for prefix un- and ).
• ʌ/ is pronounced in a word such as

• is pronounced in a word such as

• ə/ is pronounced in a word such as,

• is pronounced in a word such as .

• is pronounced in r ral

1. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

2. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as ,

, .
• tʃ/ is pronounced in words such as
(not for ).

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• is pronounced in a word such as

, (not for
t /
• ʃ/ is pronounced in words such as

3. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in a word such as , .

• is pronounced in a word such as .
• is pronounced in verbs added by – such as .

4. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

5. The sound of letter < >

• dʒ/ is pronounced in the words such as

.
• is pronounced in the words such as , ,

• is pronounced in words such as , , ,

6. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as .

7. The sound of letter < >

• ʒ/ is pronounced in words such as .

• is pronounced in the words such as
• is pronounced in the words such as
• ʒ/ is pronounced in a word such as .

8. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

9. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

10. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

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11. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

• is pronounced in words such as
. is also pronounced as in
(not for , ). is then pronounced as in
, ,

12. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as
• is pronounced in words such as , , , .

13. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

14. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

• is pronounced in words such as , , , , ,

.

15. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as
• is pronounced in words such as , , .
• is pronounced in words such as , , , .
• ʁ/ is pronounced when words end with suffix –sion, -sual, -sure such as ,
, , , , .

16. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as
• θ/ is pronounced in words such as

• ð is pronounced in words such as

• tʃ/ is pronounced in words such as ,

• ʃ/ is pronounced when letter [t] is followed by suffix -ion such as

17. The sound of letter < >

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• is pronounced in words such as

18. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

• ʊ/ is pronounced when the position of the letter [w] is after the first syllable
sound such as , ,

19. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as

• kʃ/ is pronounced in words such as
• is pronounced in words such as
• is pronounced in words such as

20. The sound of letter < >

• ə/ is pronounced in words such as .

• is pronounced in words such as ,
• is pronounced in words such as

• is pronounced in the words such as

21. The sound of letter < >

• is pronounced in words such as ,

• is pronounced in words such , ,
(not for , ).
• is pronounced in words such , ,

1. Letters < >

The English words that end < > or < > produce silent < > and < > such as

2. Letters < >

The English words which have syllable sound ended by < > and < > produce
the silent letter < > and < > such as in the words ,

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(not for enou , tou ,

cou )

3. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < > such
as in the words .

4. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words .

5. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > or letter < > meets
letter < > such as in the words , of en, sof en, (not for
the )

6. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words

7. Letter < >

etter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words
and

8. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words .

9. Letter < >

etter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < > such
as in the words

10. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < > such
as in the words and

11. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words and .

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12. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words .

13. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words ,

14. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words and Letter
< > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < > such as
in the words , .

15. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >
such as in the words (not for )

16. Letter < >

Letter < > and < > will not be produced as a sound in a word such as

17. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound in a word

18. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets any consonants,
such as in .

19. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >,
such as in (not for the ).

20. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < > or
letter < > such as in .
21. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < }>
such as
and (not for ).

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22. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound in words such as

23. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound in word such as

24. Letter < >

Letter < > will not be produced as a sound when letter < > meets letter < >,
especially in one syllable sound word. There are found in words such as ,
.

The tables show the sounds production represented by the letters in English words.
One letter can be produced by more than one sound, and one sound produced in
English words can be represented by more than one letter.
Table 1: Sound Production of Vowels.

The areas of English pronunciation inconsistency are as follows.

1. The same letter of English alphabet does not always produce the same sound;

2. The same sound is not always produced by the same letter of English alphabet;
3. Some letters of English alphabet indicated in words are not produced as sounds;

<r, e, gh, c, h, g, t, b, l, s, h, d, k, w, b, lo, g, m, p, u, o, I, z, a>;

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Table 2: Sound Production of Consonants.

4. The sound is produced where there is no letter of English alphabet; /j, w/.

Letters in English alphabet experience the inconsistencies in their pronunciation. Almost

every single letter pronounced in the alphabet experiences difference sounds in words.
The pronunciation inconsistency mostly occurs in the vowels and some in the conso-
nants. In the pronunciation of English words, there are some letters pronounced silently,
there is a letter pronounced differently, there is a sound represented by different letters,
and there is a sound with no letter presented. The English pronunciation phenomenon
makes the EFL learners experience the difficulty in pronouncing the English words.
There are some letters in the English words pronounced silently. They experience as
in such words as , , , , . The letters in words do not
give contribution to the sound production. The letters are not meant to be pronounced.
There is no pattern or formula when to omit the sounds from the letters written in English
words.
A letter can support as many as two or more different sounds in a word or different
words. /k/ for cup, /tʃ/ for church, or /s/ for center is one of the phenomena for a letter
with different sounds pronounced in different words. Contrarily, there is a sound
represented by different letters such as /dʒ/ for education, /dʒ/ for gigolo, and /dʒ/ for
judge.
Finally, there is the intrusion of sound where there is no letter to indicate the sound.
The sound is produced while pronouncing the word meanwhile there is no letter rep-
resenting the sound. /j, t, f, or w/ are sounds produced without any letters representing
them such as /j/ for , /w/ for , /f/ for , or /t/ for . More-
over, Italian, Spanish, Indonesian and Japanese are examples of ‘phonetic’ languages
where there is essentially a one-to-one relationship between spelling and pronunciation
(Kelly, 2004). The letter-pronounced inconsistency makes an obstacle for learners of
English to pronounce English words correctly.

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