Curves (Analytic)

Computer Aided Analysis & Design (CAAD)
Backend
1
Review of Computer Aided Design
Geometric Modelling
 Software based approach
 Mathematical Foundation
Computer Graphics
Computer Aided Engg.

2
Review of Computer Aided Design
Computer Aided Design Applications
 NC Manufacturing
 Product Data Exchange
 Form Tolerances
 Product Lifecycle Management
 3-D Printing
Finite Element Method
3
Geometric Modelling
Curves
4
Coordinate Systems
 Screen Coordinate System (SCS)
 Model Coordinate System or Global Coordinate
System | (MCS/GCS)
 Working Coordinate System or Local Coordinate
System (WCS/LCS)
 Viewing Coordinate System (VCS)
5
Objectives of Computer Aided Design
 Better visual representation
 User friendly
 Computationally inexpensive (CPU memory, CPU
time)
 Reduced calculations to produce geometry
6
Parametric versus Non-Parametric
Representation of a Solid Model
7
Representation of Point in Cart CS
P (x,y)
Lowest Entity in Geometric Modelling
8
Vector-Matrix Representation of Point
P (x,y,z)
P(x,y,z) = P [x y z]T
p(x,y,z)
P
9
What is Non-Parametric Representation?
It is also called as Algebraic Representation in a
simple form.
In algebraic representation we have two types:
(a) Explicit Representation
(b) Implicit Representation
10
(a) What is Explicit Representation?
• Curve in 2D: y = f(x)
e.g. a straight line: y = ax + b
• Curve in 3D: y = f(x), z = g(x)
• Surface in 3D: z = f(x,y)

One to one correspondence: for one value of x
there is one value of y.
What are the drawbacks?
11
Disadvantages of Explicit Representation
 How about a vertical line x = c as y = f(x)?

 What about a closed curve such as circle or to a
curve that gives several ‘y’ values corresponding
to an ‘x’ (e.g. Spiral curve).
 Dependent on coordinate system

Therefore, rarely used in computer graphics
12
(b) What is Implicit Representation?
Curve in 2D: f(x,y) = 0
– Line: ax + by + c = 0
– Circle: x2 + y2 – r2 = 0
Surface in 3D: f(x,y,z) = 0
– Plane: ax + by + cz + d = 0
– Sphere: x2 + y2 + z2 – r2 = 0
f(x,y,z) can describe 3D object:
– Inside: f(x,y,z) < 0
– Surface: f(x,y,z) = 0
– Outside: f(x,y,z) > 0 | What are the drawbacks?
13
Disadvantages of Implicit Representation
 Equation must be solved to find its roots (y and
z values) if a certain value of x is given.
 If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or

near vertical, its value becomes infinity or very
large, a difficult condition to deal with both
computationally and programme.
14
Disadvantages of Implicit Representation
 Both explicit and implicit non parametric curve

representations are axis dependent (x, y). Thus
the choice of coordinate system affects the ease of
use. (curve should be axis independent)
 If the curve is to be displayed as a series of
points or straight line segments, the computation
involved could be extensive.
 The points on axes–dependent non parametric
curve are not evenly distributed.
15
Parametric Form of Point
We represent coordinates of each point as a function of
single parameter (say) u.
x = x(u)
umax
y = y(u)
P’(u) z = z(u)
umin p(x,y,z)
P(u)
P(x,y,z) = P(u) = [x(u) y(u) z(u)]T
P’(u) = [x’(u) y’(u) z’(u)]T

P’(u) = [
16
Advantages of Parametric Form
1. Suitable for closed and multi-valued curve
2. When x’(u) = 0, the slope is infinite. Hence an infinite
slope can be defined by letting one component of the
tangent vector be zero. Computational difficulty is
avoided by using a parametric derivative.
3. Since a point on a parametric curve is specified by a
single parameter (u), the parametric form is axes
independent.
4. The curve end points and length are fixed by the
parametric range umin≤u≤umax
Often, it is convenient to normalize the range as 0≤u≤1
17
Modeling Analytic Curves
(Circle)
18
Non-Parametric Representation of a Circle
Generate a circle using an Implicit Equation of Circle:
x2 + y2 = 1.
Take equal increment in x (say 0.25) and obtain y.
y = +(1 – x2)1/2
No. x y
1 0 1
2 0,25 0.97
3 0.5 0.86
4 0.75 0.66
5 1 0
19
Observations of
Non-Parametric Representation of a Circle
 Resulting intercepts on arc/circle are unequal

and hence poor visual representation.
 Calculation of square root is computationally
expensive.
 Calculation has to be repeated for every point.
y = +(1 – x2)1/2
No. x y
1 0 1
2 0.25 0.97
3 0.5 0.87
4 0.75 0.66
5 1 0
20
Parametric Representation of a Circle
Generate a circle using a Parametric Equation.
Take equal increments in θ (say π/8) to obtain
coordinates points x and y.
P-Equation of Circle: x = cosθ and y = sinθ.

P(θ) = [x y]T | P(θ) = [cosθ sinθ] T
θ X Y
0 1 0
π/8 0.92 0.38
π/4 0.71 0.71
3π/8 0.38 0.92
π/2 0 1 21
Observations of
 Resulting intercepts on arc/circle are equal and

hence better visual representation.
 Computationally expensive as the calculation of
trigonometric function [x = cosθ and y = sinθ]
has to be repeated for every point.
Algorithm is inefficient.
22
We Need an Efficient Algorithm
 Efficient algorithm can be obtained by

eliminating the requirement of repetitive
calculations of trigonometric function [x = cosθ and
y = sinθ] for every point.
23
Need of Efficient Algorithm
 Let’s assume fixed number of uniformly spaced points. ‘δu’ be the

parameter increment between points (which is a constant).
24
Parametric Representation of an origin
centered Circle
The Cartesian coordinates of any point on an origin –
cantered circle are then
xi = r cosui
yi = r sinui ----------------------------------(a)
Let’s take δu as an increment
xi+1 = r cos(ui + δu)
yi+1 = r sin(ui + δu) -------------------------(b)
Using the sum of the angles formulae yields
xi+1 = r (cosui*cosδu - sinui*sinδu)
yi+1 = r (cosui*sinδu + sinui*cosδu) -------(c)
With Equation (a)
xi+1 = xi *cosδu - yi * sinδu
yi+1 = xi *sinδu + yi * cosδu ----------------(d) 25
Parametric Representation of an origin
centered Circle
Recursive Relation
yi+1 = xi *sinδu + yi * cosδu ----------------(d)
26
Parametric Representation of an origin centered
Circle
yi+1 = xi *sinδu + yi * cosδu ----------------(d)
 Eqn (d) represents the rotation of the point xi and yi by an “δu”.
δu = 2π/n-1 where, n = number of segments
 The value of cosδu, sinδu need to be calculated once.
 The resulting algorithm represents only four multiples, one
addition and one subtraction in the inner loop. This way the
algorithm becomes efficient.
 Thus the circle can start from an arbitrary point and successive
points with equal spacing can be calculated recursively. This
eliminates computation of trigonometric functions for each point.
This algorithm is useful for hardware implementation to speed up
the circle generation and display.
27
Parametric Representation of a non-origin
centered Circle
For a non-origin cantered circle is
obtained by translating an origin-
centered circle of appropriate radius.
Equations (a) and (b) becomes
xi = xc + r.cosui
yi = yc + r.sinui -------(a’)
xi+1 = xc + (xi*cosδu - yi*sinδu)

yi+1 = yc + (xi*sinδu + yi*cosδu)--(d’)
28
Model Solution
Generate a circle of radius 2 with centre (2,2). Take 8 segments.
No of segments = 8, n = 8. We need n+1 points (starting (θ=0) and
closing point (θ=2π) will coincide).
29
Model Solution
30
Model Solution
31
Model Solution
Origin centered Non-Origin centered
i
1 2 0 4 2
2 3.414 3.414
3 0 2 2 4
4 0.586 3.414
5 -2 0 0 2
6 0.586 0.586
7 0 -2 2 0
8 3.414 2.586
9 2 0 4 2 32
an Efficient Algorithm [Tut]
Generate an efficient algorithm to generate a circle which is (a)
passes through corners of a square (b) which is inscribed in a square
(a)Passing through corners
P(u) = [RoCosu RoSinu]T
Pc = (P1+P3)/2 = OR = (P2+P4)/2
Xc = (X1+X3)/2 & Yc = (Y1+Y3)/2
Ro = 1/2[(X1 – X3)2 + (Y1 – Y3)2]1/2
33
Generate an efficient algorithm to generate a circle which is (a)
passes through corners of a square (b) which is inscribed in a
square
(a) Inscribed in a Square
P(u) = [RiCosu RiSinu]T
Pc = (P1+P3)/2 = OR = (P2+P4)/2
Xc = (X1+X3)/2 & Yc = (Y1+Y3)/2
Ro = 1/2[(X3 – X4)2 + (Y3 – Y4)2]1/2
34
Generate an efficient algorithm to generate a circle which is
concentric to existing circle (Black coloured) shown in Fig.
Ro d Pi(u) = [RiCosu RiSinu]T | Blue one
Po(u) = [RiCosu RiSinu]T | Green one

Ri
d Pc = Given Center Point Pc
Ri = R-d | Ro = R+d
35
General Problem
Non-parametric equation of a circle is given by x2+y2=R2 where x =
R.cos(2πu) and y = R.Sin(2πu).
(a)Represent Equation of circle in a parametric form
(b)Using the resulting equation, write down the tangent equation
(c)Find out Tangent Equations at 0o, 45o, 90o
(d)Find out slopes at 0o, 45o, 90o
P = [x y]T | x = R.cos(2πu) & y = R.sin(2πu)
(a) Parametric Equation of circle:

P(u) = [R.Cos(2πu) R.Sin(2πu)]T 0≤u ≤1
(b) Tangent Equation:

P’(u) = [-2πR.Sin(2πu) 2πR.Cos(2πu)]T 0≤u ≤1
(c) At 0o , 2πu = 0, Therefore, u = 0

At 45o, 2πu = 45, Therefore, u = 0.125
36
At 0o , 2πu = 90, Therefore, u = 0.25
General Problem
37
General Problem
38
for a Circle Tangent to existing 2 or 3 circles
39
(a) for a Circle Passing through 3 Points

(b) for a Circle tangent to two lines with given radius R
40
Circular Arc
Circle and circular arcs are among the most common
entities used in wireframe modelling. Circle and circular arcs
together with straight lines are sufficient to construct a large
percentage of existing mechanical parts and components in
practice.
Database requirement of a circle is its centre and radius as
its essential geometric data. If the user input data is
insufficient to define the plane of the circle, then general
softwares assume XY-plane (by default) for the construction.
Circle can be generated by many ways. The intention of the
algorithm (software) is to convert user’s input information
into radius and centre, which is the requirement of circle
database.
41
Circular Arc Parametric Equation
P(u) = [x y]T = [R.Cosu R.Sinu]T us≤u ≤ ue

Origin Centered
P(u) = [xc + R.Cosu yc + R.Sinu]T us≤u ≤ ue

Non-Origin Centered
42
(Straight Line)
43
Parametric Representation of a Line
There are various ways to draw a line. Simple

method:
44
P = P1+ (P–P1)
(P–P1) is proportional to (P2 – P1)
P-Equation:
P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1) | 0≤u≤1 45

In Vector Matrix form: P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1)
In scalar form: x(u) = x1 + u(x2 – x1)

y(u) = y1 + u(y2 – y1)
z(u) = z1 + u(z2 – z1)
Tangent vector: P’(u) = [x’(u) y’(u)]
Slope: dP(u)/du = y’(u)/x’(u)

46
Position Vector: P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1)
Tangent Vector: dP(u)/du = P’(u) = (P2 – P1)

Or (x2 – x1), (y2 – y1) and (z2 – z1) in scalar form
Observations:
1. The independence of the TV from u indicates the constant slope of
straight line.
2. For a 2-D line the infinite slope and zero slope can be obtaibed by
letting x’(u) = 0 and y’(u) = 0, repectively.
47
48
Model Solution for a Parametric Line
For the position vectors: P1[2 3] and P2[4 5]
(a)Write down a parametric equation
(b)Write down a scalar form
(c)Write down a Tangent Vector
(d)Find out slope
(e)Find out length
(f) Unit vector in the line direction
49
P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1) | 0≤u≤1
P(u) = [2 3] + u([4 5] – [2 3])
P(u) = [2 3] + u([2 2]
50
(b) Write down a scalar form
x(u) = x1 + u(x2 – x1)

= 2+(4-2)u = x + 2u
y(u) = y1 + u(y2 – y1)

3+(5-3)u = 3 + 2u
51
(d)Find out slope
P(u) = [x+2u y+2u]

Tangent Vector: P’(u) = [x’(u) y’(u)] = [2 2]
Slope: dP(u)/du = y’(u)/x’(u) = 2/2 = 1
52
(e) Find out length
53
54
Parametric Line [Tut-1]
For the position vectors: P1[1 2 3] and P2[4 5 6]
(b)Write down a scalar form
(d)Find out slope
(e)Find out length
(f) Unit vector in the line direction
55
56
Correlate the following CAD/M command to it’s
mathematical foundation: The command that
measures the angle between two intersecting lines.
57
Find equations of 3 lines: L1, L2 and L3 shown in
Fig. Are L1 and L2 perpendicular? Are L1 and L3
parallel?
58
Find equations of 3 lines: L1, L2 and L3 shown in
Fig. Are L1 and L2 perpendicular? Are L1 and L3
parallel?
L1 & L2 Perpendicular:
(P2-P1).(P3-P1) = (4)(0)+(0)(3) = 0 Hence the proof
59
Find angles between pair of lines in (a) and (b).
4,4 4,4
(a) (b)
5,5 5,5
1,1 1,1
3,3 3,3
(a) n1.n2 = 0 (b) n1.n2 = -1

60
(a)Find P-equations of 2 lines: L1, L2.
(b)Find intersection point (I) of two lines
(c)Find P-equation of Circle (I is center and radius 1)
(d)Find intersection point (II) L1 and C1.
61
(b)Find intersection point (I) of two lines

62

63

64
(Ellipse)
65
Representation of an Ellipse
Database Requirement:
Center, Major axis (2a) and Minor axis (2b)

66
Equal Angle Increments Method
Equal angle increment method gives acceptable results (equal

segments) in case of circle, however, unacceptable results (undesired
segments) in case of ellipse.
67
Equal segments Method
For a sufficient number of segments this gives a better representation.

However, the ellipse is over specified towards minor axis ends and
underspecified towards major axis ends.
68
What is desired???
Desired Increments Method: More number of points towards 69 ends

of major axis and less number of points towards ends of minor axis
Parametric Representation of an Ellipse
Desired Increments Method: More number of points towards ends
of major axis and less number of points towards ends of minor axis
Any point on ellipse: P(u) = [x y]T
Let: xi = acosui
yi = bsinui
dx = -a.sinu.du & dy = b.cosu.du
at u = 0 & ϖ |dx|~ 0 & |dy|~bdu

at u = ϖ/2 & 3ϖ/2 |dx|~ adu & |dy|~0
bdu < adu
This clearly shows that the desired increments can be easily 70

obtained.
Recursive Relation of an Ellipse
P-Eqn: P(u) = [acosui bsinui]T
Xi+1, yi+1
xi = acosui xi, yi
yi = bsinui ……..(a)
Let’s take δu as an increment
xi+1 = a.cos(ui+δu)
yi+1 = b.sin(ui+δu) -------------------------(b)
Using the sum of the angles formulae yields
xi+1 = a.(cosui*cosδu - sinui*sinδu)……x(b/b)
yi+1 = b.(cosui*sinδu + sinui*cosδu)…..x(a/a)----(c)
Using Eqn (a) 71
Using Eqn (a)
Recursive Relation:
xi+1 = xi.cosδu – (a/b). yi.sinδu
yi+1 = (b/a).xi.sinδu –yi.cosδu
δu, a & b are constants | 4 multiples | One addition and one
subtraction in inner loop. Algorithm is efficient.
Xi+1, yi+1
xi, yi
72
Need of Algorithm for
73
Model Solution
Generate an ellipse with semi-major axis a=4 and semi-minor axis
b=1, inclined 30o to the horizontal with center at (2,2). Take 32
segments.
No of segments = 32, n = 32. We need n+1 points (starting (θ=0)
and closing point (θ=2π) will coincide).
74
Model Solution
75
Model Solution
Origin centered
# i xi yi
1 0 4.000 0.000
2 ϖ/16 3.923 0.195
3 2ϖ/16 3.696 0.383
4 3ϖ/16 3.326 0.556
5 4ϖ/16 2.828 0.707
6 5ϖ/16 2.222 0.831
7 6ϖ/16 1.531 0.924
8 7ϖ/16 0.780 0.981
9 8ϖ/16 0.000 1.000
76
Model Solution
Center at C(2,2) and Rotation 30o
i Xi yi
1 5.465 4.000
2 5.300 4.131
3 5.009 4.179
4 4.603 4.144
5 4.096 4.027
6 3.509 3.831
7 2.864 3.565
8 2.185 3.240
9 1.500 2.866
77
Tut-1
Find the center, lengths of half the axes and the orientation of an
ellipse defined by it’s circumscribing rectangle
78
Tut-1
79
Tut-2
80
Tut-3
Correlate to its mathematical foundations: Ellipse inscribing a circle of
Radius R1 and circumscribed by a circle of radius R2.
81
(Parabola)
82
Representation of a Parabola
83
Application of a Parabola
Parabolic solar concentrator
84
Parametric Representation of a Parabola
Non-P Eqn.: y2 = 4 ax
One way of representation:
x = a.tan2Φ
y = ±(2) 1/2.a.tanΦ
P(Φ) = [a.tan2Φ ±2(a.tanΦ)1/2]T
However, this representation does not yield a figure with

maximum inscribed area and thus is not efficient visual
representation.
85
Parametric Representation of a Parabloa
Another way of representation:
x = a.u2 and y = 2.a.u
where, 0 ≤ u ≤ ∞ (u is not an angle).
P(u) = [a.u2 2a.u]T

0≤u≤∞
86
Parametric Representation of a Parabloa
x = a.u2 and y = 2.a.u

The parabola, like an ellipse is not a closed curve. Thus
the amount of parabola to be displayed must be limited
by choosing a minimum and maximum value of u.
e.g. If the range of x-coordinate is limited then
umin = (xmin/a)1/2 and umax = (xmax/a)1/2
If the range of y-coordinate is limited then
umin = ymin/2a and umin = ymax/2a
87
Recursive Relation of a Parabola
Having established umin and umax, the parabola in I-
quadrant can be generated with increment in u as
δu = (umax - umin)/n-1
(i)th point:
xi = a.ui2
yi = 2.a.ui …….(a)
(i+1)th point
xi+1 = a.(ui+δu)2
yi+1 = 2.a.(ui+ δu)……(b)
xi+1 = a.ui2 + 2auiδu+ a(δu)2
yi+1 = 2.a.ui+ 2.a.δu……(c) 88
xi+1 = a.ui2 + 2.a.uiδu+ a(δu)2
Yi+1 = 2.a.ui+ 2.a.δu……(c)
Recursive Relation:
xi+1 = xi + yδu – a(δu)2
yi+1 = yi+2aδu …………………(d)
New point on the parabola is obtained at the cost of 3

Adds and one multiply within inner loop.
89
Various Orientations of Parabola
90
Model Solution
Generate a parabolic segment in the I quadrant for
1≤x≤4 for the parabola given by: x = au2 = u2 and
y = 2au = 2u
The range of x-coordinate is limited. Therefore, let’s
determine limits of u.
umin = (xmin/a)1/2 = (1/1) = 1
umax = (xmax/a)1/2 = (4/1)1/2 = 2
Let n = 10.
δu = (umax – umin)/n–1 = (2–1)/10–1 = 1/9
91
First point: u1 = umin =1
Therefore, x1 = (a.u12) = (1.12) = 1
y1 = 2au1 = 2(1)(1) = 2
For successive points, Recursive Relation:
xi+1 = xi + yδu – a(δu)2
yi+1 = yi+2aδu …………………(d)
For 2nd point:
x2 = x1 + y1δu – a(δu)2 = 1+2(1/9)+1(1/9)2 = 1.235
y2 = y1+2aδu = 2+2(1)(1/9) = 2.222
x3 =
y3 =
Once user defines 1st point other points are automatically
92
generated as δu, a are constant.
Model Solution
Successive points are generated
i Xi yi
4
1 1 2
2 1.235 2.222
2
3 1.494 2.444
4 1.778 2.667 1 4
5 2.086 2.889
6 2.420 3.112
7 2.778 3.333
8 3.160 3.556
9 3.568 3.778
10 4.000 4
xi+1 = xi + yδu – a(δu)2 93
yi+1 = yi+2aδu …………………(d)

(Hyperbola)
94
Representation of a Hyperbola
95
Parametric Representation of a Hyperbola
Non-P Eqn.: x2/a2 – y2/b2 = 1

Vertex at (a,0) and the asymptotic slopes are ±b/a
One way of Parametric representation:
x = ±a.secu
y = ±b.tanu
P(u) = [±a.secu ±b.tanu]T
However, this P-Rep doesn’t yield maximum inscribed

area.
96
Non-P Eqn.: x2/a2 – y2/b2 = 1

Parametric representation:
x = ±a.secu
y = ±b.tanu
Recursive Relation:
bxi
xi 1  
b cosu  yi sin u
byi  b tan u
yi 1  
b  yi tan u
97
An alternate P-Rep of a hyperbola which yields the

polygon with maximum inscribed area is
x = a.coshu
y = b.sinhu
P(u) = [a.coshu b.sinhu]T
98
Recursive Relation of a Hyperbola
1st Point:
xi = a.coshui
yi = b.sinhui ……..(a)
Successive points with δu as increments:
δu = (umax – umin)/n–1
If x range is limited then

umin = cosh-1(xmin/a)
umax = cosh-1(xmax/a)
99
cosh-1(x) = ln[x+(x2–1)1/2]
Recursive Relation of a Hyperbola
1st Point:
xi = a.coshui
yi = b.sinhui ……..(a)
Successive Points:
xi+1 = a.cosh(ui+δu)
= a(coshu.coshδu + sinhu.sinhδu) …. x(b/b)
yi+1 = b.sinh(ui+δu)
= b(sinhu.coshδu + coshu.sinhδu) …. x(a/a)
xi+1 = xi.coshδu + (a/b).yi.sinhδu)
yi+1 = (b/a) xi.sinhδu + yi.coshδu) 100
Model Solution
Generate 8 points on the hyperbolic segments in the I
quadrant for 4≤x≤8 with a=2, b=1.
The range of x-coordinate is limited. Therefore, let’s
determine limits of u.
umin = cosh-1(xmin/a) = 1.317
umax = cosh-1(xmax/a) = 2.063
n = 10.
δu = (umax – umin)/n–1 = (2.063–1.317)/8–1=0.107
101
Model Solution
Successive points are generated
i Xi yi
1 4.000 1.732
2 4.393 1.956
3 4.836 2.201
4 5.334 2.472
5 5.892 2.771
6 6.518 3.102
7 7.218 3.468
8 8.000 3.873
xi+1 = xi.coshδu + (a/b).yi.sinhδu)
yi+1 = (b/a) xi.sinhδu + yi.coshδu)
102
Parametric Equations of Analytic Curves
103

Curves (Analytic)

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Computer Aided Analysis & Design (CAAD)

Computer Aided Engg.

Lowest Entity in Geometric Modelling

In algebraic representation we have two types:

(a) Explicit Representation

(b) Implicit Representation

e.g. a straight line: y = ax + b

• Curve in 3D: y = f(x), z = g(x)

• Surface in 3D: z = f(x,y)

 How about a vertical line x = c as y = f(x)?

 Dependent on coordinate system

 If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical or

 Both explicit and implicit non parametric curve

P’(u) = [x’(u) y’(u) z’(u)]T

 Resulting intercepts on arc/circle are unequal

P-Equation of Circle: x = cosθ and y = sinθ.

 Resulting intercepts on arc/circle are equal and

 Efficient algorithm can be obtained by

 Let’s assume fixed number of uniformly spaced points. ‘δu’ be the

xi+1 = xc + (xi*cosδu - yi*sinδu)

(a)Passing through corners

P(u) = [RoCosu RoSinu]T

Xc = (X1+X3)/2 & Yc = (Y1+Y3)/2

Ro = 1/2[(X1 – X3)2 + (Y1 – Y3)2]1/2

(a) Inscribed in a Square

P(u) = [RiCosu RiSinu]T

Xc = (X1+X3)/2 & Yc = (Y1+Y3)/2

Ro = 1/2[(X3 – X4)2 + (Y3 – Y4)2]1/2

Ro d Pi(u) = [RiCosu RiSinu]T | Blue one

Po(u) = [RiCosu RiSinu]T | Green one

P = [x y]T | x = R.cos(2πu) & y = R.sin(2πu)

(a) Parametric Equation of circle:

(b) Tangent Equation:

(c) At 0o , 2πu = 0, Therefore, u = 0

for a Circle Tangent to existing 2 or 3 circles

(a) for a Circle Passing through 3 Points

P(u) = [x y]T = [R.Cosu R.Sinu]T us≤u ≤ ue

P(u) = [xc + R.Cosu yc + R.Sinu]T us≤u ≤ ue

There are various ways to draw a line. Simple

(P–P1) is proportional to (P2 – P1)

P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1) | 0≤u≤1 45

In Vector Matrix form: P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1)

In scalar form: x(u) = x1 + u(x2 – x1)

Tangent vector: P’(u) = [x’(u) y’(u)]

Slope: dP(u)/du = y’(u)/x’(u)

Position Vector: P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1)

Tangent Vector: dP(u)/du = P’(u) = (P2 – P1)

P(u) = P1 + u(P2 – P1) | 0≤u≤1

P(u) = [2 3] + u([4 5] – [2 3])

x(u) = x1 + u(x2 – x1)

y(u) = y1 + u(y2 – y1)

P(u) = [x+2u y+2u]

Slope: dP(u)/du = y’(u)/x’(u) = 2/2 = 1

(P2-P1).(P3-P1) = (4)(0)+(0)(3) = 0 Hence the proof

(a) n1.n2 = 0 (b) n1.n2 = -1

(b)Find intersection point (I) of two lines

(c)Find P-equation of Circle (I is center and radius 1)

(c)Find P-equation of Circle (I is center and radius 1)

Center, Major axis (2a) and Minor axis (2b)

Equal angle increment method gives acceptable results (equal

For a sufficient number of segments this gives a better representation.

Desired Increments Method: More number of points towards 69 ends

dx = -a.sinu.du & dy = b.cosu.du

xi+1 = xc + (xicosδu - yisinδu)