Gas Flow in Cements
P.R. Cheung, SPE, The Western Co. of North America
Robert M. Beirute, * SPE, The Western Co. of North America
Summary
During the last few decades, several laboratory investiga-
tions and field studies have been conducted in an attempt
to find solutions to the problem of gas migration after
primary or remedial cement jobs. This article reviews the
general findings of previous investigators and offers an
updated explanation of the mechanism of gas migration.
Results of our laboratory studies show that "mobili-
ty" of the fluids in the pore spaces during the early life
of the cement, particularly after the cement structure
becomes load-bearing at a given hydrostatic pressure, is
the main factor that must be controlled to minimize gas
migration within the cement lattice. We also show that
fluid-loss control alone, though helpful; is not sufficient
to stop gas migration.
This paper also describes an "impermeable" cement
system developed by applying the principles outlined in
the laboratory investigation. This impermeable cement has
been used in field applications in areas where severe gas
migration problems have been experienced after cement-
ing. Thus, gas migration through the cement has been
prevented when this new approach is used. Several of
these case histories are presented and discussed.
Introduction
Literature Review" For many years the petroleum in-
dustry has recognized the problem of gas invasion of
wellbores after cementing. In the early 1960's, Evans and
Carter 1,2 showed the importance of the condition of the
pipe surface (roughness and wettability) in obtaining an
effective bond at the casing/cement and cement/forma-
tion interfaces. In 1964, Bearden et at. 3 introduced a
special mechanical device that could be attached to the
casing to control interzonal communication. The device
consisted of a sealed ring of deformable rubber molded
between two steel flanges, one of them movable. In 1966,
Scott and Brace 4 reported that primary cementing was
improved by running resin-coated casing through com-
pletion intervals.
The first published attempt to explain the problem of
gas communication by means other than leakage at the
casing/cement and cement/formation interfaces was
presented by Carter and Slagle 5 in 1970. The concept of
the "inability of the cement column to effectively transmit
full hydrostatic pressure" was formally introduced to the
industry in that paper. In 1974, Stone and Christian 6 used
laboratory scale models to show that when the gas pressure
was higher than the hydrostatic pressure after the cement
had taken an initial set, a channel would form and gas
"Now with Amoco Production Co.
Copyright 1985 Society of Petroleum Engineers
JUNE 1985
would continue to migrate even after decreasing the for-
mation gas pressure. In their recommendations, the
authors brought up the need for good mud and cement
placement practices as well as for the usage of cement
slurries with good fluid-loss control and short setting
times.
The industry as a whole had been very aware of the
need for proper displacement of the cement slurry to
achieve.good primary cement jobs. Even as early as 1948,
Howard and Clark 7 dealt extensively with the factors to
be considered for proper casing cementing.
Following the steps of previous investigators, Chris-
tian et at. 8 in 1975 wrote a paper emphasizing the need
to use cement slurries with good fluid-loss control to pre-
vent gas migration. Their research indicated that
premature dehydration of cement slurries, resulting from
lack of fluid-loss control, may be the primary cause of
gas communication. They proposed that fluid-loss ad-
ditives effectively tie up the water required for hydration
of cement and slowly release the water during the entire
hydration process, as well as minimize the ability of fluids
to flow through the cement porosity. In 1976, Garcia and
Clark 9 ran a series of experiments and reported that an-
nular gas influx was seen to occur if cement fluid-loss
or uneven slurry setting occurred high in the hole such
that hydrostatic head communication no longer existed be-
tween the bottom of the hole and the mud column above
the set cement point. They indicated that while the ce-
ment slurry remained fluid, gas flow between zones was
controlled. However, sometime after the cement set, gas
flow began. Cook and Cunningham 10 in 1977 presented
an improved method for evaluating the fluid-loss re-
quirements necessary to obtain successful liner or casing
cementing jobs. They recommended the use of maximum
fluid-loss control in cement slurries when cementing
across zones of varying pressure to minimize gas leakage,
since increased fluid-loss control resulted in less gas in-
vasion and lower cement permeability.
Another way to improve gas migration control, as
reported in the literature, is to use expanding cements to
promote better bonding at the casing/cement and ce-
ment/formation interfaces. One of the most recent papers
dealing with this subject was presented by Griffin et al. II
in 1979; they discuss an expanding cement system that
can provide superior bonding and zone isolation.
A paper containing a series of practical techniques to
control gas migration was written by Levine et at. 12 in
1979. A graphical technique was introduced that predicts
the potential of annular gas flow after cementing. Also
in 1979, Tinsley et al. 13 introduced, for the first time,
a new cement system intended primarily to control gas
migration at the cement/formation interface. Their work
1041

NlTftOGEN-
GAS
"REaSURE
REGULATOR MINERAL
OIL TANK
""~r»-- I"S TON
325 MESH SCREEN
SLURRY
325 MESH SCREEN
"
Fig. 1-Gas flow simulator.
also revealed that decreases in volume within the cement
matrix, whether a result of ftltrate loss or chemical hydra-
tion, cause a rapid decrease in pore pressure within the
cement matrix. They reported that this rapid reduction
in pressure is caused by the low compressibility of the
fluid phase (water) within the cement matrix. They sug-
gested that the pressure can be maintained by the introduc-
tion of a highly compressible phase such as by the
entrainment, addition, or in-situ generation of a highly
dispersed gas phase. Also at that time, Webster and
Eikerts 14 presented a paper that attempted to identify the
relationship between water separation in a cement slurry
and the loss of hydrostatic head of a cement column. By
using a laboratory model, they observed a water channel
in simulated deviated holes when slurries with excessive
free water were used. They stated that their studies showed
that the reduction of effective density of a cement column
depended on at least two factors: free water content and
the angle of deviation of the hole.
In a more recent paper, Sabins et al. 15 expanded on
the concept of cement transition time. They defined tran-
sition time as the period during which the slurry changes
from a true hydraulic fluid to a highly viscous mass show-
ing some solid characteristics.
Early in 1982, Sabins et al. 16,17 published two other
papers that outlined in detail a state-of-the-art theory
describing the causes of gas flow following cementing.
Once again, they indicated that the main cause of gas flow
following cementing is the incompressibility of the cement
slurry during the setting process.
Gas Movement in a Wellbore. There is no doubt that
the first step toward gas migration control is the proper
removal of the drilling mud from the well bore during the
cement placement operation. Every effort should be made
to achieve this goal. If poor mud displacement takes place,
the chances of controlling gas invasion of the well bore
1042
eACK ""EI.URE RfCEIVER
TO TEMPERA TUftE CONTROLLER
- - THERMOCOUPl[
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
/
TO RECORDER
-NITROGEN
GAS
after cementing are reduced greatly, since gas could
migrate through the mud-contaminated cement channels.
Also, efforts should be made to achieve a good seal at
the casing/cement and cement/formation interfaces. If a
good bonding or seal is not achieved during the primary
cementing operation, gas potentially can migrate along
these low-resistance paths into upper or lower zones of
lesser pressure.
If good mud displacement and good seals at the inter-
faces are achieved, the only other way that gas can in-
vade the wellbore is through the cement matrix itself.
The object of our research was to study the gas inva-
sion of the cement lattice as it may occur at or near the
cement/formation interface, to find ways to stop gas in-
vasion, if possible, across the face of the gas pressure
zone. To do this a device was constructed that could be
used to study how the gas invades a small sample of ce-
ment at the point of contact between the cement and the
formation.
Description of the Apparatus
Fig. 1 shows a diagram of the apparatus used to study
gas flow across a relatively small sample of cement slurry .
The apparatus consisted of a IO-in.- [25.4-cm]-long, 3-in.-
[7.62-cm]-ID, high-pressure test cell. A hydraulic piston
with a 325-mesh screen is inserted into the cell through
the top, simulating a very permeable formation at the top
of the cell. A simulated hydrostatic head is applied by
pressurizing the piston with mineral oil, which in turn is
pressurized with nitrogen gas. The hollow piston shaft is
connected to a backpressure receiver where ftltrate from
the top of the cell can be collected. Another 325-mesh
screen is placed at the bottom of the cell. A nitrogen gas
source is connected to a very sensitive device for measur-
ing gas entry. This, in turn, is connected to the bottom
of the cell, which simulates a high-pressure gas zone. The
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 1500
1250
Time
SLURRY PORE PRESSURE 'i]
1000
...
ui
...."..
a: 750
..
a:
500
250
o~---~---~2---~3----L4---~---~--~~-----J80
Fig. 2-Pore pressure vs. time in a slurry containing fluid-loss additive.
pore pressure of the cement slurry is recorded continuous-
ly by using a pressure transducer located in the middle
of the cell. The test cell can be heated to the test
temperature by means of a heating tape wrapped around
the cell. The temperature is monitored by a thermocouple
inserted into the side of the cell.
The general procedure for running tests using this gas
flow apparatus is as follows:
1. The slurry is mixed in a household blender accord-
ing to API procedures and then stirred for 20 minutes in
an atmospheric consistometer at the test temperature.
2. Simultaneously, the test cell is preheated to the test
temperature.
3. The cement slurry then is poured into the cell from
the top and a simulated hydraulic pressure is applied by
using the piston.
4. A simulated gas formation pressure then is exerted
at the bottom of the test cell.
5. Next, the valves on the piston shaft and at the bot-
tom of the cell are opened. The filtrates from both ends
of the test cell are measured and recorded periodically.
Periodically, the downward movement of the piston also
is measured carefully to determine when the cement
becomes load-bearing (no more piston movement) at the
given constant hydraulic pressure applied to the piston.
6. The gas flow rate, measured by the highly sensitive
gas flow measuring device at the bottom of the test cell,
is recorded periodically throughout the test period.
7. For tests run at temperatures above 200 ° F [93 °C],
the slurry is preheated as in Step 1 to 190°F [88°C]. The
cell is preheated to 200°F [93°C], the preheated slurry
is placed in the cell, and then the temperature is increased
to the test temperature with the cell valves closed. For
these high-temperature tests, a backpressure of about 100
psi [690 kPa] is applied to the backpressure receiver. After
the test temperature is reached, the valves are opened and
the test is performed as described.
The apparatus was designed to study the phenomenon
of gas migration in a small sample of cement, under con-
ditions similar to those seen with a cement slurry in an
JUNE 1985
• CLASS H+1.S .. FLUID LOSS ADDITIVE A+4 ... H 2 0
• THICKENING TlME-4 hr 30 mIn
• TEMPERATURE-US of
• TOP HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE -1000 pal
• SIMULATED FORMATION GAS PRESSURE-SOO pal
0' Inltl.' Pore Pr••• ur. Drop
8
Time When Cement Support. the
H;droatetlc Load
7
_-'l----------- •
Time of Tot.,
Dehydration
II E
u
------+-----14 ..
~
:I
3 ~
o
2 :I
z
o
1 :;;
;;:
TIME, hr
actual well. By using a small sample of cement, the gas
flow phenomenon in cements at the cement/formation in-
terface could be examined under different test conditions
without large slurry volumes masking the response of the
cement/gas system.
When a cement slurry is placed in the annulus behind
the pipe, it is exposed to the hydrostatic pressure caused
by the weight of the fluids on top of the slurry. It also
is exposed to a pressure differential across the cement/for-
mation interface (often with a filter-cake interlayer). The
hydraulic piston in the apparatus simulates the weight of
the fluid column above the slurry. The open valves at the
top and bottom of the cell simulate the effect of the
pressure differential across the cement/formation inter-
face (the apparatus simulates the cement slurry exposed
to highly permeable formations).
In an actual field case, the cement slurry can dehydrate
across the gas-bearing zone. This also is simulated in the
apparatus. By measuring the vertical movement of the
piston, it is possible to observe the point at which the ce-
ment slurry lattice becomes structurally sound and capable
of supporting the load of the fluid above it.
Discussion of Test Results
A large number of tests have been run using the gas flow
apparatus in an attempt to understand better the
mechanism of gas invasion at the cement/formation in-
terface. Several of the tests are described in the follow-
ing paragraphs.
Test 1. This test was conducted at 165 ° F [74 ° C] using
a cement slurry containing 1.5 % of a fluid-loss additive,
A. A constant simulated hydrostatic pressure of 1,000 psi
[6.9 MPa] was applied to the piston. The simulated for-
mation gas pressure used was 500 psi [3.45 MPa]. Fig.
2 shows a plot of the slurry pore pressure, as recorded
by the pressure transducer, vs. time. The graph also shows
the downward vertical movement of the hydraulic piston
vs. time.
1043
 1100
previously, the first small gas entry was detected at 4.5
• CLASS H + •• ~ "20
• TEMPERATURE-IO·'
hours after the pore pressure dropped below the simulated
formation gas fressure. A significant gas entry of 3.6
1210 - • TOP HYDROSTATIC .... E •• UIIE-fOOO pa_
• SIIiULATED FOR.ATION GAl PIIES'UIIE-IOO pal
mL/hr [3.6 cm Ih] at 500 psi [3.45 MPa] was measured
at 6 hours. At 6.5 hours, a much faster gas flow rate of
1000 r- -• about 8 mLlhr [8 cm 3 /h] at 500 psi [3.45 MPa] was

750
r -- _ .!.'.~N~O~M2T
500
SLURRY PORE PRE •• URE
I did not enter the cement lattice. However, once the pore
250
o i
o 10
TIME,
Fig. 3-Pore pressure vs. time in a neat slurry.
For more than 3 hours after the beginning of the test,
the slurry pore pressure remained constant and equal to
the constant hydrostatic pressure applied to the piston.
After that, the pore pressure started to decline. The slurry
pore pressure eventually dropped below the simulated con-
stant formation gas pressure and remained below it for
about 2 hours. The cement pore pressure increased and
became equal to the formation gas pressure 6.25 hours
after the start of the test.
During the time when the cement pore pressure re-
mained above the simulated formation gas pressure, ce-
ment filtrate was collected at the bottom and at the top
of the cell. However, after the pore pressure dropped
below the formation gas pressure, filtrate no longer was
collected at the gas entry end, but the cement continued
to dehydrate at the other end of the cell. At that time, a
small initial gas volume entered the cell. The cement
became completely dehydrated after 6.5 hours, as shown
by the absence of filtrate leaving the cell. As indicated
-- - -
- ,: •
E
u
recorded. At the same time at the opposite valve, gas was
flowing at a rate of approximately 212 mLlhr [212
cm 3 Ih] (at atmospheric pressure).
- •z Test 1 showed that for as long as the cement pore
·
5 '"
- ~'" pressure remained above the formation gas pressure, gas
- ..•~
3
pressure dropped below the formation gas pressure, gas
- 2 ii:• entered but not in large enough volumes to "recharge"
- 1 the structure. At that point in the test, the net pressure
I I o change in the cement lattice was still downward because
20 30 40
the slurry was still dehydrating. The structure "pore"
min
spaces eventually lost enough filtrate that the formation
gas was able to "recharge" the lattice to a value equal
to the gas formation pressure. This test suggests that it
is necessary for the pore spaces to become partially or
fully void of filtrate for the formation gas to be able to
penetrate the cement load-bearing structure. It also sug-
gests that as long as the fluid inside the cement lattice is
mobile, the formation gas eventually can displace it from
the pore spaces. Since conventional fluid-loss additives
are believed to control fluid loss by forming a filter cake
at the interface of the cement with a permeable zone, they
by themselves appear to be incapable of immobilizing the
fluid within the pore spaces of the cement lattice. One
last point that should be made during the discussion of
this first test is that the cement structure pore pressure
is the controlling pressure when dealing with potential for-
mation gas invasion. The cement pore pressure is equal
to the hydrostatic pressure (or load) above the cement col-
umn up to a point approaching the time when the cement
starts to become load-bearing. After that, the pore
pressure departs from the hydrostatil: pressure value.
Test 2. This test was conducted at room temperature using
a neat Class H cement slurry with 46% water (see Fig.

1500r---------------------~==================================~
• CLASS H+ 1.0~ FLUID LOSS ADDITIVE B+45~ H20
• THICKENING TIME-4 ,..-
• TEMPERATURE-155 OF
1250
o TOP HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE-1000 pal
• SIMULATED FORMATION GAS PRESSURE-500 pal

SLURRY PORE PRESSURE

1000
•
..•. 7

...
Time When C.nient 8upport. the E
c 750 5 ..
",drolt.tlc Load
..:z
OJ
...
IE FORMATION GAS .".._ - -
-?------------#~-
Tim. 0' Tol., D.It,d,aUon I ;
OJ
500 _2!'~,!!!,!E_.-L_._. _ _ ._._._._._.;V~_.:t 4 ~

.
/.
."..
•~
250
/.".
/0""
/.".
",,, 3
...a:
I
/ ,,\.
/.,,0'" 2

0
0
T'ME. It,

Fig. 4-Pore pressure vs. time in a slurry containing fluid-loss additive.

1044 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

UOOr-----;:::::;::::==========::::::;:::;::=:;--,
• eLA" H+ 1.0 .. FLUID LO •• ADDITIVI C
,+0.2'" .ITA.OIII . . . . ,. H.O
UIO
• THIC.II.... G TIIlI-a tt, ao
• TIII"I.ATURe-tIO·'
TO .. HYO.O,TATIC .... r •• Utll·1000 ... ,
•
• IIIIULATED 'O.IIATION GA. ' .. I"UIII-IOO
700
- - - - - --------
'''TON 1I0VElieNT
;'
100 -~/,.-.
/ ,I"
110
I
/
/
'LUII • ., "oltr PRr"UIII
~ _ _~_ _~_ _~_ _~_ _~_ _~IO
TUllr, It,
Fig. 5-Pore pressure vs. time in a slurry containing fluid-loss
additive and retarder.
3). The constant simulated hydrostatic pressure was 1,000
psi [6.9 MPa] and the simulated formation gas pressure
was 500 psi [3.45 MPa]. Shortly after opening the cell
valves, the slurry dehydrated complet$!ly and the slurry
pore pressure, as recorded by the transducer, dropped to
the 500-psi [3.45-MPa] formation gas pressure. At 500
psi [3.45 MPa] formation gas pressure, the gas flow rate
was too high to be measured. Dropping the gas pressure
to 100 psi [690 kPa], a gas flow rate through the cement
was measured at 36,000 mLlhr [36000 cm 3 /h] (at at-
mospheric pressure). This extreme case simulates the
situation that could occur when a cement slurry with no
fluid-loss control is exposed to a highly permeable zone.
It is very important to notice that the pore pressure in the
slurry became equal to the gas zone pressure almost in-
stantly, indicating instant invasion and "charging" of the
dehydrated cement lattice by the formation gas.
Notice also that the cement became load-bearing almost
instantly, and, in this case, the load was supported by a
dehydrated, "packed" cement column rather than a set
column.
Test 3. Fig. 4 gives the data obtained when a different
fluid-loss additive, B, was used in a simple Class H slurry.
As in Test 1, the fluid-loss additive slowed down the for-
mation gas invasion of the cement structure, but even-
tually the gas was able to charge the structure and the pore
pressure of the lattice again became equal to the forma-
tion gas pressure. At that point, the gas flow rate was
measured at 45.5 mLlhr [45.5 cm 3 /h] at 500 psi [3.45
MPa]. Notice that as the slurry approached the point of
full dehydration, the pore pressure of the lattice quickly
approached the gas formation pressure, indicating a faster
recharging of the structure as the "pore" spaces became
void of the slurry filtrate. Again, this test suggests that
if the cement slurry filtrate could be immobilized inside
the pore spaces of the cement structure, particularly
around the time when the cement becomes load-bearing,
the formation gas could be prevented from invading the
matrix even if the pore pressure of the cement falls below
the formation gas pressure as the cement sets. As
previously shown in the literature, the pore pressure will
fall, even if little filtrate is lost, because of the hydration
process.
JUNE 1985
.'ft • CLA" H+1.0" "LUID LO.' ADDITIVI •
+0.'" GA' OIN •• ATlNO POWD.II + .... "to
1110 • TIIIP •• ATU.I-1 •• ·,.
p.' • TOP M'ID.O.TATIC P •••• UIII-1000 p.1
AM •• tlft. ,.,1." • '.IIULATIO "O.IIATION OA' P •••• ullr·.oo p.'
1000
\ - ---- .'"'' "'.,,'!!. - -,...
710
'OIlIIlATIOM GAl ."., -=
100 ....!'!~'!'!...-;.T""'. ILU.'" PO". PII . . .U.. ,'--
110
/
/
/
.
/ ..
1
4'
Till', '"
Fig. 6-Pore pressure vs. time in a slurry containing fluid-loss
additive and gas-generating powder.
Test 4. Fig. 5 gives the pore pressure curve obtained when
a third fluid-loss additive, C, was used, this time with the
addition of a retarder. As can be seen from the figure,
the pore pressure started to decline almost immediately
after the test temperature (220°F [l04°C]) was reached.
This probably was caused by the lesser fluid-loss control
available to the cement at this higher temperature. Three
hours into the test, a gas flow rate of 2.0 mLlhr [2.0
cm 3 /h] at 500 psi [3.45 MPa] was recorded. At 4 hours,
a pore pressure increase was noticed and a faster gas flow
rate occurred. The gas flow rate was 134 mLlhr [134
cm 3 /h] at 500 psi [3.45 MPa] at 4.5 hours.
Test 5. This test was run at 165°F [74°C] using a slurry
with fluid-loss control Additive B and a small percentage
of a finely divided, gas-generating powder (see Fig. 6).
The pressure increase in the cell during the heating period
was caused by the temperature change and the genera-
tion of a gas inside the cement slurry (the slurry could
not be preheated at atmospheric pressure without gas
generation). When comparing this test to Test 3 (see Fig.
4), higher fluid loss was observed in this test. This prob-
ably was caused by some reaction between the gas-
generating powder and the fluid-loss-control polymer, or
by the presence of the third (gas) phase. About 1 hour
into the test, the cement pore pressure started to decline.
After 6 hours, a gas flow rate of 96 mLlhr [96 cm 3 /h]
at 500 psi [3.45 MPa] was recorded. At 24 hours, the
gas flow rate was 1,704 mLlhr [1704 cm 3 Ih] at 500 psi
[3.45 MPa].
Fig. 6 shows that even though gas was being generated
inside the slurry, this gas, when exposed to the pressure
differential across the cell, flowed within the system in-
stead of staying in the matrix and repressurizing the ce-
ment. The fact that the pore pressure never dropped below
the formation gas pressure during the test indicates total
invasion and charging of the cement matrix by the for-
mation gas as soon as the pore pressure became essen-
tially equal to the formation gas pressure.
It is possible that if the gas bubbles generated within
the slurry could have been kept from coalescing (perhaps
by somehow forming microspheric gas bubbles), a high
pore pressure could have been maintained in the cement
matrix. However, in each test run to date using the gas-
1045
 1.00r-~----------------------;:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~
1250
SLURRY PORE PRESSURE
....1000
.;
~ 750
.....
III
III
C
500
260
~--------L--------l4--------~--------~---=::==~1~0~~=====2~4 0
Flg.7-Pore pressure VS.
generating powder, the generated gas' flowed from within
the cement after the valves were opened and a pressure
differential was exerted across the slurry.
Test 6. This test was run at 165°F [74°C] using a slurry
containing an additive that combines the effects of good
fluid-loss control and free water control (at bottomhole
static temperature conditions) with mobility reduction of
the cement filtrate within the bulk of the cement struc-
ture, particularly after the cement becomes load-bearing.
Fig. 7 gives the results of the test. As the figure shows,
the pore pressure in the cement system still dropped,
because a certain amount of filtrate was lost from the
system from the beginning of the test until the time of
total dehydration.
However, the gas flow rate in this experiment decreased
from an initial value of 0.3 mL/hr [0.3 cm 3 /h] at 500 psi
(3.45 MPa] before total dehydration to 0.11 mLlhr [0.11
cm 3 Ih] at 500 psi [3.45 MPa] after total dehydration and
finally to a value of 0.004 mLlhr [0.004 cm 3 /h] at 500
psi (3.45 MPa] after 24 hours. These numbers, combined
with the fact that the pore pressure never showed signs
of increasing toward the gas formation pressure, indicate
that the formation gas never was allowed to "recharge"
the structure to any appreciable extent. Eventually, the
pore spaces were "choked" by the hydration process. The
small volume of low-pressure formation gas that had
penetrated the lattice was incapable of preventing the clos-
ing of the pore spaces and eventually the cement became
practically impermeable to the gas. Notice that since very
little gas penetrated the structure, the "pore" pressure
of the cement matrix remained very low throughout the
remainder of the test.
A Mechanism of Gas Migration
Based on the previous test results, the following theory
of the mechanism of gas invasion of cements in a wellbore
is proposed.
After the cement is displaced and left static behind the
pipe, several processes start to take place in the slurry.
1046
• IMPERIIEABLE CEIIENT+4" H20
• THICKENING TIIIE-3 ~r 30 Iftln
• TEIIPERATURE-". of
• TOP HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE-l000 pol
• SIMULATED FORMATION GAS PRESSURE-500 pol
•
7
Time When Cen:-ent Support. the
HycUoUaUc Load
_V_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ , ~
-4~
.
~
S
4 >
o
.
:I
:I
z
o.
3
Time 0' Total Dehydration 2 !!!
...
V
TIM£. tu
time in an impermeable cement system.
The resulting slurry properties are a function of the slurry
composition and the varying well conditions across the
cemented interval. These processes include dehydration
of the liquid phase, gelation of the slurry, settling of the
solid particles, and packing of the solid particles. The ac-
tual process of setting of the cement slurry, initiated when
the water was first placed in contact with the cement, also
continues at a rate dependent on the slurry composition
and the localized well conditions.
At a given depth, one or more of these processes can
become dominant over the others, thus controlling the
changes in the behavior of the slurry. Initially, the whole
cement slurry column behaves as a "pure" fluid and fully
transmits the hydrostatic load caused by its own head plus
the head of the fluids above it. As the processes of
dehydration, gelation, settling, packing, and setting of the
slurry progress in time at the different depths along the
cement column, changes occur in the cement slurry, caus-
ing it to depart from the behavior of a pure fluid. The
cement slurry placed across the gas formation zone even-
tually becomes sufficiently dehydrated, gelled, packed,
and/or set at the given well conditions that the structure
formed by its cement particles plus the liquid left in the
matrix is capable of supporting most of the load being
transmitted to that portion of the cement.
Once the cement structure across the gas zone can sup-
port most of the load, the cement becomes load-bearing.
About the time when the cement becomes load-bearing,
the pore pressure inside the cement structure no longer
is controlled by the hydrostatic load transmitted to the ce-
ment and, therefore, from this point on, further losses of
liquid volume from the cement matrix (by dehydration
or by the actual setting process) are reflected in substan-
tial cement pore pressure changes. As the pore pressure
in the cement structure continues to drop, it eventually
becomes essentially equal to the pressure of the forma-
tion gas. Any further decrease in cement pore pressure
can potentially allow the gas to invade the cement pore
spaces, since the cement permeability to gas in this early
life of the cement can be very high. If invasion occurs,
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
the gas can eventually penneate the whole cement matrix,
charging it with enough gas (and pore pressure) to inhibit
the hydration process from closing the pore spaces.
Preventing Gas Invasion Into Cement
Slurry Matrix
One way to control gas migration at the cement/forma-
tion interface is to reduce the mobility of the cement
flltrate within the pore spaces of the cement lattice. Also,
fluid-loss-control additives generally do not immobilize
the flltrate inside the pores, but at the filter cake.
An obvious way to reduce the mobility of the filtrate
within the cement pore spaces is to increase the flltrate
viscosity within the structure at the test temperature by
using a polymeric material. Also, the throats of the pore
spaces can be bridged with properly sized swellable bridg-
ing particles to reduce even more the mobility of the ce-
ment flltrate. This mechanical bridging of the pore spaces
keeps the flltrate in place and also restricts the gas entry
into the matrix. These goals can be achieved by selecting
polymeric materials and bridging agents properly. If the
fluid was immobilized (or if the mobility of the fluid was
greatly reduced) inside the pore spaces, thus keeping the
pores full of fluid, the fonnation gas would not be able
to invade the matrix and, for all practical purposes, an
"impermeable" cement would be created.
A system using these gas migration control principles
was developed and the test results were discussed under
Test 6.
Field Cases
At the writing of this paper, more than 300 jobs had been
perfonned using this impermeable cement system. All
four major types of cementing jobs (casing, liner, plug,
and squeeze) have been perfonned using the impenneable
cement system, and an overall success ratio of more than
90% has been obtained. Some representative case histories
are presented.
Case 1: Galveston County, TX. Gas-cutting had been
a serious problem in this field for a long time. In this par-
ticular well, several high-pressure gas sands existed below
the producing oil sand. Many squeeze jobs had been per-
formed without success by various service companies
using different additives. A low-pressure squeeze job was
perfonned at a depth of 8,980 ft [2737 m] using 35 sacks
of the impenneable cement. No gas leakage was ex-
perienced after the job. Since then, four more successful
squeeze jobs have been performed in this field by using
the impenneable cement.
Case 2: Hardin County, TX. The operator was con-
cerned about potential gas migration problems in this well
since gas migration was common in the area. The total
depth (TD) of the well was 7,965 ft [2428 m]. There was
a weak zone (low pressure) 200 ft [61 m] above the gas
zone. The following slurries were used to cement this
well: (1) lead slurry composed of 420 sacks of commer-
ciallightweight cement plus 10% salt plus 0.2 % retarder
plus 6.75 gal/sack [0.03 m 3 /sack] mix water and (2) tail
slurry composed of 250 sacks of impenneable cement plus
5.19 gal/sack [0.02 m 3 /sack] mix water. The job went
well and the operator reported no gas leakage after the
cementing operation.
JUNE 1985
Case 3: Hardin County, TX. A well was drilled to a
depth of 12,500 ft ~3810 m] with a mud density of 18.3
Ibm/gal [2.19 g/cm ]. To control a lost circulation prob-
lem encountered at approximately 12,200 ft [3718 m], the
mud density was cut back to 17.1 Ibm/gal [2.05 g/cm 3],
but gas started to enter the wellbore. The job used 1,064
sacks of the impenneable cement at a density of 17.6
Ibm/gal [2.11 g/cm 3] were used in this job. No gas cut-
ting was detected either after the job or after drilling to
TD. The well is currently on production without any gas
migration problems.
Case 4: Fayette County, TX. A blowout occurred dur-
ing the first attempt to cement this well. After killing the
well, the operator decided to recement it using the im-
penneable cement. The TD of the well was 7,225 ft [2202
m] and the following slurries were used: (1) lead slurry
composed of 297 sacks of Class H plus 8 % gel plus 0.25 %
retarder plus 0.25 Ibm/sack [0.01 kg/sack] cellophane
flake plus 9.97 gal/sack [0.04 m 3 / sack] mix water and
(2) tail slurry composed of 330 sacks of the impenneable
cement plus 5.19 gal/sack [0.02 m 3 /sack] mix water. No
gas flow was detected after the job. The well is on pro-
duction at this time without any reported gas problems.
Conclusions
1. Gas does not invade the cement matrix as long as
the cement pore pressure remains above the formation gas
pressure.
2. Conventional fluid-loss additives that function by
forming a fllter cake at the interface of the cement with
a penneable zone are not adequate to prevent the inva-
sion of fonnation gas into the cement matrix.
3. Generating a gas phase in a cement slurry may not
prevent the invasion of formation gas into the cement
matrix if the gas bubbles generated coalesce and fonn gas
channels.
4. Invasion of fonnation gas into the cement matrix can
be prevented by immobilizing the fluid within the pore
spaces through proper selection of polymeric materials
and bridging agents.
Acknowledgments
We wish to express our sincere appreCIatIOn to the
management of The Western Co. of North America for
pennission to prepare and to publish this paper. We also
thank those who offered suggestions in the preparation
of this paper, especially David Williams with The Western
Co. of North America, who developed much of the data
and solved many of the mechanical problems when design-
ing and building the gas flow simulator.
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1047
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SI Metric Conversion Factors
OF (OF-32)/1.8 °C
in. x 2.54* E+OO = em
psi x 6.894757 E+OO kPa
• Conversion lactor is exact. JPT
Originel manuscript received in the Society 01 Petroleum Engineers office Aug. 27,
1982. Peper accepted lor publication Aug. 10, 1984. Revised manuscript received April
15,1985. Peper (SPE 11207) lirst presented at the 1982 SPE Annual Technical Con·
lerence and Exhibition held in New Orleans Sept. 26-29.

1048 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY