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DE G531-Lecture 1- 18 Aug 2020.
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DE G531-Lecture 2-23 Aug 2020.pptx
DE G531-Lecture 6-01 Sept 2020.pptx
DE G531-Lecture 15-01 October 2020.pptx
DE G531-Lecture 24 -29-10-20.pptx
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DE G531-Lecture 29&30 - 05-11-20.pptx
DE G531-Lecture 31 - 07-11-20.pptx
Lecture 34-35 - Sreeram J Industry expert lecture series.pptx
Lecture 37-38 - Sreeram J Industry expert lecture series.pptx
First Semester 2020-21
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
Pilani | Dubai | Goa | Hyderabad
BITS Pilani
Lecture 1: Overview of Handout;

Introduction to Engineering Design Process
Ove r Vi e w o f H a n dout: Eva l u ati on Sc h e me
Duration Nature of
Component Weightage (%) Date & Time
(Minutes) Component
September 10 – 20, 2020*

Test-1 30 15 Open Book
(During scheduled class hour)
October 09 – 20, 2020*

November 10 – 20, 2020*

Lab & Case studies - 15 Continuous assessment Open Book
Surprise Quizzes - 5 Continuous assessment Open Book

Comprehensive
120 35 As announced in the Timetable Open Book
Examination
*The exact date and time for tests will be announced on CMS.
Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

3
Ove r Vi e w o f H a n dout: Eva l u ati on Sc h e me
• Chamber Consultation Hour: Each Friday between 3.00 PM – 4.00 PM (online mode)
– Google meet link: meet.google.com/dvx-objv-pkk
• Lecture class google meet link: meet.google.com/prd-befg-hyi (Tuesday, Thursday, Friday,

10.00 AM – 11.00 AM)
• Lab google class room link: meet.google.com/wji-cqsa-qvr
• Notices: All notices concerning the course are displayed on CMS only.
• Make-up Policy: No makeup for surprise Quizzes. Makeup for tests and comprehensive
examination and other evaluation component will be given for genuine reason with prior
permission. Student should always make sure about good internet connectivity and other
relevant accessories for attending online classes and labs
4
Pr e s c ribed Bo o k s
• Text Book:
– Kevin Otto and Kristin Wood, “Product Design: Techniques in Reverse Engineering and New
Product Development”, 1/e, Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2004.
• Reference Books:
– Karl T. Ulrich and Steven D. Eppinger, “Product Design and Development”, Tata McGraw-Hill Edition, 5th
edition, New Delhi, 2016
– George E. Dieter, Linda C. Schmidt, "Engineering Design", 4/e (Indian Edition), McGraw Hill
Education (India) Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2009.
– David G. Ullman, “The Mechanical Design Process”, McGraw-Hill Inc., Singapore, 1992
– N. J. M. Roozenburg, J. Eekels, Roozenburg N. F. M., “Product Design: Fundamentals and Methods”, John
Wiley and Sons, 1995
5
L a b / C a s e Stu d ies Pr o j ect ( 1 5 % )
• Group of 2-3 students will recommended to do the project.
• Initially come with any existing published journal paper related to product design area (2-3
ideas). It will decide the theme and scope of the work.
• Student should choose real time any usable product for implementation of selected research
paper theme.
• Lab case studies / experiments will be aligned with respect to allotted project.
DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 6 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

L a b / C a s e s tu d ies ( 1 5 % )
Practical No. Experiment Title
Case study on problem definition and analysis of customer requirements
1
2 Case study on defining a mission statement, design parameters and development of House of Quality
3 Case study on functional decomposition using generic black box method
4 Implementation of different concept generation techniques for concept development
5 Concept evaluation and product architecture building
6 Parametric Design: Material selection, Process selection, Bill of material, Failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA)
7 Online demonstration on Reverse engineering and 3D printing setup

Introduction to DFA: operational library, DFMA product worksheet/Redesign, Minimum part Criteria, DFA index and
8
case study for DFA
Introduction to DFM: Defining Material, Defining process tree, Selection of machines, order of material, case study for
9
DFM
10 DFMA: cost estimation vs life volume, Sustainability indicators, case study for DFM+DMA
11 Life Cycle Assesment: Introduction to SimaPro/OpenLCA, case study by SimaPro
12 Final lab/project demonstration – Oral Presentations

Su r p ris e Qu i z z es ( 5 % )
• Class assessment is generally based on surprise quizzes (3-4).
• Surprise quizzes will be conducted during the lecture hours (3-4 quizzes; best n-1 for evaluation).
Please make a note that there is no any makeup for surprise quizzes.

Pr o d uct D e s i gn
Expectation as Design Engineer?

Expectation as a Product Design Manager?


Pr o d uct M a n ger

Pr o d uct M a n ger


Pr o d uct D e s i gn Str a tegy
• Strategic Design Thinking: Go beyond the limits of the logic of “product” to evolve and
become the logic of user experience.

C o n tent fo r th e C o u rse

15
C o n tent
• Introduction
• Engineering design process
• Ways to think about engineering design process
• Consideration of good design
• Description of design process
• Computer aided engineering
• Design to codes and standards
• Design review
•

16
C o n tent
• Product development process
• Product and process cycles
• Organization for product and design development
• Case studies for modern product development
• Summary

In tr o duction
• What is design?
– To design is to pull together (synthesis) something new or to arrange existing things in a
new way.
– Design establishes and defines solutions to and pertinent structures for problems not
solved before, or new solutions to problems which have previously been solved in a
different way”
– Good design requires analysis and synthesis
– Four ‘C’ of design: Creativity, Complexity, Choice and Compromise

18
En g i neering D e s i gn Pr o c es s
• Impact of Engineering design process:
– Product cost
– Product quality
– Product cycle time

19
• Types of Designs
– Original design (Innovative design)
– Adaptive design
– Redesign (Variant design)
– Selection design
– Industrial design

20
A Pr o bl em-Solvi ng M e thodology
Challenge of Engineering Design Process
Definition of the problem
Gathering of Information
Generation of alternative solutions
Evaluation of alternatives and

decision making
Communication of the results

21
C o n si derations o f a g o od d e s i gn
1. Achievement of performance requirements:

i. Primary performance requirements
ii. Complementary performance requirements
 Useful life of the design, Reliability, Ease, Robustness, Safety and Maintenance.
iii. Environmental requirements for performance

 service conditions under which the product must operate
 How the product will behave with regard to maintaining a safe and clean environment, that is,
green design.
iv. Aesthetic requirements

22
2. Life-cycle issues

23
3. Regulatory and Social Issues

24
D e s c ri pti on Of D e s i gn Pr o c ess
Design process (Morris Asimow : Morphology of design)

Conceptual Design
Embodiment Design
Detail Design
Planning for Manufacture
Planning for Distribution
Planning for Use
Planning for Retirement of the Product

25
• Phase I: Conceptual Design

• Phase II: Embodiment Design
• Phase III: Detail Design
• Phase IV: Planning for Manufacture
• Phase V: Planning for Distribution
• Phase VI: Planning for Use
• Phase VII: Planning for Retirement
of the Product

26
D e s i gn R e vi e w
• Retrospective study of the design
• Review team
• Three to six times in the life of the project
• Technical and Business aspects

27
Pr o d uct D e ve l opment Pr o c e ss
Types:
1. Stage gate development process
2. Spiral product development process
3. Hybrid product development process
• Stage gate development process:
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 4 Phase 5

Phase 0 Phase 3
Concept System-level Detail Design Testing and Production
Planning Development Refinement Ramp-up
Development

Sp i r al Pr o d uc t D e ve l opment Pr o c es s
• Spiral model = {(1st stage-gate process)+1st version of working product}+{(2nd
stage-gate process)+2nd version of working product}+…+{(nth stage-gate
process)+nth version of working product}

H y b r id Pr o d uct D e ve l opment Pr o c e ss

F a c tor s fo r Su c c e ss
• Profit = Product Price ( ) - Product Cost ( )
Success of a product:
• The quality, performance, and price of the product.
• The cost to manufacture the product over its life cycle.
• The cost of product development.
• The time needed to bring the product to the market.

Increased sales revenue due to extended product life

Product launch first in market
and larger market share.

Va r i ations o n th e Ge n eri c Pr o d uct
D e ve l opment Pr o c e ss

THANK YOU!

34
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
BITS Pilani
Lecture 2: Introduction to Product Design

Process
Pr o d uct D e s i gn Str a tegy
• Strategic Design Thinking: Go beyond the limits of the logic of “product” to evolve and
become the logic of user experience.


C o n tent fo r th e C o u rse

5
C o n tent
• Introduction
• Design review
•

6
C o n tent
• Summary

In tr o duction
• What is design?
new way.
different way”

8
– Product cost
– Product quality

9
– Adaptive design

10

decision making

11


green design.

12

13

14

Conceptual Design
Embodiment Design
Detail Design
Planning for Use

15

of the Product

16
• Review team

17
Types:

Phase 0 Phase 3
Development







THANK YOU!

24
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
BITS Pilani

Process
C o n tent
• Introduction
• Design review
•

3
C o n tent
• Summary

In tr o duction
• What is design?
new way.
different way”

5
– Product cost
– Product quality

6
– Adaptive design

7

decision making

8


green design.

9

10

11

Conceptual Design
Embodiment Design
Detail Design
Planning for Use

12

of the Product

13
• Review team

14
Types:

Phase 0 Phase 3
Development







THANK YOU!

21
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
BITS Pilani

Process
C o n tent
• Summary

Types:

Phase 0 Phase 3
Development







BITS Pilani
Lecture 2: Introduction to Engineering

Design Process
Pr o d uct a n d Pr o c ess C y c l e
• Stages of Development of a Product:

THANK YOU!

12
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
BITS Pilani

Process
C o n tent: T e a m Be h a vi or
• Organization Structure
• Effective team members
• Team roles and team dynamics
• Effective team meeting
• Problems with teams
• Problem solving tools
• Time management, planning and scheduling
• Summary
ETZC 413 – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N 3 BITS-Pilani

Or g a nizati on Str u c tur e: F u n c tional Or g a niz ati on
• A functional organization structure is a hierarchical

organization structure wherein people are grouped as
per their area of specialization.
• These people are supervised by a functional manager

with expertise in the same field.

Ad va n tages o f th e F u n c tional Or g a nizati on
Str u c ture
• Employees are grouped by their knowledge and skills, which helps achieve the highest degree of
performance.
• Employees are very skilled. Efficiency is gained because they are experienced in the same work
and they perform very well.
• Their roles and responsibilities are fixed, which facilitates easy accountability for the work.
• The hierarchy is very clear and employees don’t have to report to multiple supervisors. Each
employee reports to his or her functional manager, which reduces the number of
communication channels.
• There is no duplication of work because each department and each employee has a fixed job
responsibility.
• Employees feel secure, and therefore, they perform well without fear.
• Since there is a sense of job security, employees tend to be loyal to the organization.
• Employees have a clear career growth path.
• Cooperation and communication are excellent within the department.
D i s a dvantages o f th e F u n c tional Or g a niz ati on
Str u c ture
• Employees may feel bored due to the monotonous, repetitive type of work and may lose
enthusiasm for the job.
• If the performance appraisal system is not managed properly, conflicts may arise. For example,
an employee may feel demoralized when a lower performing employee is promoted.
• The departments have a self-centered mentality. The functional manager pays more attention to
his department; he usually doesn’t care about other departments.
• Communication is poor among the departments, which causes poor inter-department
coordination. This decreases flexibility and innovation. Moreover, there is a lack of teamwork
among different departments.
• Employees may have little concern and/or knowledge about events outside their department.
This causes obstacles in communication and cooperation.
• The functional structure is rigid, making adaptation to changes difficult and slow.
• Due to bureaucratic hierarchy, delays frequently occur in decision making.

D i s a dvantages o f th e F u n c tional Or g a niz ati on
Str u c ture
• Generally, the functional manager makes decisions autocratically without consulting his team
members. This may not always work in favor of the organization.
• When the organization becomes larger, functional areas can become difficult to manage due to
their size. Each department may start behaving like a small company with its own facilities,
culture, and management style.
• Functional departments may be distracted by departmental goals, and focus on them rather
than the organizational goal.

Or g a nizati on Str u c tur e: Pr o j ec t Or g ani zation
• In projectized organizations, organizations arrange their activities

into programs or portfolios and implement them through the
projects.
• Project manager plays a crucial role in the execution of the
project. However, there is very limited role for function manager.
• Usually, they have some small departments such as Admin,
Accounting, and Human Resources to support the project
management activities.
• The project manager has full power and authority over resources
to be utilized in the project. He controls the budget, resources,
and work assignments.
• The project manager has full-time team members working under
his control who directly report him.
• When the project is completed the team is disbanded. Team
members and all other resources are released.
Ad va n tages o f a Pr o j e ctiz ed Or g a niz ed
Str u c ture
• Since the team members directly report to the project manager, there is a clear line of authority.
This reduces conflict and makes decision making faster and more flexible.
• Due to a single reporting system, there are shorter lines of communication which creates strong
and effective communication within the project management team.
• Due to a single authority, less time is consumed in communication, and the response to
stakeholders’ concerns is fast.
• Due to a sense of urgency, milestones, good communication, and cooperation, the learning
curve is faster for any new member.
• Team members become versatile and flexible due to experience in different kinds of projects.

D i s a dvantages o f a Pr o j ecti zed Or g ani zation
Str u c ture
• Since the project manager has full authority and power over his team members, he can become
arrogant.
• In projects, there is always a deadline and usually a tight schedule, which makes the work
environment stressful.
• If the organization has multiple projects, there can be poor communication among them,
causing resources to be duplicated.
• There is a sense of insecurity among the team members, because once the project is completed,
they feel they may lose their jobs. Therefore, they tend to be less loyal towards the organization.
• The cost of employees and equipment can be higher because you may be hiring skilled people
and specialized equipment for a shorter period of time. Moreover, if the project gets stretched
out, the cost of equipment and other resources can be much higher.

M a tr ix ( H y b rid) Or g a niz ation Str u c ture
• The matrix organization is a blend of the projectized and the functional organization structures.
• These two types of organizational structures represent the two extreme points of a string, while
the matrix organization structure is a balance of these two.
• This combination may help organizations achieve higher efficiency, readiness, and quick market
adaptation.
• Moreover, they often can respond faster to market or customer demand while decreasing the
lead time to produce a new product.
• This type of structure is most suitable for organizations operating in a dynamic environment.
• The authority of a functional manager flows vertically downwards, and the authority of the
project manager flows sideways.
• In a matrix organization structure, employees may report to many managers. Some from one
section may report to one boss while the rest report to a different boss.

M a tr ix ( H y b rid) Or g a niz ation Str u c ture
• The functional manager may look after the functional part of the project; he may decide how to
do the work, and may distribute the project work among his subordinates. The project manager
will have authority over the administrative part of the project, such as what to do, follow-up on
the schedule, evaluate the performance, etc.
• Working in a matrix organization can be challenging because you have a confusing role while
reporting to two bosses.
• To avoid confusion and work efficiently in a matrix organization, you must be clear on your role,
responsibilities, and the work priorities.
• The matrix organization structure usually exists in large and multi-project organizations, where
they can relocate employees whenever and wherever their services are needed.
T y p e o f M a tr i x Or g ani zation Str u c ture
• The matrix organization structure can be classified into three categories, largely depending on
the level of power of the project manager. These categories are as follows:
– Strong Matrix Structure
– Weak Matrix Structure
– Balanced Matrix Structure

Ad va n tages o f a M a tr i x Or g a nizati on Str u c tur e
• Highly skilled and capable resources can be shared between the functional units and projects,
allowing more open communication lines which help in sharing the valuable knowledge within
the organization.
• The matrix structure is more dynamic than the functional structure because it allows employees
to communicate more readily across the boundaries, creating a good, cooperative, work
environment which helps to integrate the organization.
• Employees can broaden their skills and knowledge areas by participating in different kinds of
projects. The matrix structure provides a good environment for professionals to learn and grow
their careers.
• In functional departments, employees are very skilled, and project teams can get these highly-
skilled employees whenever their services are needed.
• Since there is a sense of job security, employees tend to be loyal to the organization and
perform well, and therefore, the efficiency of a matrix organization is higher.

D i s a dvantages o f a M a tr ix Or g a niz ation
Str u c ture
• Employees may have to report to two managers, which adds confusion and may cause conflict.
This usually happens in a balanced matrix organization where both bosses have equal authority
and power.
• A conflict may arise between the project manager and the functional manager regarding the
authority and power.
• If the priorities are not defined clearly, employees may be confused about their role and
responsibility, especially when they are assigned a task which is different from, or even counter to,
what they were doing.
• If any resource is scarce, there might be competition to use it, which may cause hostility within the
workplace and could affect the operation.
• It is generally perceived that matrix organizations have more managers than required, which
increases overhead costs.
• In a matrix organization, the workload tends to be high. Employees have to do their regular work
along with the additional project-related work, which can exhaust them.
How to Overcome the Disadvantages of a Matrix
Organization Structure
• There must be close cooperation between the project manager and the functional manager. This
will help avoid confusion and conflict.
• There should be well defined and strong communication in all directions. This is important to
gain support from executives, managers, supervisors, and employees. Organizations must
communicate their vision, objective, and goal with their employees.
• There should be a proper and balanced distribution of authority and power between the project
manager and the functional manager. Both managers should get the required power and
authority. Any imbalance may impact the effectiveness of operations.
• Any conflict between the project manager and the functional manager must be resolved as early
as possible, and in private.
• Roles and responsibilities must be clearly documented and communicated to all employees to
avoid confusion.

Ob j e cti ves
• To provide time-tested tips and advice for becoming an effective team member
• To introduce you to a set of problem-solving tools that you will find useful in
carrying out your design project, as well as being useful in your everyday life.
• To emphasize the importance of project planning to success in design, and to
provide you with some ideas of how to increase your skill in this activity.

Effe c ti ve T e a m M e m ber

Su g ges ted Gu i d el ines fo r a n Effe c ti ve T e a m
• As open as possible but will honor the right of privacy.
• Information remain confidential.
• Respect differences between individuals.
• Respect the ideas of others.
• Supportive rather than judgmental.
• Give feedback directly and openly, in a timely fashion.
• Diligent in attending team meetings.
• Use time wisely.
• Keep focus on team goals, avoiding sidetracking, personality conflicts, and hidden
agendas. 19 BITS-Pilani
ETZC 413 – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N
Effe c ti ve T e a m M e e tings

Pr o b lem w i th T e a ms
Dominant
Personality
Lack of Over
respect Talkative
Problems
with
teams
Overly Does not

Critical listen

Pr o b lem-s olvi ng T o o ls
• Brainstorming
Problem Definition • Affinity diagram
• Pareto chart
• Gathering data
Cause Finding • Analyzing data
• Search for root causes
Solution Finding and • Brainstorming

• How-how diagram
Implementation • Concept selection

C a u se F i n d ing
• Gathering Data:
Focus Group
Interviews Survey

• Analyzing data:
Check sheets Histogram Flowchart

• Search for root causes:
Interrelationship digraph
Why Why
Cause andDiagram
Effect Diagram
• Solution finding and implementation :
How How Diagram Force field

Concept analysis
selection

T i m e M a n agement
• Find a place for everything
• Schedule your work
• Stay current with the little stuff
• Learn to say no
• Find the sweet spot and use it
Planning and scheduling

T o o l s u s e d fo r Pl a n ning a n d Sc h e dul ing
Work Breakdown Structure:

Gantt Chart:

Critical Path Method (CPM):

Steps:
• Determine activities that need to be accomplished
• Determine precedence relationships and completion times
• Construct network diagram
• Determine the critical path
• Determine early start and late start schedules

C r i ti cal Pa th M e th od ( C PM )
• An activity carries the arrow symbol, . This represent a task or subproject that uses
time or resources.
• A node (an event), denoted by a circle , marks the start and completion of an activity,
which contain a number that helps to identify its location. For example activity A can be
drawn as:
A
1 2
3 days
• This means activity A starts at node 1 and finishes at node 2 and it will takes three days

D e te rmini ng th e C r i ti c al Pa th
• Step 1: Make a forward pass through the network as follows: For each activity i
beginning at the Start node, compute:
– Earliest Start Time (ES) = the maximum of the earliest finish times of all activities
immediately preceding activity i. (This is 0 for an activity with no predecessors.). This is
the earliest time an activity can begin without violation of immediate predecessor
requirements.
– Earliest Finish Time (EF) = (Earliest Start Time) + (Time to complete activity i). This
represent the earliest time at which an activity can end.
The project completion time is the maximum of the Earliest Finish Times at the
Finish node.
• Step 2: Make a backwards pass through the network as follows: Move

sequentially backwards from the Finish node to the Start node. At a given node,
j, consider all activities ending at node j. For each of these activities, (i,j),
compute:
– Latest Finish Time (LF) = the minimum of the latest start times beginning at node j.
(For node N, this is the project completion time.). This is the latest time an activity can
end without delaying the entire project.
– Latest Start Time (LS) = (Latest Finish Time) - (Time to complete activity (i,j)). This is
the latest time an activity can begin without delaying the entire project.

• Step 3: Calculate the slack time for each activity by:
Slack = (Latest Start) - (Earliest Start), or
= (Latest Finish) - (Earliest Finish).
A critical path is a path of activities, from the Start node to the Finish node, with 0
slack times.

Exa m p le
• Consider the following project:
Activity Predecessor time (days)
A -- 6
B -- 4
C A 3
D A 5
E A 1
F B,C 4
G B,C 2
H E,F 6
I E,F 5
J D,H 3
K G,I 5

Exa m p le
• Earliest/Latest Times
Activity time ES EF LS LF Slack
A 6 0 6 0 6 0 *critical
B 4 0 4 5 9 5
C 3 6 9 6 9 0*
D 5 6 11 15 20 9
E 1 6 7 12 13 6
F 4 9 13 9 13 0*
G 2 9 11 16 18 7
H 6 13 19 14 20 1
I 5 13 18 13 18 0*
J 3 19 22 20 23 1
K 5 18 23 18 23 0*
– The estimated project completion time is the Max EF at node 7 = 23.

THANK YOU!

37
Product Design (DE G531)
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
Chapter 2: Product Development Process Tools

&
Chapter 3: Scoping Product Developments: Technical
and Business Concerns
T r a di tional T e a ms

Pr o b lem w i th T e a ms
Dominant
Personality
Lack of Over
respect Talkative
Problems
with
teams
Overly Does not

Critical listen

Effe c ti ve T e a m M e m ber

PR ID E p r i n c iples
• PRIDE principles: • Clear understanding of common purpose and goal

• Purpose • The team should seek to develop mission statement
• Respect • Endeavor to act with mutual respect, trust and
• Individuals support
• Productively utilizes the individual differences and
• Discussions
capabilities
• Excellence
• Exercise open, honest and frequent discussion
• Team must strive excellence in all the actions

T e a m R o l es : Wi l d e’ s M o d el
Sixteen team roles

1) Administrator/reviewer 9. Visionary
2) Troubleshooter/inspector 10. Strategist
3) Producer/test pilot 11. Need-finder
4) Manager/coordinator 12. Entrepreneur/facilitator
5) Conserver/critic 13. Diplomat/orator
6) Expediter/investigator 14. Simulator/theoretician
7) Conciliator/performer 15. Innovator
8) Mockup maker /prototyper / 16. Director/Programmer
model maker

Wi l d e’ s M o d el
1. Administrator reviewer: Monitor project and judges outcomes
2. Troubleshooter/Inspector: Solves difficulty impediments to progress
3. Producer/ Test pilot: Brings tasks to fruition and reality
4. Manager/ Coordinator: Supervises and leads tasks
5. Conserver/ Critic: Preserves the team’s and project’s goal and concerns.
6. Expediter/ Investigator: Experiences the team goals, get facts and know-how
7. Conciliator/ Performer: Detects and fixes interpersonal issues
8. Mockup maker/ Prototyper/ Model maker: Build and test the prototypes

Wi l d e’ s M o d el
9. Visionary: Imagines various product forms and uses
10. Strategist: Speculates on and plans project and product future
11. Need finder: Evaluate human factors and consume issues
12. Entrepreneur/ Facilitator: Explore new products and methods, inspires and motivates
13. Diplomat/Orator: Harmonizes team, clients and customers
14. Simulator/Theoretician: Attempts to understand phenomena, analyze, performance

and efficiency
15. Innovators: Synthesizes new product; improvises the solution.
16. Director/ Programmer: Set deadlines and breaks bottleneck

Be l d in’ s M o d el
1. Organizer: concerned about the practical aspects of the design process
2. Motivator: schedule and goals of the design team
3. Pusher: forcing design team to work faster
4. Soldier: generate the variety of solutions
5. Gatherer: searching for information and communicating with others
6. Listener: perceiving and combining the ideas and statement for others
7. Completer: eliminating the flaws in the final design
8. Specialist: extensive knowledge in the special field
9. Evaluator: concerned about alternative evaluation methods

Effe c ti ve T e a m M e e tings

C o n cur rent En g i neeri ng T e a ms
• Conventional way:
– Distinct Functions
– Separate department (No interlinking)
• Main elements:
– Cross-functional teams
– Parallel design
– Vendor partnering

C o n cur rent En g i neeri ng

Pr o b lem-s olvi ng T o o ls
• Brainstorming
Problem Definition • Affinity diagram
• Pareto chart
• Gathering data
Cause Finding • Analyzing data
• Search for root causes
Solution Finding and • Brainstorming

• How-how diagram
Implementation • Concept selection

Pr o b lem D e fi ni tion T o o ls
Brainstorming Session Pareto Diagram

Affinity chart

• Gathering Data:
Focus Group
Interviews Survey

• Analyzing data:
Check sheets Histogram Flowchart

• Search for root causes:
Interrelationship digraph
Why Why
Cause andDiagram
Effect Diagram
• Solution finding and implementation :
How How Diagram Force field

Concept analysis
selection

T i m e M a n agement
• Find a place for everything
• Schedule your work
• Stay current with the little stuff
• Learn to say no
• Find the sweet spot and use it
Planning and scheduling

Work Breakdown Structure:

Gantt Chart:

Critical Path Method (CPM):

Steps:
• Determine activities that need to be accomplished
• Determine precedence relationships and completion times
• Construct network diagram
• Determine the critical path
• Determine early start and late start schedules

C r i ti cal Pa th M e th od ( C PM )
• An activity carries the arrow symbol, . This represent a task or subproject that uses
time or resources.
• A node (an event), denoted by a circle , marks the start and completion of an activity,
which contain a number that helps to identify its location. For example activity A can be
drawn as:
A
1 2
3 days
• This means activity A starts at node 1 and finishes at node 2 and it will takes three days

• Step 1: Make a forward pass through the network as follows: For each activity i
beginning at the Start node, compute:
– Earliest Start Time (ES) = the maximum of the earliest finish times of all activities
immediately preceding activity i. (This is 0 for an activity with no predecessors.). This is
the earliest time an activity can begin without violation of immediate predecessor
requirements.
– Earliest Finish Time (EF) = (Earliest Start Time) + (Time to complete activity i). This
represent the earliest time at which an activity can end.
The project completion time is the maximum of the Earliest Finish Times at the
Finish node.
• Step 2: Make a backwards pass through the network as follows: Move

sequentially backwards from the Finish node to the Start node. At a given node,
j, consider all activities ending at node j. For each of these activities, (i,j),
compute:
– Latest Finish Time (LF) = the minimum of the latest start times beginning at node j.
(For node N, this is the project completion time.). This is the latest time an activity can
end without delaying the entire project.
– Latest Start Time (LS) = (Latest Finish Time) - (Time to complete activity (i,j)). This is
the latest time an activity can begin without delaying the entire project.

• Step 3: Calculate the slack time for each activity by:
Slack = (Latest Start) - (Earliest Start), or
= (Latest Finish) - (Earliest Finish).
A critical path is a path of activities, from the Start node to the Finish node, with 0
slack times.

Exa m p le
• Consider the following project:
Activity Predecessor time (days)
A -- 6
B -- 4 D
C A 3 2 5 5
D A 5 A 1 J
6
E A 1 E H 3
6
F B,C 4 1 C 3 4 7
G B,C 2 4 F 5
I 5
H E,F 6 B 4 K
I E,F 5 3 2 6
J D,H 3 G
K G,I 5

Exa m p le
• Earliest/Latest Times
Activity time ES EF LS LF Slack
A 6 0 6 0 6 0 *critical
B 4 0 4 5 9 5
C 3 6 9 6 9 0*
D 5 6 11 15 20 9
E 1 6 7 12 13 6
F 4 9 13 9 13 0*
G 2 9 11 16 18 7
H 6 13 19 14 20 1
I 5 13 18 13 18 0*
J 3 19 22 20 23 1
K 5 18 23 18 23 0*
– The estimated project completion time is the Max EF at node 7 = 23.

THANK YOU

BITS Pilani
Chapter 2: Product Development Process Tools

&
Chapter 3: Scoping Product Developments: Technical and
Business Concerns
R e ve r se En g i neering a n d R e d esign

Ko l b ’s M o d el o f Exp e r i ential L e a rni ng

Ad va n tages o f R e ve rs e En g ineer ing
• Study products that are already open to the market
• Gain personal knowledge on the product and its technology
• Product compatibility with available technologies in the market
• Determine whether the product lives up to its standards as advertised
• Determine flaws in your product design compared to competitor ones
• Figuring out the reasons of product failure
• Improving manufacturing processes
• Creates healthy competition in the market

Bu s i nes s Str a te gies R e l a ted to In n ova tion
a n d Pr o duc t D e ve lopment
• Boston Consulting Group

C a s e Stu d i es o f M o d ern Pr o d uct
• Xerox Corporation: Total time to market (1996)
Define market Define product

Demonstrate
attack plan and & deliver Define product
product
Deliver product Delight customers
technology technology
Market and product

strategies vision

• Microsoft Corporation:

• Ford Motor:

In d u strial d e s ign: D e s i gn ED GE, Au s ti n, T X
Pr o d uct d e s i gn fi r m

R e s ear ch In te ns ive : R a y c hem C o r porati on
• Longer product development cycle.
• Example: PolySwitch, an electrical

overload switch (1970, 1981…1990)
• How is such long-term product

forecasting and technology planning
done?
• What will the world look like in

decades?
• How could anyone in 1970 forecast the

need for a polymer overload switch?

Su m m ary
• Phases in Engineering Design Process

Su m m ary
• The keys to creating a winning product are:
– Designing a quality product with the features and performance desired by its customers
at price they are willing to pay
– Reducing the cost to manufacture the product over its life cycle
– Minimizing the cost to develop the product
– Quickly bringing the product to market
– The organization of a product development team can have a major influence on how
effectively product development is carried out.
– Generally, a heavyweight matrix organization with appropriate management controls

works best

Su m m ary
• Every product development process is different. Its depends on companies

technological and market environment.
• Engineers need to develop their own product development process in any

business they work and must continually strive to improve it.
• Reverse engineering and redesign is a forum for learning, experimenting and

living product design process.
• Handful of reverse engineering experience make you to understand how product

are executed within their “Black boxes”.


In tr o duction
• Design is a complex activity.
• It required intense focus at the beginning.
• Clear understanding of problem.

Id e n ti fying C u s to mer N e e ds
• Increasing worldwide competitiveness
• Who are my customers?
• What does the customer want? How can the product satisfy the customers while
generating a profit?
• “One that purchases a product or service”
• Total Quality Management: “anyone who receives or uses what an individual or

organization provides.”

Pr e l i minary R e s earc h o n C u s to mer s
N e e ds
• Designers focus on needs that are unmet in the marketplace
• Products that are similar to the proposed product
• Historical ways of meeting the need and technological approaches for similar
products.
• Use of own experience and research to date.
• Start with our own team and internal customers.

D i ffe ri ng Vi e w s o f C u s tomer R e q uir ements
Garvin’s 8 basic dimensions of quality

Time to
market
Product Customer
Performance Requirements Cost
Quality

Ga th eri ng In fo rmation fr o m C u s tomers

THANK YOU!

20
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani

T y p e s o f c u s tomer s a ti s fac tion s u r ve ys
Type of Survey When to Use It
Net Promoter Score (NPS) Survey Use an NPS survey to measure customer loyalty.
Customer Satisfaction (CSAT) Survey Use CSAT surveys to determine if your business
meets customers’ expectations.
Post-Purchase Survey Use to get feedback on a particular experience.
Product or Service Development Survey Use to gauge customer response to a new product
before launching.
Usability Survey Used by online businesses to get feedback on their

website.

• Net Promoter Score (NPS) Survey

• An NPS, or Net Promoter Score, survey measures customer loyalty by asking a single
question: How likely is it that you would recommend our company/product/service to a
friend or colleague? Customers can score from 0 (not at all likely) to 10 (extremely
likely).
• Businesses use NPS to measure customer loyalty and overall customer sentiment,
instead of feedback on a specific product or experience.
• NPS is widely used across many industries, so it can be a good tool to measure your
customer loyalty and satisfaction against competitors.
• NPS can also be used to identify detractors, or customers likely to switch to competitors
or spread negative feedback about your business.
• Customers are placed into three categories based on how they answer that question:
– Detractors: Customers who respond between 0 and 6 are considered detractors. Not only are
you at risk of losing these customers, but they are also likely to impede the growth of your
business through negative word-of-mouth.
– Passives: Customers who respond between 7 and 8 are considered passive customers. They are
satisfied with your business but are not raving fans. Passives could leave your business for a
competitor or could be converted into raving fans.
– Promoters: Customers who respond between 9 and 10 are considered promoters. These are
loyal customers who are likely helping to grow your business through referrals.

• To calculate your Net Promoter Score, subtract the percentage of Detractors from the
percentage of Promoters. For example, let’s say you have 100 survey results and 10 scored
between 0 and 6, 20 scored between 7 and 8, and 70 scored between 9 and 10.
• You would have:

– 10% Detractors
– 20% Passives
– 70% Promoters
– 70% Promoters – 10% Detractors = 60%. So, your Net Promoter Score would be 60.

• Customer Satisfaction (CSAT) Survey

• Only customers who choose “Satisfied” or “Very Satisfied” are considered satisfied customers.
To calculate your business’ CSAT score, take your number of satisfied customers and divide by
the total number of survey respondents, then multiply by 100. Therefore, if you have 100 survey
respondents and 70 of them responded “Satisfied” or “Very Satisfied,” your CSAT score would
be 70%.
(70 / 100 = .7) x 100 = 70%
• For example, if customers consistently rate a product as a 1 through 3, it needs to be improved.

If customers consistently rate an item as a 4 or 5, it’s a strong product that you should promote.

C u s tomer Su r ve y Exa m p le

Eva l u ati ng C u s to mer Su r ve y s
• Average score using 1-5 scale.
• Alternatively, number of times a feature or attribute of a design is mentioned in

the survey and divide by the total number of customers surveyed.

C o m mon m e thod to a n al ys e th e c u s to mer
s u r ve y
1. Use a graph or chart.

s u r ve y
• Create a data table.

s u r ve y
• Make a visual presentation.

s u r ve y
• Put together an infographic.

s u r ve y
• Present a report

• Post-Purchase Survey

• Product or Service Development Survey

• Usability Survey

D r a wbac ks o f tr a d i ti onal c u s to mer s u r veys
• Customer must understand the product that is being designed.
• Difficult to understand the type of customers.
• Segregation of customer needs are not understand fully.
• Priorities of customer needs are not well defined.
• Difficult situation in rapid technology change.
• Typical problem is customer will always discuss about the failings of the product. Experience
about the product usage will be never discuss easily

Ka n o’ s M o d el

Ka n o’ s M o d el: Exa m p l e
• Product requirements of skis



• Indifferent category (I): Customer does not care whether it is present or not. He or
she is, however, not willing to spend more on this feature.
• Questionable category (Q): Questionable scores signify that the question was
phrased incorrectly, or that the person interviewed misunderstood the question or
crossed out a wrong answer by mistake.
• Reverse Category (R): this product feature is not only not wanted by the
customer but he even expects the reverse.

Ka n o M o d el
• Evaluation rule M>O>A>I
• Customer satisfaction coefficient (CS coefficient):
Extent of Satisfaction= Extent of dissatisfaction=

( )×( )


Ad va n tages o f Ka n o’s M e thod
• Priorities customer requirements for product development.
• Product requirements are better understood.
• Kano’s method provides valuable help in trade-off situations in the product
development stage.
• Discovering and fulfilling attractive requirements creates a wide range of
possibilities for differentiation.

THANK YOU!

29
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
C o n tent
• Kano’s Model
• Basic Method: Mission Statement and Technical Questioning
• Establishing the Engineering Characteristics
• Benchmarking
• Quality Function Deployment

2

D r a wbac ks o f tr a d i ti onal c u s to mer s u r veys
• Customer must understand the product that is being designed.
• Difficult to understand the type of customers.
• Segregation of customer needs are not understand fully.
• Priorities of customer needs are not well defined.
• Difficult situation in rapid technology change.
• Typical problem is customer will always discuss about the failings of the product. Experience
about the product usage will be never discuss easily


Ka n o’ s M o d el: Exa m p l e
• Product requirements of skis



• Indifferent category (I): Customer does not care whether it is present or not. He or
she is, however, not willing to spend more on this feature.
• Questionable category (Q): Questionable scores signify that the question was
phrased incorrectly, or that the person interviewed misunderstood the question or
crossed out a wrong answer by mistake.
• Reverse Category (R): this product feature is not only not wanted by the
customer but he even expects the reverse.

Ka n o M o d el
• Evaluation rule M>O>A> I = R = Q
• Customer satisfaction coefficient (CS coefficient):
Extent of Satisfaction= Extent of dissatisfaction=

( )×( )


Ad va n tages o f Ka n o’s M e thod
• Priorities customer requirements for product development.
• Product requirements are better understood.
• Kano’s method provides valuable help in trade-off situations in the product
development stage.
• Discovering and fulfilling attractive requirements creates a wide range of
possibilities for differentiation.

D i s a dvantages o f Ka n o M o d el
“It’s really hard to design products by focus groups. A lot of times, people don’t know
what they want until you show it to them.” - Steve Jobs.
• It can only be used for analysing the effects and certainly not for suggesting a new
product feature, something that is quite difficult to achieve.
• It based on more effective competition over quality.
DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 13 BITS-Pilani
Ba s i c M e th od: M i s s i on Sta te ment a n d
T e c h nical Qu e s ti oning
• The ability to frame the problem, to ask the right question, at the right time, and of
the right person(s), is essential to success.
• The mere formulation of a problem is far more essential than its solution.
• The company has to understand three possible environments prevailing in the

market and plan the introduction of new product accordingly:
– Environment when they are introducing new technology
– Environment when the technology is rapidly evolving
– Environment when technology is topping out
• A mission statement and technical clarification of the task:
• Focus design efforts
• Defines goals
• Translate business case analysis to the development team
• Provide schedule for the tasks
• Provide guidelines for the design process
• What is the problem really about?
• What implicit expectations and desires are involved?
• Are the stated customer needs, functional requirements, and constraints truly
appropriate?
• What avenues are open for creative design and inventive problem solving?
• What avenues are limited or not open for creative design? Limitations on scope?
• What characteristics/properties must the product have?
• What characteristics/properties must the product not have?
• What aspects of the design task can and should be quantified now?
• Do any biases exist with the chosen task statement or terminology? Has the
design no been posed at the appropriate level of abstraction?
• What are the technical and technological conflicts inherent in the design task?
M i s s i on s ta te ments
 The tangible result of the technical questioning
 Mission statement some time it is called as market attack plan, vision statement
or product plan.
 Typically written by project manager.
 It is end goal of the product.
T e c h nical q u es tioning fo r fi n g ernail c l i p per
• What is the problem really about?

• Clumsy operation of a typical clipper.
• What implicit expectations and desire are involved?

• Remain a manual clipper that can be operated by oneself.
• Are the stated customer needs, functional requirements and constrains truly
appropriate?
• Many groups, as documented in trade magazines and customer studies, have noted
clumsy operation. A detailed assessment will be made in post-customer interviews.
• What avenues are open for creative design?
• Can modify any and all parts. Introduce different materials, combine the functional
parts and many more….
• What are the limitations for creative design?
• No electrical power, no service based solution.
• What properties / characteristics must the product have ?
• Easy to use, durable, safe, low cost
• What properties / characteristics must the product not have ?
• Should not be bulky.
• What aspect of the design task can and should be quantified now?
• Do any biases exist with the chosen task statement or terminology?
• Has the design task been posed at the appropriate level of abstraction?
• What are the technical and technological conflicts inherent in the design task?
M i s s i on Sta te m ent T e m pl ate
M i s s i on s ta te ment: F i n ger nai l c l i p per
M i s s i on s ta te ment: Exa m p le
THANK YOU!

25
Product Design
(DE G531)
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
C o n tent
• Establishing the Engineering Characteristics
• Competitive Benchmarking
• Quality Function Deployment

2

Es ta b li shi ng th e En g i neering C h a rac ter isti cs
Engineering Characteristics
Design Parameters
Design Variable
Constraints
Be n c hmark ing
• Sun Tzu, Chinese warrior in 500 BC: “Know your enemy before to know yourself”
• Xerox’s worry of 1979 about Canon copier!
• Benchmarking is the key
• What is benchmarking?
• Why it is necessary?
• Identifying intra-company best practices
C o m petitive Pe r for manc e Be n c hmarki ng
Benchmarking methodology:
1.Select subject
2.Define the process
3.Identify potential partners
4.Identify data sources
5.Collect data and select all partners
6.Determine the gap
7.Establish process differences
8.Target future performance
9.Communicate
10.Adjust goal
11.Implement
12.Review and recalibrate
T y p e s o f Be n c hmarki ng
• Process benchmarking
• Financial benchmarking
• Benchmarking from an investor perspective
• Performance benchmarking
• Product benchmarking
• Strategic benchmarking
• Functional benchmarking
• Best-in-class benchmarking
Pr o s a n d C o n s o f Be n c hmarki ng
• Pros:
1. It gives you a performance improvement.
2. It inspires creativity.
3. It places the focus on change.
4. It can be done without a big price tag attached to it.
5. It creates a deeper understanding.
• Cons:
1. It doesn’t really measure effectiveness.
2. It is often treated as a solo activity.
3. There tends to be a certainly level of complacency.
4. he wrong type of benchmarking might be used.
5. It can foster mediocrity.
Be n c hmark ing
• The more common sources of resistance to benchmarking:
– Fear of being perceived as copiers
– Fear of yielding competitive advantages if information is traded or shared
– Arrogance
– Impatience
Qu a l ity F u n c tion D e p loy ment
• Quality function deployment (QFD) is a planning and team problem-solving tool.
H o u se o f Qu a l ity
H o u se o f Qu a l ity: Exa m p l e C D c a s e
Pr o s a n d C o n s o f H o u se o f Qu a li ty
• Pros:
1. Improve product quality by focusing on satisfying customers’ requirements throughout the
product development process.
2. Improve the communication channels between customers, marketing, research &

development, quality and production departments which support better decision making
process of each function.
3. Reduce new product development project time and cost
4. Be able to predict and have quicker reacts to market changes, evolutions.
5. Implement best in class product comparison.
6. Decide the priorities of customer requirements and target design values.
Pr o s a n d C o n s o f H o u se o f Qu a li ty
• Cons:
1. The quantitative method for relationships assessment is not clear and not in a systematic way,
mainly bases on objective quantitative assessments of the QFD team.
2. The relationship matrix (mainly HOQ) will be too complicated with many process inputs and/or
many customer requirements.
3. It is very difficult and costly to implement with a large relationship matrix.
THANK YOU!

15
Product Design
(DE G531)
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
Gathering Information…First step for problem

solving
In tr o duction
C o n tent
• The information challenges
• Types of design information
• Sources of design information
• Professional societies and trade association
• Codes and standards
• Patents and other intellectual properties
• Company centered information

In fo r mati on g a theri ng c h a l l enge
• Lot of options are available!
• Reliable source
• Getting pin pointed information with less effort and time
So u r ces o f In fo r mation
L i b rar y So u r ces o f In fo r mation
Technical dictionaries
Technical encyclopedias
Handbooks
Textbooks and monographs
Indexing and abstracting services
Technical reports
Patents
Suppliers catalogs and brochures and
other trade literature
Go ve r nment So u rc es o f In fo r mati on
Reports prepared
under contract by Government
Government-
industrial and Printing Offi ce
sponsored reports
university R&D (GPO)
organizations
In fo r mati on fr o m th e In te r net
• Suppose we want to find responses on

the topic proportional control
(11,800,000 responses).
• “proportional control.” (134,000
responses).
• “proportional control”-temperature ,
(responses are reduced to 76,300).
https://www.techrepublic.com/blog/10-things/10-tips-for-smarter-more-efficient-internet-
searching/
Pr o fe ss ional So c i e ti es a n d T r a de
As s o c iati ons
C o d es a n d Sta n dards
• A standard can be defined as a set of technical definitions and guidelines-“how to"
instructions for designers and manufacturers.
• They serve as a common language, defining quality and establishing safety criteria.
• Build confidence about quality in users.
• Examples: ASTM standard, ISO standard
• A code is a standard that has been adopted by one or more governmental bodies
and has the force of law, or when it has been incorporated into a business contract
• Exemples- ASME Boiler and Pressure vessel Code
Sp e c ifi cations
• A Specification is description of the design and materials used to make
something.
• They are set of instructions and/or requirements over and above requirements
given in Code & Standard.
• Must meet requirements
• Examples- Company Provided specification, Product specification
Pa te nts a n d o th e r In te l lec tual Pr o p erty
• Grant of a property right to the inventor.
• Issued by the Patent and Trademark Office
• Term of a new patent is 20 years from the date on which the application for the patent
was filed in the United States.
• US patent grants are effective only within the US, US territories, and US possessions.
• Patentability: "any person who invents any new and useful process, machine,
manufacture, or composition of matter, or any new and useful improvement thereof“.
• Conditions of Patentability:
– Utility
– Novelty
Pa te nts a n d o th e r In te l lec tual Pr o p erty
Example:
Pa te nt p r o c edur e i n In d i a
T r a demark s
• Used to prevent others from using a confusingly similar mark
• Not to prevent others from making the same goods or from selling the same
goods or services under a clearly different mark
• May be registered with the Patent and Trademark Office
• Trademark rights established by:
– First to use the "mark"
– First to file application with PTO
C o p yr ights
• Form of protection provided to the authors of “original works of authorship"
• Including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works, both
published and unpublished
• Gives author and authorized other exclusive rights
• Author and Agent have exclusive rights to:

– Reproduce the copyrighted work
– Prepare derivative works
– Distribute copies or phono records of the copyrighted work,
– Perform the copyrighted work publicly
– Display the copyrighted work publicly

Sc o p e o f C o p y ri ght Pr o te ction
• Literary works
• Musical works
– Including lyrics
• Dramatic works
– Including music
• MP-3 Music (Napster)
• Choreography
• Motion pictures
• Pictorial, graphic, sculptoral works
• Sound recordings
• Architectural works
Sc o p e o f C o p y ri ght Pr o te ction
• Must be "fixed in a tangible medium of expression" to be protected.
• Not protected:
– Unrecorded choreography
– Slogans, short names, titles, familiar symbols
– Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, principles
– Information that is "common property: Calendars, rulers, tape measures,

public lists
T r a de Se c r e t
• A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern,
commercial method, or compilation of information not generally known or
reasonably ascertainable by others by which a business can obtain an economic
advantage over competitors or customers.
C o m pany- centered In fo rmation
• Product specifications • Marketing data on previous products
• Concept designs for previous products • Sales data on previous products
• Test data on previous products • Warranty reports on previous products
• Bill of materials on previous products • Manufacturing data
• Cost data on previous projects • Design guides prepared for new employees
• Reports on previous design projects • Company standards
C a s e s tu d y
• Discuss the effective way of internet searching.
Test-I
• Weightage = 15% (30 Marks)
• Descriptive type - Short answer type
• Each question will carry 5 Marks….means total 6 questions.
• All questions are compulsory.
• Lengthy writing will not fetch more marks. Understand the question and write to the point.
• Test will be on google form. The link will be shared in class google meet chat box.
• Each question has 5 minutes to answer. Make sure that you are submitting the question within 5
minutes.
• Once you submit the question then only the next question will be displayed.
• No options are available to go back. Only submit and next option is available. You can skip the
question.
• You can type or upload the handwritten .JPG or .PDF file
• Auto locking option is enabled…so don’t copy and paste. It can be seen in a output file.
Test-1
• Make sure that you are having proper internet connection.
• No any internet or late submission request will be entertained.
• Don’t attempt the test on mobile phone.
THANK YOU!
BITS Pilani
Chapter 5: Establishing Product Function

BITS Pilani
Test-1 solution discussion


T h i n king Pr o c e sses th a t L e a d to C r e ati ve
Id e a s
• Aids to Creative Thinking: • Creative thinking process
– Develop a creative attitude
– Unlock your imagination
– Be persistent
– Develop an open mind
– Suspend your judgment
– Set problem boundaries
Ba r r ier s to C r e ative T h i n k ing
Perceptual Emotional Blocks Cultural Blocks Intellectual Blocks Environmental
Blocks Blocks
Stereotyping Fear of risk taking Set of pattern Poor choice of Physical
problem-solving environment
language or problem
representation
Information Unease with chaos tradition bound Memory block Criticism
overload and are reluctant
to change
Limiting the Unable or unwilling Countries even Insufficient
problem to incubate new differ in their knowledge base
unnecessarily ideas attitudes toward
Fixation Motivation Incorrect information
Priming or
provision of cues
C r e ative T h i nk ing M e th ods
In tu i tive M e th ods
• Brainstorming:
• Brainwriting:
• 6-3-5 Method:
• C-Sketch method:
• Affinity diagram / concept maps:
D i r e ct o r L o g ic al M e thod
• Functional decomposition:
• Morphological Method:
• Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ / TIPS):
• Axiomatic Design
F u n c ti onal D e c ompos ition a n d Sy n th esis
• “If one generate one idea it will probably be a poor idea; if one generates many ideas, one
good idea might exist for further development” (Ullman, 1992).
• The emphasis is on attaining a correct description of what the product is to do as a system
of functions.
• Functional modeling provides a basis for organizing the design team, tasks, and process.
• Derived or generated directly from the customer needs.
• The function defines clear boundaries to associate assemblies or subassemblies of the
final design solutions.

THANK YOU!

BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
Chapter 5: Establishing Product Function


• Primary functions, secondary functions and constrains.
• What is function?
• A function of a product is a statement of a clear, reproducible relationships between the
available input and the desired output of a product, independent on any particular form.
• It is simplest representation of the product.
• Usually just a “an active verb and Noun” Examples “ Chop beans”, “ Clip nails”
• The next step is to decompose the functions into various sub-functions
• The relation between the various sub-functions and functions are often governed by
constrains or input – output relations.

• Abstraction:
• It is the process of ignoring what is particular or incidental and emphasizing what is
general and essential.
• Generic black box method:

• Constrain: It is set of clear criterion that must be satisfied by a product.
Input Product Function Output

Si m p le Ap p r oach: F u n c tion T r e es
• FAST Method (Top-down approach)
• Subtract and operate Method (Bottom-up approach)
How Why

Subtract and operate Method

Black Box Method
Energy Energy
Material Product represented as a Material

Function Systems
Signal Signal
Finger force Sound KE in

hand motion nail
Finger nail, Remove excess length Cut nail, hand,
hand, debris debris
on finger nails
Long nail, Good
hang nail, appearing
rough nail
M o d ell ing Pr o c es s: s te p s
• Phase-I: Develop process descriptions as “Activity diagram”
• Phase-II: Formulate sub-functions through task listing
• Phase-III: Aggregate sub-functions into a refined function structure
• Phase-IV: Validate the functional decomposition

Ph a s e-I:Activi ty d i a gram

Ph a s e-II: F o r mulate s u b - func tions th r o ugh ta s k l i s ti n g

Ste p s fo r Bl a c k Bo x M e thod



F u n c ti on Str u c ture: F i n g er n a i l c l i p per

Exa m p les
Dish washer
Mechanical Pencil
Ad va n tages o f fu n c tion d e c omposi ti on
• It provide basis for organizing the design team, tasks and process.
• Functions or sub-functions may be directly derived from customer requirements.
• Creativity is enhanced by the ability to decompose the problems.
• It provides a natural forum to abstracting a design tasks.
• By mapping customer needs first to function and then to form, more solutions
may be systematically generated.
• It will facilitate the concurrent engineering process.

THANK YOU!

BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
Chapter 10: Generating Concepts


M o r phologi cal An a l y si s
• The morphological method essentially is nothing more than an orderly way of looking at things.
• Morphological charts originate from the concept of the n-dimensional morphological box
(Zwicky box-1948).

Ste p s In vo l ve d i n M o r phologic al An a l ys is
• In the first step of the integral design method, the individual designer makes a list of what
he/she considers to be the most important functions that need to be fulfilled based on the
design brief.
• The morphological charts are formed as each designer translates the main goals of the design
task, derived from the program of demands, into functions and aspects. This is then inserted into
the first column of the morphological chart.
• In the second step of the process, the designer adds the possible part-solutions to the related
rows of the functions/aspects of the first column. Based on the given design task, each design
team member approaches the problem according to his/her active perception, memory,
knowledge, and needs.

Ste p s In vo l ve d i n M o r phologic al An a l ys is
• These individual morphological charts can then be combined by the design team to form one
morphological overview.
• First, in step three, functions and aspects are discussed and then the team decides which
functions and aspects will be placed in the morphological overview.
• Then, in step 4, all participants of the design team can contribute their solutions for these
functions and aspects by filling in the rows within the morphological overview.
• Putting the morphological charts together enables individual perspectives from each discipline
to be put forward, which in turn highlights the implications of design choices for each discipline.




M o r phologi cal M e th od: Exa m p l e

M o r phologi cal M e th od: Exa m p l e

T h e ory o f In ve n ti ve Pr o b lem So l vi n g ( T IPS
o r T R IZ )
• A Russian acronym: Theoria Resheneyva Isobretatelskehuh Zadach
• (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving)

T R IZ
• These three categories are “ identifying conflicts and solving them with known
physical principles,” “ identifying new principles,” and identifying new product
functions and solving them with known or new principles.”
• Altshuller observed a number of trends in historical invention.
• Evaluation of engineering system is done by same pattern, independent of

engineering discipline.
• Conflicts (contradictions) are the key drivers for product invention.
• Compromises is unacceptable.

T R IZ
• TIPS (TRIZ) is based on two basic principles

1. Somebody, sometime, somewhere has already solved your problem or one similar to it.
Creativity means finding that solution and adapting it to the current problem.
2. Don’t accept contradictions. Resolve them.

En g i neering Pa r a meters ( 3 9 )
1. Weight of moving object 18. Temperature 33. Complexity of device
2. Weight of nonmoving object 19. Brightness 34. Complexity of control
3. Length of moving object 20. Energy spent by moving object 35. Level of automation
4. Length of nonmoving object 18. Power 36. Productivity
5. Area of moving object 19. Waste of energy
6. Area of nonmoving object 20. Waste of substance
7. Volume of moving object 21. Loss of information
22. Waste of time
8. Volume of nonmoving object
23. Amount of substance
9. Speed 24. Reliability
10.Force 25. Accuracy of measurement
11.Tension, pressure 26. Accuracy of manufacturing
12.Shape 27. Harmful factors acting on object
13.Stability of object 28. Harmful side effects
14.Energy spent by nonmoving object 29. Manufacturability
15. Strength 30. Convenience of use
16. Durability of moving object 31. Repairability
17. Durability of nonmoving object 32. Adaptability

In ve n tive Pr i n ci ples ( 4 0 )
21. Rushing through
1. Segmentation 22. Convert harm into benefit, "Blessing in disguise"
2. Extraction, Separation, Removal, Segregation 23. Feedback
3. Local Quality 24. Mediator, intermediary
4. Asymmetry 25. Self-service, self-organization
5. Combining, Integration, Merging 26. Copying
6. Universality, Multi-functionality 27. Cheap, disposable objects
7. Nesting 28. Replacement of a mechanical system with 'fields'
8. Counterweight, Levitation 29. Pneumatics or hydraulics:
9. Preliminary anti-action, Prior counteraction 30. Flexible membranes or thin film
10. Prior action 31. Use of porous materials
11. Cushion in advance, compensate before 32. Changing color or optical properties
12. Equipotentiality, remove stress 33. Homogeneity
13. Inversion, The other way around 34. Rejection and regeneration, Discarding and recovering
14. Spheroidality, Curvilinearity 35. Transformation of the physical and chemical states of an
15. Dynamicity, Optimization object, parameter change, changing properties
16. Partial or excessive action 36. Phase transformation
17. Moving to a new dimension 37. Thermal expansion
18. Mechanical vibration/oscillation 38. Use strong oxidizers, enriched atmospheres, accelerated
19. Periodic action oxidation
20. Continuity of a useful action 39. Inert environment or atmosphere
40. Composite materials
T R IZ Exa m p l e
• Statement: Bullet proof vests should be strong, but not

heavy.
• Step 1 – Identify the contradiction(s): Strength

(improves) versus Weight (worsens)
• Step 2 – Look at the list of features and identify those

important to your contradiction.
Strength – #14 Weight – #2

T R IZ Exa m p l e
1 Segmentation Principle 27: Cheap short-living objects
26 Copying
• Replace an inexpensive object with a multiple
27 Cheap short living of inexpensive objects, comprising certain
40 Composite materials qualities (such as service life, for instance).
Principle 1: Segmentation
Principle 40: Composite materials
• Divide an object into independent parts.
• For lighter-weight, stronger vests, the use of
• Make an object easy to disassemble.
composites is an active area of research.
Principle 26: Copying
• Polymers (Kevlar) reinforced with carbon nanofibers
• Instead of an unavailable, expensive, fragile
are currently being investigated as a strong
object, use simpler and inexpensive copies.
lightweight alternative to steel for structural
• Replace an object, or process with optical materials.
copies.
T R IZ Exa m p l e
• Iron product to remove the wrinkles:
Conflicts is we desired heavy iron to remove the wrinkles from the cloths but we do
not want a heavy iron due to the impact on ergonomics.
 8 – Principle of counterweight: Attach an object with lifting power or use the interactions
with the environment, e.g. aerodynamic lift.
 1 – Principle of segmentation: Divide the object into independent parts that are easy to
dissemble, increase the degree of segmentation as much as possible.
 37 – Application of thermal expansion: Use expansion or contraction of material by
heat. Use materials with different coefficient of thermal expansion.
 18 – Use of mechanical vibration: Make the object vibrate. Increase the frequency of
vibration.

T R IZ Exa m p l e
• Airbags need to inflate before contacting occupants to prevent forward motion.

We would like to inflate the air bags faster while decreasing the adverse effects.
– Principle 16: Partial or Excessive Action Use a lower powered air bag. By using less
power the acceleration of the bag is less, and injuries will be reduced. Use smaller air
bags with higher power. These bags will reach full inflation sooner.
– Principle 21: Rushing Through Inflate the air bag faster than current practice.
– Principle 40: Composite materials Airbag material that can’t grab skin as it is deployed

THANK YOU!

BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
BITS Pilani
Chapter 10: Generating Concepts


T h e ory o f In ve n ti ve Pr o b lem So l vi n g ( T IPS
o r T R IZ )
• A Russian acronym: Theoria Resheneyva Isobretatelskehuh Zadach
• (Theory of Inventive Problem Solving)

T R IZ
• These three categories are “ identifying conflicts and solving them with known
physical principles,” “ identifying new principles,” and identifying new product
functions and solving them with known or new principles.”
• Altshuller observed a number of trends in historical invention.
• Evaluation of engineering system is done by same pattern, independent of

engineering discipline.
• Conflicts (contradictions) are the key drivers for product invention.
• Compromises is unacceptable.

T R IZ
• TIPS (TRIZ) is based on two basic principles

1. Somebody, sometime, somewhere has already solved your problem or one similar to it.
Creativity means finding that solution and adapting it to the current problem.
2. Don’t accept contradictions. Resolve them.

En g i neering Pa r a meters ( 3 9 )
1. Weight of moving object 18. Temperature 33. Complexity of device
2. Weight of nonmoving object 19. Brightness 34. Complexity of control
3. Length of moving object 20. Energy spent by moving object 35. Level of automation
4. Length of nonmoving object 18. Power 36. Productivity
5. Area of moving object 19. Waste of energy
6. Area of nonmoving object 20. Waste of substance
7. Volume of moving object 21. Loss of information
22. Waste of time
8. Volume of nonmoving object
23. Amount of substance
9. Speed 24. Reliability
10.Force 25. Accuracy of measurement
11.Tension, pressure 26. Accuracy of manufacturing
12.Shape 27. Harmful factors acting on object
13.Stability of object 28. Harmful side effects
14.Energy spent by nonmoving object 29. Manufacturability
15. Strength 30. Convenience of use
16. Durability of moving object 31. Repairability
17. Durability of nonmoving object 32. Adaptability

In ve n tive Pr i n ci ples ( 4 0 )
21. Rushing through
1. Segmentation 22. Convert harm into benefit, "Blessing in disguise"
2. Extraction, Separation, Removal, Segregation 23. Feedback
3. Local Quality 24. Mediator, intermediary
4. Asymmetry 25. Self-service, self-organization
5. Combining, Integration, Merging 26. Copying
6. Universality, Multi-functionality 27. Cheap, disposable objects
7. Nesting 28. Replacement of a mechanical system with 'fields'
8. Counterweight, Levitation 29. Pneumatics or hydraulics:
9. Preliminary anti-action, Prior counteraction 30. Flexible membranes or thin film
10. Prior action 31. Use of porous materials
11. Cushion in advance, compensate before 32. Changing color or optical properties
12. Equipotentiality, remove stress 33. Homogeneity
13. Inversion, The other way around 34. Rejection and regeneration, Discarding and recovering
14. Spheroidality, Curvilinearity 35. Transformation of the physical and chemical states of an
15. Dynamicity, Optimization object, parameter change, changing properties
16. Partial or excessive action 36. Phase transformation
17. Moving to a new dimension 37. Thermal expansion
18. Mechanical vibration/oscillation 38. Use strong oxidizers, enriched atmospheres, accelerated
19. Periodic action oxidation
20. Continuity of a useful action 39. Inert environment or atmosphere
40. Composite materials
T R IZ Exa m p l e
• Statement: Bullet proof vests should be strong, but not

heavy.
• Step 1 – Identify the contradiction(s): Strength

(improves) versus Weight (worsens)
• Step 2 – Look at the list of features and identify those

important to your contradiction.
Strength – #14 Weight – #2

T R IZ Exa m p l e
1 Segmentation Principle 27: Cheap short-living objects
26 Copying
• Replace an inexpensive object with a multiple
27 Cheap short living of inexpensive objects, comprising certain
40 Composite materials qualities (such as service life, for instance).
Principle 1: Segmentation
Principle 40: Composite materials
• Divide an object into independent parts.
• For lighter-weight, stronger vests, the use of
• Make an object easy to disassemble.
composites is an active area of research.
Principle 26: Copying
• Polymers (Kevlar) reinforced with carbon nanofibers
• Instead of an unavailable, expensive, fragile
are currently being investigated as a strong
object, use simpler and inexpensive copies.
lightweight alternative to steel for structural
• Replace an object, or process with optical materials.
copies.
T R IZ Exa m p l e
• Iron product to remove the wrinkles:
Conflicts is we desired heavy iron to remove the wrinkles from the cloths but we do
not want a heavy iron due to the impact on ergonomics.
 8 – Principle of counterweight: Attach an object with lifting power or use the interactions
with the environment, e.g. aerodynamic lift.
 1 – Principle of segmentation: Divide the object into independent parts that are easy to
dissemble, increase the degree of segmentation as much as possible.
 37 – Application of thermal expansion: Use expansion or contraction of material by
heat. Use materials with different coefficient of thermal expansion.
 18 – Use of mechanical vibration: Make the object vibrate. Increase the frequency of
vibration.

T R IZ Exa m p l e
• Airbags need to inflate before contacting occupants to prevent forward motion.

We would like to inflate the air bags faster while decreasing the adverse effects.
– Principle 16: Partial or Excessive Action Use a lower powered air bag. By using less
power the acceleration of the bag is less, and injuries will be reduced. Use smaller air
bags with higher power. These bags will reach full inflation sooner.
– Principle 21: Rushing Through Inflate the air bag faster than current practice.
– Principle 40: Composite materials Airbag material that can’t grab skin as it is deployed


Pu g h C o n c ept Se l e c tion
Choose the criteria for evaluation
Formulate the decision matrix
Clarify the design concepts
Choose the datum concept
Run the matrix
Evaluate the ratings
Establish a new datum and rerun the matrix
Examine the selected concepts for improvement opportunities

Pu g h c o n c ept s e l ec tion: Exa m p le
• Improvement of on/off switch in a right-angle drill:
• Concept A is a modest change to the

existing switch, and will be the DATUM.
• Concept B adds three buttons for on/off/
and reverse.
• Concept C is a track and slider design.
• Concept D is an add-on accessory to
make it easier to operate the existing
switch.

Pu g h c o n c ept s e l ec tion: Exa m p le
• The highest-ranking design, an add-on

attachment that makes it easier to operate the
switch, has two negatives, poorer aesthetic
appeal and poor ergonomics (comfort to the
hand).
• Design D provides force amplification, but it is
not easy on the ligaments in the fingers.
• The next ranking design, the track and slider
design, has only a single minus for
“availability of materials.”

Exa m p le: C o ffe e M i l l
• Evaluation of cleaning function of coffee mill:
Exa m p le: Br e a d T o a ster
Step 1: Identified set of criteria for evaluation
Step 2: Select one concept as a datum
Step 3: Compared all the concepts with respect

to datum concept.
We i g hted D e c i s ion M a tr i x


THANK YOU!

BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde



An a l yti c H i e r archy Pr o c es s ( AH P)
• The Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is a problem-solving methodology for

making a choice from among a set of alternatives when the selection criteria
represent multiple objectives, have a natural hierarchical structure, or consist of
qualitative and quantitative measurements.
• AHP builds upon the mathematical properties of matrices for making consistent
pairwise comparisons.
• AHP is a decision analysis tool that is used throughout a number of fields in

which the selection criteria used for evaluating competing solutions that do not
have exact, calculable outcomes.

AH P Pr o c e ss

AH P Pr o c e ss
• The rating of pair A to pair B is the reciprocal of the rating of pair B to A. That
means if it is determined that A is strongly more important than B, the rating of A
to B is set as 5. This makes the rating of B to A 1/5 or 0.20.
• AHP Process:
• Complete criteria comparison matrix [C] using 1–9 ratings described.
• Normalize the matrix [C] to give [NormC].
• Average row values. This is the weight vector {W}.
• Perform a consistency check on [C].

AH P Pr o c e ss
Consistency Check Process for AHP Comparison Matrix [C]:
– As the number of criteria increases, it is difficult to assure consistency. That is why the
AHP process includes a consistency check on [C]. The process is as follows:
1. Calculate weighted sum vector, {Ws} = [C] × {W}
2. Calcúlate consistency vector, {Cons} = {Ws}/{W}
3. Estimate λ as the average of values in {Cons}
4. Evaluate consistency index, CI = (λ – n) / (n - 1)
5. Calculate consistency ratio, CR = CI/RI.
6. If CR < 0.1 the {W} is considered to be valid; otherwise adjust [C] entries and repeat.

AH P: Exa m p l e C a r Se l e ction
• Objective
• Selecting a car
• Criteria
• Style, Reliability, Fuel-economy, Cost
• Alternatives
• Civic Coupe, Saturn Coupe, Ford Escort, Mazda Miata

Selecting a new car
Style Reliability Fuel- Cost

economy
Civic Mazda Miata

Coupe
Saturn Coupe Ford Escort
Hierarchical Structure
Pair-wise comparison matrix
Scale of relative importance
1 Equal Importance
3 Moderate Importance
5 Strong Importance
7 Very Strong Importance
9 Extreme Importance
2,4,6,8 Intermediate values
1/3, 1/5, 1/7,1/9 Values for inverse


How important is style with respect to
reliability
Style Reliability Fuel-economy Cost
Reliability is a moderate important
Style 1 1/3 1/3 1/7 than
Style
Reliability 3 1 1/2 1/5
Style = X value
Fuel-economy 3 2 1 1/4 Reliability= 3X value
Cost 7 5 5 1 = =
How important is style with respect to

Fuel-economy


Style 1.00 0.33 0.33 0.14
Reliability 3.00 1.00 0.50 0.20
Fuel-economy 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.25
Cost 7.00 5.00 4.00 1.00
Sum 14.00 8.33 5.83 1.59

Normalized Pair-wise comparison matrix
Style Reliability Fuel-economy Cost criteria weight

Style 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.065
Reliability 0.21 0.12 0.09 0.13 0.1375
Fuel-economy 0.21 0.24 0.17 0.16 0.195
Cost 0.50 0.60 0.69 0.63 0.605
= 0.07 . . . .
= 0.065

Calculating the consistency

Criteria weight 0.065 0.1375 0.195 0.605

Style 1.00 0.33 0.33 0.14
Reliability 3.00 1.00 0.50 0.20
Fuel-economy 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.25
Cost 7.00 5.00 4.00 1.00

Calculating the consistency
Criteria weight 0.065 0.1375 0.195 0.605
Style Reliability Fuel-economy Cost weighted sum value
Style 0.065 0.045 0.064 0.085 0.259

Reliability 0.195 0.138 0.098 0.121 0.552
Fuel-economy 0.195 0.275 0.195 0.151 0.816
Cost 0.455 0.688 0.780 0.605 2.528
1 × 0.065 = 0.065
0.065 + 0.045 + 0.064 + 0.085 = 0.259

Reliabilit Fuel- weighted criteria

Style y economy
Cost sum value weight
Style .
= .
0.065 0.045 0.064 0.085 0.259 0.065 3.984615
Reliabilit .
y = .
0.195 0.138 0.098 0.121 0.552 0.1375 4.014545
Fuel- .
economy = .
0.195 0.275 0.195 0.151 0.816 0.195 4.184615
.
Cost 0.455 0.688 0.780 0.605 2.528 0.605 = . 4.178512
. . . .
(Average of consistency matrix)λ = = 4.09057

• lAvg = 4.09057
lAvg
• Consistency index , CI =
.
= = 0.03019
n – number of elements
• Consistency Ratio,
• Consistency Ratio = 0.03019 / 0.88 = 0.0343

0.13
0.18
0.08
0.45
Priority v
0.38
0.32
0.15
0.28

Fuel Priority vector

Economy Civic Saturn Escort Miata
Civic 1.00 3.00 5.00 3.00
0.29
Saturn 0.33 1.00 4.00 5.00
0.24
Escort 0.20 0.25 1.00 2.00 0.16
Miata 0.33 0.20 0.50 1.00 0.31
Cost Civic Saturn Escort Miata Priority vector

Civic 1.00 3.00 5.00 3.00 0.49
Saturn 0.33 1.00 4.00 5.00 0.26
Escort 0.20 0.25 1.00 2.00 0.13
Miata 0.33 0.20 0.50 1.00 0.14
Selecting a new car
Style Reliability Fuel- Cost

0.06 0.1375 economy 0.605
0.195
Civic 0.13 Civic 0.38 Civic 0.29 Civic 0.49
Saturn 0.18 Saturn 0.32 Saturn 0.24 Saturn 0.26
Escort 0.08 Escort 0.15 Escort 0.16 Escort 0.13
Miata 0.45 Miata 0.28 Miata 0.31 Miata 0.14

Priority vector
Fuel- Criteria
Style Reliability
economy
Cost
weight
Civic 0.13 0.38 0.29 0.49 0.065 0.414
Saturn 0.18 0.32 0.24 0.26 × 0.1375 = 0.260
Escort 0.08 0.15 0.16 0.13 0.195 0.136
Miata 0.45 0.28 0.31 0.14 0.605 0.213

AH P Exa m p l e: C r a ne H o o k
• Let us take a crane hook example:

1. Material cost
2. Manufacturing cost
3. Reparability
4. Durability
5. Reliability
6. Time to produce.







AH P Ap p l i cati ons
• AHP is relevant for choice problems in the following categories:
• Comparing untested concepts
• Structuring a decision-making process for a new situation
• Evaluating non commensurate trade-offs
• Performing and tracking group decision making
• Integrating results from different sources (e.g., analytical calculations, HOQ

relative values, group consensus, and expert opinion);
• Performing strategic decision making.

Pr o s a n d c o n s o f AH P

Pr o fe ss ional So ftw a re

THANK YOU!

Engineering Design
Embodiment Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

C o n tent: Em b o diment D e s i gn
• Introduction
• Product architecture
• Configuration design
• Best practices for configuration design
• Parametric design
• Dimensions and tolerances
• Industrial design
• Human factors design
• Design for environment
• Prototyping and testing
• Design for ‘X’

Pr o d uct Ar c h i tecture

Pr o d uct Ar c h i tecture
• Product architecture is the arrangement of the physical elements of a product to

carry out its required functions.
– Mapping from product function to the product form
– Layout and architecture of the product their interfaces (Best possible architecture
selection).
– Rough sketches of concepts
– Proof-of-concept model
– Key decisions on how the product will physically operate
– Key milestone for any class of products

Ar c h i tecture T y p e s
Architecture
Types
Integral Modular
Slot Bus Sectional Mix

In te gr al Ar c h i tec ture
 Only one or few modules

 No individual isolated components
 Components perform multiple
functions
 Complex interactions
 Changes made to any component in a
integral architecture tend to propagate
to many
 High-volume products
 Product architecture has strong
implications for manufacturing costs.

M o d ular Ar c h i tecture
• Overall function through the combination of distinct building

blocks or modules.
• A modular architecture makes it easier to evolve a design

over time.
• Difficulties may be faced in initial stages because compatibility

of the modules in first product needs to be established with
those in the subsequent products.
• The product can be adapted to the needs of different

customers by adding or deleting modules.

• It helps to develop a product family.
• Modular products make economic sense
• They offer easier assembly and disassembly, modification and reassembly
• Standardization of components
• Re-configurability of devices

M o d ular vs . In te grated a r c hi tecture
Pros Cons
• Improve device reconfigurability • May make devices look
• Increases the device variety and similar
speed of introduction for new • Reduces device
Modular devices performance
• Improves maintainability and • More expensive
Serviceability
• Decouples development and
manufacturing tasks
• Harder for competitor to copy the • Hinders changes of
design design in production
Integral • Tighter coupling of teams with • Reduce the varity of
less interface problems devices that can be
• Possible reduction in system cost produced.
C o n si derations a t p r o duct a r c h itecturi ng
• How will it affect the ability to offer product variety?
• How will it affect the product cost?
• How will it affect the design lead time?
• How will it affect the development process management?

THANK YOU

Engineering Design
Embodiment Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

• Introduction

Modular
Architecture
Manufacturing
based Function based
modularity modularity
Original
Assembly Equipment
Conceptual
modules Manufacturin Sizable Bus
g (OEM) modules modules Slot Sectional Mix
modules

F u n c ti on b a s ed m o dul arity

F u n c ti on b a s ed m o dul arity

M a n ufac turing Ba s e d M o d ulari ty
• ORIGINAL Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) modularity: Group of components or functions that

are grouped simply because of suppliers.
• Suppliers can provided them at less expenses than could be developed and manufacture in-
house.
• Power supplies in computers, for example, are modules that are bought as commodity items.
• Assembly modules: These are the modules or components that solved related functions but are
bundled to increase assembly ease.
• Sizable modules: These are the components that are exactly the same except for their physical
scale.
• Conceptual modules: same concept but different configrations.

F u n c ti on b a s ed m o dul arity : Exa m p l e
Modular trailer architecture exhibiting a one-to-one

Function structure of a trailer mapping from functional element to physical component
Karl Ulrich, The role of product architecture in the manufacturing firm, Research Policy 24 (1995) 419-441)
Integral trailer architecture exhibiting a one-to-one mapping from functional element to physical component
F a c tor s a ffe c ting a r c h itecture m o d ulari ty
• Product changes
Upgrade
• Product variety
• Component standardization
• Product performance Add-ons Re-use
• Manufacturability
• Product development management
Flexibility
Adaptation
in use

THANK YOU

Engineering Design
Embodiment Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

• Introduction

Ar c h i tecture D e s i gn Pr o c ess
Create a schematic of the product
Cluster the elements of the schematic
Create a rough geometric layout
Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions

• Creating a product schematic: DeskJet Printer Schematic

• Cluster the elements of the schematic: DeskJet Printer Schematic

• Create a rough geometric layout: DeskJet Printer Schematic

• Identify the fundamental and incidental interactions: DeskJet Printer Schematic

Laser-fusing rapid prototyping machine



F u n damental D e c i si ons
• Integral vs. modular architecture?
• What type of modularity?
• How to assign functions to chunks?
• How to assign chunks to teams?
• Which chunks to outsource?

C o n figuration D e s i gn
• Generating alternative configuration design
• Analysing the configuration design
• Evaluation of configuration design

Four possible configurations of features for a right-angle bracket. (a) Bent from a flat plate.(b) Machined from
a solid block. (c) Bracket welded from three pieces. (d) Cast bracket.

• Review the product design specification and any specifications developed for the particular
subassembly to which the component belongs.
• Establish the spatial constraints that pertain to the product or the subassembly being
designed.

• Create and refine the interfaces or connections between components. Much design effort
occurs at the connections between components, because this is the location where
failure often occurs. Identify and give special attention to the interfaces that transfer the
most critical functions.
• Before spending much time on the design, answer the following questions:
– Can the part be eliminated or combined with another part?
– Can a standard part or subassembly be used?
• Generally, the best way to get started with configuration design is to just start sketching
alternative configurations of a part (Substituting, Combining, Decomposing, Magnifying,
Minifying, Rearranging).
An a l yz ing th e C o n fi guration D e s i gn

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Engineering Design
Embodiment Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

An a l yz ing th e C o n fi guration D e s i gn

Eva l u ati ng th e c o n figurati on d e s i gn
• Performance requirements
• Cost and time for the development
• DFMA
• DFE
• Ergonomics and aesthetics

Be s t p r a cti ces fo r c o n fi guration d e s ign
• Clarity of function pertains to an unambiguous relationship.
• Simplicity refers to a design that is not complex and is easily understood and readily
produced.
• Safety should be guaranteed.
• Minimal impact on the environment
• Design guidelines:
– Force transmission
– Division of tasks
– Self-help
– Stability
F o r c e T r a ns mis sion
• In mechanical systems the function of many components is to transmit forces and

moments between two points. This is usually accomplished through a physical
connection between components.
• In general, the force should be accommodated in such a way as to produce a uniformly

distributed stress on the cross section of the part. However, the design configuration
often imposes non-uniform stress distributions because of geometric constraints.
• A method for visualizing how forces are transmitted through components and
assemblies called force-flow visualization is to think of forces as flow lines, analogous to
low-turbulence fluid flow streamlines or magnetic flux.

F o r c e T r a ns mis sion

Gu i d elines fo r F o r c e T r a n smi ss ion
• Use the shortest and most direct force transmission path.
• Bodies that are shaped such that the material is uniformly stressed throughout will be
the most rigid.
• The use of structures of tetrahedron or triangle shapes results in uniform stresses in
tension and compression.
• The rigidity of a machine element can be increased by increasing its cross section or
making the element shorter.
• To avoid sudden changes in the direction of force-flow lines, avoid sudden changes in
cross section and use large radii at fillets, grooves, and holes.
• When there is a choice in the location of a discontinuity (stress raiser), such as a hole, it
should be located in a region of low nominal stress.
• Interfaces should be designed it very carefully.
• Note that all stress concentration guidelines will suit for force transmission also.
D i vi s i on o f T a s k s
• A component should be designed for a single function when the function is deemed
critical and will be optimized for robustness.
• Assigning several functions to a single component (integral architecture) results in

savings in weight, space, and cost but may compromise the performance of individual
functions, and it may unnecessarily complicate the design.

Se l f - Hel p
• The Self-Help principle is especially broad in its application. Basically, the engineer looks for ways
to use the natural system effects to achieve design objectives rather than continually fighting
against the natural system effects.
• A self-reinforcing element is one in which the required effect increases with increasing need for
the effect.
• An example is found in the design of a typical paper clip. As more sheets of paper are added, the
design needs to apply more forces to keep the sheets together. Fortunately, the design of the
paper clip is such that the further it is expanded, the more force it naturally applies. (Obviously,
there is a limit before the clip fails.)
• An another example is an O-ring seal that provides better sealing as the pressure increases.
• One way to do this is to provide an additional force-transmission path that takes over at high
loads, or a mechanical stop that limits deflection.
• Looking for Self-Help solutions requires a lot of creativity and ability by the designer to abandon
preconceptions.

Sta b i li ty
• The stability of a design is concerned with whether the system will recover appropriately from a
disturbance to the system.
• Issues of stability are among those that should be examined with the Failure Modes and Effects
Analysis.

Ad d i tional Design guidelines
• Tailor the shape to the stress or load distribution
• Avoid geometry that is prone to buckling
• Use triangular shapes and structures
• Don’t ignore strain considerations in design

In te r fac es a n d C o n nections
Adjustable
connection
Connections
Fixed, nonadjustable
connection
Separable connection
Hinged or pivoting
connection
Locator connection

C h e ck li st fo r C o n figuration D e s i gn
• Identify the likely ways the part might fail in service:

• Excessive plastic deformation.
• Fatigue failure
• Stress concentrations
• Buckling
• Shock or impact loads
• Identify likely ways that part functionality might be compromised:

• Tolerances.
• Creep.
• Thermal deformation

• Materials and manufacturing issues:

• Is the material selected for the part the best one to prevent the likely failure modes in service?
• Is there a history of use for the material in this or similar applications?
• Can the form and features of the part be readily made on available production machines?
• Will material made to standard quality specifications be adequate for this part?
• Will the chosen material and manufacturing process meet the cost target for the part?

• Design knowledge base:
• Are there aspects of the part design where the designer or design team is working without adequate
knowledge?
• Have you considered every possible unfortunate, unlikely, or unlucky event that could jeopardize the
performance of the design? Have you used a formal method like FMEA to check for this?

D e s i gn C a ta logs
• Design catalogs are collections of known and proven solutions to design problems.
• They contain a variety of information useful to design, such as physical principles to achieve a
function, solutions of particular machine design problems, standard components, and properties
of materials.
• These are generally different in purpose and scope than the catalogs available from suppliers of
components and materials.
• They provide quick, more problem-oriented solutions and data to design problems, and because
they aim to be comprehensive, they are excellent places to find a broad range of design
suggestions and solutions.
• Most available design catalogs have been developed in Germany and have not been translated
into English.
D e s i gn C a ta logs

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Engineering Design
Configuration Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

F u n damental p r i nc ipl es u s e d i n
C o n figuration d e s i gn
Occam’s Razor

















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Engineering Design
Parametric Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

















THANK YOU

Engineering Design
Parametric Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
In tr o duction

Pa r a metric D e s i gn
• Parametric design allows you to analytically test features of your design early in the design
process

Pa r a metric D e s i gn
• A design variable is an attribute of a part whose value is under the control of the designer.
• This typically is a dimension or a tolerance, but it may be a material, heat treatment, or surface
finish applied to the part.
• This aspect of design is much more analytical than conceptual or configuration design.
• The objective of parametric design is to set values for the design variables that will produce the
best possible design considering both performance and cost (as manifested by
manufacturability).
• The main objective of parametric design is to achieve a Robustness. Robustness means achieving
excellent performance under the wide range of conditions that will be found in service.

Sy s te mati c Ste p s i n Pa r a metric D e s ign

Exa m p le o f Pa r a metr ic D e s i gn




















D e s i gn fo r M a nufac ture ( D F M ) a n d D e s i gn
fo r As s e mbl y ( D F A)
• Traditional over the wall approach is not useful to make better configured design product with
cost and time efficient product (US – 1980 research!).
• It is imperative that during embodiment design decisions concerning shape, dimensions, and
tolerances be closely integrated with manufacturing and assembly decisions. Often this is
achieved by having a member of the manufacturing staff as part of the design team.
• Since this is not always possible, all design engineers need to be familiar with manufacturing and
assembly methods.
• To assist in this, generalized DFM and DFA guidelines have been developed, and many
companies have specific guidelines in their design manuals. Design software, to aid in this task,
has been developed and is being used more widely.
F a i l ure M o d es a n d Effe c ts An a l ys is ( F M EA)
• FMEA is an analytical technique used to identify, define, and eliminate, to the extent possible,
known as potential failure modes of product system.
• FMEA Goals:
– Evaluation of design requirements and design alternatives.
– Initial design for manufacturing and assembly requirements.
– Increasing the probability that potential failure modes and their effects on system operation have been
considered in the design/development process.
– Providing additional information to aid in the planning of thorough and efficient design improvements
and development testing.
– Providing an open issue format for recommending and tracking risk reducing action.
– Providing future references to aid in analyzing field concerns, evaluating design changes, and
developing advanced designs.
F M EA b a s ic q u es tions
• What could fail or go wrong with each component of a product?
• To what extent might it fail, and what are the potential hazards produced by the
failures?
• What steps should be implemented to prevent the failures?
• These questions gives rise to three basic elements of FMEA: failure modes
(identification), failure effects (ramifications) and failure criticality (relative
importance of given failure states).

Ste p s i n F M EA
List each sub-assembly and component number, along with

the basic functions or function chains of the component
Identify and list the potential failures for each product component
11 –– No
Almost
effect
certain
List the possible potential causes or mechanism of the failure
modes 22 –– Very
2/3 –High
Lowminor
(relatively
(only noticed
few failures)
by
List the potential effects of the failure, including impact on the discriminating customers)
environment, property and hazards to human users 4/5/6
3 – Moderate
– Moderate (occasional failures)
3 – Minor (affects very little on the
Rate the likelihood of occurrence (O) of the failure system;
7/8
4/5/6
– Highnotice
– Moderateby –average
(repeated most customers)
failures)
customers are
annoyed
4/5/6 – Moderate (most customers are
Estimate the potential severity (S) of the failure and its effects 9/10 – Very high (failure is almost
annoyed)
7/8 – Low
inevitable)
• 1000 = Harmful or hazardous
List current or expected design controls/tests for detecting (D) the 7/8 – High (causes a loss of primary
•9/101 –= Very
Failure is highly
remote unlikely and
to absolute
failure before the product is released for production functions; customers are dissatisfied)
unimportant
uncertainty
Calculate the Risk Priority Number (RPN) •9/10100– very
= Need
high to
and
consider
hazardous (product
= × × •become
30 = inoperative;
Safe failure may results
unsafe operations and possible injury)

L o g ic al r e l ati ons hip o f F M EA

F M EA T e m plate

F M EA Exa m p le: Ba l l p o i nt p e n

D r a wbac ks o f F M EA
• FMEA considers each failure mode as independent and does not consider their interaction.
Therefore when component failure is considered, FMEA cannot realistically analyze reliability. As a
result, the analyst must model the reliability of part or product with another reliability method
such as Markov Analysis, Event Tree Analysis, or Fault Tree Analysis with the dynamic event
modeling.
• When FMEA addresses only a few component failure of a product, the quantification of product
failure is not feasible.
• When FMEA follows the methodology of numerical rating from 1 to 10 for probability of
occurrence, severity and detection, it cannot provide information on overall product reliability. As
a result, FMEA is fit for the comparison of potential improvements, but not for overall estimation
of the product reliability.
D r a wbac ks o f F M EA
• The determination of RPN makes the FMEA a tedious process which provides subjective
estimation.
• A variety of different risk scenarios represented by various values of S, O and D generate identical
RPN values. FMEA does not allow one to differentiate between different risk implications.
• The FMEA team may average the values of S, O, and D when there is a difference of opinion. This
may generate an RPN identical to others without the ability to articulate the risk implications.

D e s i gn fo r R e l iabi li ty a n d Sa fe ty
• Reliability is a measurement of the ability of a component or system to operate without failure

in the service environment. It is expressed as the probability of the component functioning for a
given time without failure.
• Durability is the amount of use that a person gets out of a product before it deteriorates—that
is, it is a measure of the product lifetime.
• Safety involves designing products that will not injure people or damage property. A safe design
is one that instills confidence in the customer and does not incur product liability costs.
• To develop a safe design one must first identify the potential hazard, and then produce a design
that keeps the user free from the hazards. Developing safe designs often requires trade-offs
between safe design and wanted functions.
D e s i gn fo r Qu a li ty a n d R o bus tness
• In the 1980s there was the realization that the only way to ensure quality products is to design
quality into the product , as opposed to the then-current thinking that quality products were
produced by careful inspection of the output of the manufacturing process.
• Another important tie between quality and design is the use of statistics to set the limits on
tolerances in design and the relationship to the capability of a manufacturing process to achieve
a specified quality (defect) level.
• The parametric design step is the place where design for robustness methods are applied to
critical-to-quality parameters.

D i m ens ions a n d T o l e rances
• The dimensions on an engineering drawing must clearly indicate the size, location, and
orientation of all features in each part.
• Standards for dimensioning have been published by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME).
• A tolerance is the permissible variation from the specified dimension. The designer must decide
how much variation is allowable from the basic dimension of the component to accomplish the
desired function.
• The design objective is to make the tolerance no tighter than necessary, since smaller tolerances
increase manufacturing cost and make assembly more difficult.

D i m ens ions a n d T o l e rances
• The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) gives tables of “preferred” basic sizes which
can be found in all machine component design books and handbooks.
• Type of tolerances: Bilateral and Unilateral
• There are generally two classes of issues in parametric design associated with tolerances on
parts when they must be assembled together.
• The first deals with fit , how closely the tolerances should be held when two components fit
together in an assembly.
• The second is tolerance stackup , the situation where several parts must be assembled together
and interference occurs because the tolerances of the individual parts overlap.

T o l e rance s ta c k up

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Product Design
BITS Pilani
To p i cs to b e c o ve r ed i n n e xt 1 0 c l a s s es :
• Material Selection
• Modeling and Simulation
• Design for Manufacturing
• Design for Assembly
• Reliability
• Safety
• Quality in product development

M o r phology o f D e s i gn
10 – Modeling and Simulation

11 – Materials Selection

BITS Pilani
Introduction to Material Selection in Design

C o n tent: M a te rial Se l e ction
• Introduction
• Performance characteristics of Materials
• Material selection process
• Sources of information on material properties
• Economics of materials
• Overview of methods of material selection
• Selection with computer aided data base
• Material selection with decision matrix
• Recycling and material selection
• Case Studies on Material Selection
• Summary

D e ve l opment o f m a te rial s

M a te rial s a n d i ts s e l e cti on

C l a s ses o f m a te ri als

Im p o rtant C h a rac teris tic s


Steel

Aluminium
and its alloy

Copper and its alloy
Nickel and its alloy

Properties

Properties

R e l ati on o f M a te rial s Se l e cti on to D e s i gn
Progressive
Process

C l a s si fic ati on o f M a te rial s

C r i te ria fo r M a te rial Se l e c tion
• Performance characteristics
• Processing characteristics
• Environmental profile
• Business considerations
Elvin Karana , Paul Hekkert, Prabhu Kandachar, Material considerations in product design: A survey on crucial material aspects used by
product designers, Materials and Design 29 (2008) 1081–1089.

Pe r fo rmance C h a rac ter is ti cs o f M a te ri als

C l a s si fic ati on o f M a te rial Pr o per ti es

M e c hani cal Pr o p erties

THANK YOU!

Engineering Design
Detail Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
C o n tent: D e ta il D e s i gn
• Activities and decision in detail design
• Communicating design and manufacturing information
• Final design review
• Design and business activities beyond detail design
• Computer based method
• Summary

Pr o d uct D e s i gn Pr o c ess

Ac ti vi ti e s a n d d e c is ion i n d e ta il d e s i gn

M a k e o r b u y d e c i s ion

M a k e o r b u y d e c i s ion

Exa m p le
• Furniture Inn manufactures computer tables. Recently a supplier has offered the tables of the
same quality @ $14 each with an assurance of continued supply. The following is the budget for
4000 units prepared for the quarter ending 30 September 2016:
(a) Should Furniture Inn accept the offer from the

supplier?
(b) (b) What would be the decision if the supplier

offered the tables at $12 each?

Exa m p le
a) As marginal cost of production is less than the buying price offered by the supplier so Furniture Inn should continue
production of tables. The distribution, administration and fixed production are irrelevant in the decision as
presumptively they will be incurred in either case.
b) As in this case they buy in price $12 is less than the marginal cost of production so Furniture Inn should buy the
tables from the supplier and discontinue production of tables provided other things are favorable.

Exa m p le
• Though quantitative considerations are important and may be decisive but make or buy decision
may not be appropriate if relevant qualitative factors are ignored. Some of the qualitative
factors relating to make or buy decision are as follows:
– Quality and reliability of goods to be bought as a defective component may damage the reputation and reliability of the
firm’s ability.
– Reliability of the supplier on timely deliveries of goods as an interruption in the delivery of a component part may
significantly affect a firm’s operations.
– Possibility of ceasing production in near or medium distance future.
– Can guarantee be obtained from the supplier about no price change in foreseeable future? A long term contract with
a reliable supplier may solve this problem.
– Can an alternative use be found for resources made idle by a decision to purchase from outside.
– How long it would take to start manufacturing the product/component again if supplier fails to deliver as promised.
Retaining and rehiring of personnel may be important considerations.
Exa m p le
– What would be the cost of closing down the production line?
– Foreign exchange rates and their effects on the decision.
– Import policies and their consistency.

C o m munic ating d e s ign a n d m a nufac tur ing
i n fo rmation
• Critical to quality component – Embodiment design stage
• Yet to design: Outsource component, Dependent on test results
• Design freeze decision
• Complete engineering drawings
• Complete the bill of materials
• Revise the product design specification
• Complete verification prototype testing
• Final cost estimate

Wr i tte n D o c uments
• Electronic Mail
• Memorandum reports
• The Design Notebook
• Formal technical reports
• Challenges in technical writing:

F i n a l D e s i gn R e vi ew
• When to conduct:
– Detail drawings are complete and ready for release to manufacturing.
– In most cases beta-prototype testing will have been completed.
– Purpose is to compare the design against the most updated version of the product design
specification (PDS)
• Who will present:

– VP of engineering, the director of product development
– Production
– Quality
– Safety and Reliability
– Marketing
– Legal representative
– Trusted suppliers
F i n a l D e s i gn R e vi ew : In p u t d o c ument
• PDS
• QFD analysis
• Key technical analyses like FEA and CFD, FMEAs
• Quality plan, including robustness analysis
• Testing plan and results of the verification tests
• The detail and assembly drawings
• Cost projections

R e vi e w M e e ting Pr o c es s
• Selection of the people who will attend the review meeting.
• They must be authorized to make decisions about the design and have the ability and
responsibility to take corrective action.
• Meeting should be formally structured with a well-planned agenda.
• Receive a package of information well before the meeting.
• Briefing session at least 10 days before the formal review.
• The drawings, simulations, test results, FMEAs, and other elements are used to support the
evaluation.
• Any items that do not pass the review are tagged as action items with appropriate
responsibility.

C h e ck li st fo r fi n a l d e s i gn r e vi e w
1. Overall requirements - does it meet? 4. Manufacturing requirements- does it meet?
• Customer requirements • Use of standard components and subassemblies
• Product design specification • Tolerances consistent with process and equipment
• Applicable industry and governmental standards • Materials well defined and consistent with
performance requirements
2. Functional requirements – does it meet?
• Have critical control parameters been identified?
• Mechanical, electrical, thermal and many more
• Use of existing equipment and requirement to set
• Size and weight new equipment
• Strength
• Projected life
5. Operational requirements – does it meet?
• Is it easy to install in the field?
3. Environment requirements - does it meet? • Are items requiring frequent maintenance easily
• Operating temperature range accessible?
• Extremes of humidity • Has service person safety been considered in
• Extremes of vibration design?
• Shock • Have human factors been adequately considered in
• Foreign material contamination design?
• Corrosion • Are servicing instructions clear? Are they derived
from FMEA or FTA?
• Outdoor exposure extremes

C h e ck li st fo r fi n a l d e s i gn r e vi e w
6. Reliability requirements - does it meet? 8. Other requirements - does it meet?
• Have critical components been optimized for
• Have hazards been adequately investigated?
robustness?
• Has through safety analysis been conducted?
• Has a search been conducted to avoid patent
• Have failure modes been investigated and infringement?
documented?
• Has prompt action been taken to apply for possible
• Have life integrity tests been completed successfully? patent protection?
• Has derating been employed in critical components? • Does the product appearance represent the
7. Cost requirements – does it meet? technical quality and cost of the product?
• Has the product development process been
• Does the product meet the cost target
adequately documented for defense in possible
• Have the cost comparisons been made with product liability action?
competitive products?
• Does the product comply with applicable law and
• Have the service warranty costs been quantified and agency requirements?
minimized?
• Has value engineering analysis been made for
possible cost reduction?

Ou tp ut fr o m R e vi e w
• Decision can be taken as:
– Accepted as it is
– Further minor modifications are required
– Further major modifications are required

D e s i gn a n d b u s i ness a c ti vi ties b e y ond
d e ta il d e s i gn
Process planning
Develop production control plan
Design tools and fixtures
Develop quality assurance plan
Negotiate with suppliers
Develop detailed marketing plan
Develop distribution plan
Write user manual
Decide on warranty
Develop maintenance plan
Develop plan for customer service
Develop plan for retirement from service
Manufacturing production acceptance test
Product launch
T e c h nical a c ti vi ties
• Process planning
• Develop product development plan
• Designing of tooling and fixtures
• Develop quality assurance plan

T e c h nical a c ti vi ties
• Develop maintenance plan
• Develop plan for retirement from service
• Manufacturing production acceptance test

Bu s i nes s Ac ti vi ti e s
• Negotiate with suppliers
• Develop distribution plan
• Write the user manual
• Decide on warranty
• Develop a plan for customer service

F a c i l itating d e s ign a n d m a nufac tur ing
w i th c o m puter- based m e thods

Pr o d uct L i fe c yc le M a nagement ( PL M )
• Product Data Management (PDM)
• Manufacturing Process Management
(MPM)
• Customer Relationship Management
(CRM)
Su m m ary
• Detail design is the phase of the design process where all of the details are
brought together, decisions finalized, and a decision is made by management
whether to release the design for production. Design freeze decision has to be
taken in detail design stage.
• The detail design phase also involves verification testing of a prototype, the
generation of a bill of materials (BOM) from the assembly drawings, a final cost
estimate, and decisions on whether to make each part in-house or to obtain it from
an outside supplier.
• Detail design ends when the design is reviewed and accepted by a formal design
review process.
Su m m ary
• The engineering design process, and in particular the detail design phase,
requires considerable skill and effort in communication on the part of design team
members.
• Technical reports will be used an effective medium to communicate the product

development process results to the design review team.

THANK YOU

BITS Pilani
Material Selection in Design Cont…

C o n tent: M a te rial Se l e ction
• Introduction
• Performance characteristics of Materials
• Material selection process
• Sources of information on material properties
• Economics of materials
• Overview of methods of material selection
• Selection with computer aided data base
• Material selection with decision matrix
• Recycling and material selection
• Case Studies on Material Selection
• Summary

C r i te ria fo r M a te rial Se l e c tion
• Performance characteristics
• Processing characteristics
• Environmental profile
• Business considerations
Elvin Karana , Paul Hekkert, Prabhu Kandachar, Material considerations in product design: A survey on crucial material aspects used by
product designers, Materials and Design 29 (2008) 1081–1089.

C l a s si fic ati on o f M a te rial Pr o per ti es

M e c hani cal Pr o p erties

Gu i d e fo r Se l e c tion o f M a te ri al
B. A . Miller , “ Materials Selection for Failure Prevention, ” Failure Analysis and Prevention, ASM Handbook, Vol. 11, ASM International, Materials Park, OH , 2002 , p. 35

T y p i c al M e c hanic al Pr o p erties o f Se l e c ted
M a te rial s

Sp e c ifi cation o f a M a te ri als
Ashby Charts

As h b y C h a r ts: Exa m p les

As h b y C h a r ts: Exa m p les

M a te rial s Se l e c ti on fo r a N e w Pr o d uct o r
N e w D e s i gn
Stiffness, strength, corrosion

Define the functions that the design must perform and translate resistance
these into required materials properties.
Size, complexity,
Define the manufacturing parameters. manufacturability, surface finish,
tolerance
Compare the needed properties and parameters against a large
Screening properties and go/no
materials property database.
go decision
Investigate the candidate materials in more detail. Product performance, Cost,
Fabricability, and Availability
Develop design data and/or a design specification

M a te rial s Su b s titution i n a n Exi s ti n g
D e s i gn
Characterize the currently used material in terms of performance,

manufacturing requirements, and cost.
Determine which properties must be improved for enhanced product function.
Search for alternative materials and/or manufacturing routes.

Compile a short list of materials and processing routes, and use these to estimate
the costs of manufactured parts.
Evaluate the results of previous stage and make a recommendation for a
replacement material.

M a te rial s Se l e c ti on i n Em b odi ment D e s i gn

So u r ces o f In fo r mation o n M a te ri als
Pr o p erties
• Metals Handbook Desk Edition, 2d ed., ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1998. A
compact compilation of metals, alloys, and processes.
• Engineered Materials Handbook Desk Edition, ASM International, Materials Park, OH,
1995. A compact compilation of data for ceramics, polymers, and composite materials.
• M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, 3d ed., Butterworth-Heinemann,
Oxford, UK, 2005. Extensive discussion of Ashby charts and materials selection, along
with tables of property data suitable for screening at conceptual design level. Appendix D
in this text provides 18 pages on sources of material property data.
• Cambridge Materials Selector, CES 06, Granta Design Ltd., Cambridge, UK. This
software implements the Ashby materials selection scheme and provides data on 3000
materials. http://www.granta.com.uk.
• K. G. Budinski and M. K. Budinski, Engineering Materials: Properties and Selection, 8 th
ed., Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2004. Broadbased, practically
oriented.

So u r ces o f In fo r mation o n M a te ri als
Pr o p erties
• www.matdata.net: Provides direct link to ASM International handbooks and
metals databases, as well as Granta Design databases. Most of these are
subscription services, but this site will provide locations in the 21 volumes of ASM
handbooks to data on specifi c materials. Most engineering libraries will have
these handbooks.
• www.matweb.com: Provides 59,000 material data sheets for free. Registered
viewers can make searches for materials using up to three criteria for free. For
more advanced searches a subscription is required.
• www.campusplastics.com: The “Computer Aided Materials Preselection by
Uniform Standards” is a database of polymers properties sponsored by a network
of worldwide plastic resin producers. In order to provide comparability between
the data of different suppliers, each participant is required to use a uniform
standard for the generation of the data. Use of the database is free.

Ec o n omic s Of M a teri als
• Cost of Materials:

Ec o n omic s Of M a teri als
• Cost of Materials:

Abundance of elements

Consumption of materials
Current rate of
consumption, C=
r = percentage fractional
rate of growth per year

THANK YOU!

BITS Pilani
Material Selection in Design Cont…

An a l yti cal M e th ods Of M a teri als Se l e ction
Analytical
Methods
Selection with
Decision Performance
computer-aided
matrices indices
databases
Weighted Pugh selection

property index method

Se l e cti on w i th C o m puter -aided D a tabas es

Se l e cti on w i th C o m puter -aided D a tabas es

M a te rial Pe r fo rmanc e In d i ces
• A material performance index is a group of material properties that governs some

aspect of the performance of a component
• Objective: To maximize performance index
• Example: Consider the tubular frame of a bicycle. The design requirement calls
for a light, strong tubular beam of fixed outer diameter. Its function is to carry
bending moments. The objective is to minimize the mass m of the frame. The
mass per unit length m/L can expressed by

• Above equation is the objective function , the quantity to be minimized.
• Optimization must be done subject to constraints. First constraint is that the tube
strength must be sufficient so it will not fail. Second constraint is that r is fixed.
• Failure could occur by buckling, brittle fracture, plastic collapse, or fatigue caused
by repeated cyclic loads.
• If fatigue is the likely cause, then the cyclic bending moment Mb the tube can
withstand with infinite life is From above two equations,

( )
Instead we can use larger values,


M a te rial s Se l e c ti on w i th D e c i sion M a tr i ces
• Pugh Concept Selection: The Pugh decision method is used to select a replacement
material for a helical steel spring in a wind-up toy train.

We i g hted Pr o p er ty In d ex: Exa m p l e
• The material selection for a cryogenic storage vessel for liquefied natural gas is
being evaluated on the basis of the following properties:
1) Low-temperature fracture toughness
2) Low-cycle fatigue strength
3) Stiffness
4) Coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)
5) Cost
• Since the tank will be insulated, thermal properties can be neglected in the
selection process.


M a te rial C y c l e
Remanufacturing

R e c y c ling a n d M a ter ials Se l e ction
• The steps in recycling a material are:
1. Collection and transport – Home, Industrial and Old Scraps
2. Separation - Dismantling and Shredding
3. Identification and sorting

Energy for extraction of materials
Unit: GJ/ Tonne

D e s i gn fo r R e c y cl ing

THANK YOU!

Product Design
BITS Pilani
BITS Pilani
Modeling and Simulation

C o n tent: M o d eli ng a n d Si m u lati on
• The role of models in engineering design
• Types of models
• Finite element analysis
• Summary

T h e R o l e o f M o d els i n En g ineer ing D e s i gn

T h e R o l e o f M o d els i n En g ineer ing D e s i gn
• Analyzing performance is a crucial step in conceptual and embodiment design

stage.
• Efficient analysis of products and systems requires descriptions of each design or
system.
• Description required for analysis is called a model. “A model is a description of
some system intended to predict what happens if certain actions are taken”.
• Ideal model can consider:
– Physical aspects of the product or system
– Constraints on the design detail to be modeled
– Mathematical equations that govern its behavior
C l a s si fic ati on o f D i ffe rent M o d els
• There are many different types of models and associated modeling languages to address
different aspects of a system and different types of systems.
• Since different models serve different purposes, a classification of models can be useful for
selecting the right type of model for the intended purpose and scope.

• Basic categories:
– Physical model made of plastic or wood or easy-to-work materials
– Design sketches, mechanical drawings, etc.
– Mathematical equations – describe characteristics of the product
– Combination of geometric and functional requirements
• Other categories
– Static vs Dynamic – Properties vary / do not vary with time
– Deterministic vs Probabilistic – Outcome of event occurs with certainty / Uncertainty
– Iconic, analog or symbolic
– Also we have - Linear vs Nonlinear; Explicit vs Implicit; Discrete vs Continuous

• Physical Models versus Abstract Models

– The United States “Department of Defense Modeling and Simulation (M&S) Glossary” asserts that
“a model can be [a] physical, mathematical, or otherwise logical representation of a system”
(1998).
– A physical model is a concrete representation that is distinguished from the mathematical and
logical models, both of which are more abstract representations of the system.
– The abstract model can be further classified as descriptive (similar to logical) or analytical (similar
to mathematical).

• Iconic
– Scaled representation
– 2D - Maps, photographs or engineering drawings
– 3D - balsa wood, paper model airplane, wood/plastic mockup, digital models
– 4 types - proof-of-concept model, scale model, experimental model & prototype model
• Analog
– Based on analogy - Obey the same physical principles as the physical system
– Use solution based in one discipline on completely different field (electrical measurements)
– Graphs and Flowcharts
• Symbolic
– Use symbols (shorthand label or number) to represent properties of real systems
– Mathematical equations and lead to quantitative results
– Mathematical models – Theoretical or Empirical
• Types of models:
1. Descriptive Models:
A descriptive model describes logical relationships, such as the system's whole-part relationship
that defines its parts tree, the interconnection between its parts, the functions that its components
perform, or the test cases that are used to verify the system requirements.
Typical descriptive models may include those that describe the functional or physical architecture
of a system, or the three dimensional geometric representation of a system.

2. Analytical Models:
An analytical model (glossary) describes mathematical relationships, such as differential equations
that support quantifiable analysis about the system parameters.
Analytical models can be further classified into dynamic and static models. Dynamic models
describe the time-varying state of a system, whereas static models perform computations that do
not represent the time-varying state of a system.
A dynamic model may represent the performance of a system, such as the aircraft position,
velocity, acceleration, and fuel consumption over time. A static model may represent the mass
properties estimate or reliability prediction of a system or component.

3. Hybrid Descriptive and Analytical Models:
A particular model may include descriptive and analytical aspects as described above, but models
may favor one aspect or the other.
The logical relationships of a descriptive model can also be analyzed, and inferences can be made to
reason about the system. Nevertheless, logical analysis provides different insights than a quantitative
analysis of system parameters.

D o m ain- speci fic M o d el s
• Both descriptive and analytical models can be further classified according to the domain that
they represent.
– Properties of the system, such as performance, reliability, mass properties, power, structural, or
thermal models.
– Design and technology implementations, such as electrical, mechanical, and software design
models.
– Subsystems and products, such as communications, fault management, or power distribution

models.
– System applications, such as information systems, automotive systems, aerospace systems, or

medical device models.

Si m u lati on ve r s u s M o d el
• The term simulation, or more specifically computer simulation, refers to a method for
implementing a model over time.
• The computer simulation includes the analytical model which is represented in executable code,
the input conditions and other input data, and the computing infrastructure.
• The computing infrastructure includes the computational engine needed to execute the model,
as well as input and output devices.
• The great variety of approaches to computer simulation is apparent from the choices that the
designer of computer simulation must make, which include
– Stochastic or deterministic; Steady-state or dynamic; Continuous or discrete; and Local or distributed.

M a th emati cal M o d el ing
Problem statement
Select the engineering design option space
Define the boundaries of the model
Find available information to support building the model
Determine what physical laws are pertinent to the problem
Assumptions
Construct the model and verify the model
Analysis - Determine how the equations of the model will be solved to

produce meaningful output
Validate the model

M o d el Bu i l di ng Pr o c ess
Problem statement: Design decision space: Construct the model: The design
What size motor should be selected to drive a We wish to find answers to the following variables are power P and the velocity of the
conveyor belt to deliver sand at a flow rate of questions: belt V to achieve a given flow rate of sand Q.
100 tons/hr using the design shown in Fig. • What is the horsepower of the smallest electric
motor that can deliver 100 tons of sand per ;
hour?
• What is the relationship between horsepower
and the velocity of the belt for a given flow rate? Analysis:
• How does the width of the belt influence the
To get a better design sense of the problem we
design?
substitute the design parameters from the data
step above, h , ρ, and A , and setting Q equal to
Physical principles: 50 lb/s, the above equation can be written as,
The model is based on the law of
conservation of energy. The energy supplied
by the motor Ei must equal the energy stored
Boundaries of the model: We in the sand plus the energy lost.
limit the model to the basic conveyor design.
where W = amount of sand, lb; g = gravitational

Data to support the model: It is constant 32 ft/sq s; V = belt velocity, ft/s
required to lift the sand to a height h = 55 ft,
and the angle of the conveyor is H = 20°. The Assumptions: We neglect friction in the
density of sand is ρ = 100 lb/ft3. The area of a rollers supporting the belt and the drive motor.
cross section of the sand on the belt is A = 0.5 Also, no deflection of the support structure of the
sq ft . conveyor.

F e w Gu i d eli nes fo r M a themati cal M o d el
• Do not build a complicated model when a simple one will do.
• Beware of shaping the problem to fit the modeling technique.
• Models should be validated before implementation.
• A model should never be pressed to do that for which it was never intended.
• A model cannot replace decision makers.

Ge o metri c M o d eli ng o n th e C o m puter
• Increase the productivity of designers.

• Increase the designer’s conceptual
capacity.
• The same geometric model can be
transferred downstream for analysis and
simulation, thereby minimizing the costly
testing of prototypes.
• The same data can be transferred for
NC/CNC machining and prototype
testing.
C u r rent Pr a c ti ces i n Ge o metri c M o d eling
• Data associativity
• Product data (STEP)
• Collaborative design
• Three-dimensional scanning with lasers ordigital cameras

F i n i te El e m ent An a l y si s

F EA e xa m ples

Su m m ary
• Models play an important role in engineering design. They can be descriptive or

predictive, static or dynamic, deterministic or probabilistic.
• Physical models (iconic models) play an important role in design, from the proof-
of concept model used in conceptual design to the full-scale working prototype
that is usually developed by the end of embodiment design.
• Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over

time. The act of simulating something first requires that a model be developed;
this model represents the key characteristics, behaviors and functions of the
selected physical or abstract system or process.

THANK YOU!

Product Design
Design For Manufacturing and Assembly
BITS Pilani (DFMA)
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly

C o n tent
• DFMA – Scope, Input requirement, Steps

• Manufacturing Functions, Classification,
• Manufacturing Process Selection
• Design For Manufacture (DFM)
• Design For Assembly (DFA)
• Role of Standardization in DFMA
• Mistake-Proofing
• Computer method of DFMA
• Design for Casting, Forging, Sheet Metal Forming, Machining, Welding
• Other important guidelines

Sc o p e o f D F M A
• As the basis for concurrent engineering studies to provide guidance to the design process in
simplifying the product structure.
• As a tool to help reduce manufacturing and assembly costs, and to quantify the improvements.
• As a benchmarking tool to study contenders’ products and measure difficulties in manufacturing

and assembly.
• As a should-cost tool to help control costs and negotiate supplier’s contracts.
Be n efi ts o f D F M a n d D F A
• Motorola found failure rates reduced (reliability increased) with application of

DFMA; because as the production process is simplified, there is less opportunity
for outright errors
In p u t R e q ui rement fo r D F M A
• Sketches, drawings, product specifications, and design alternatives.
• A detailed understanding of production and assembly processes
• Estimates of manufacturing costs, production volumes, and ramp-up timing.
Ste p s i n D F M A
Ge n eral iz ed s te p s i n D F M
• Most basic approach is to apply design guidelines; each design concept should be
examined on each of the design guidelines and change the design to make it
satisfy the guideline.
• They are heuristics that generally hold true.
• To every heuristic rule there are exceptions.
• Design guidelines should be used with an understanding of the design goals.
• They ensure that application of the guideline so as to improve the design concept
on those goals.
Ge n eral iz ed s te p s i n D F M
• Identification of product concepts that are inherently easy to manufacture
• To focus on component design for ease of manufacture
• To integrate product design, process design and manufacturability
• The transition of design quickly into production
• The manufacturing of the product at minimum cost
• The manufacturing of the product with minimum efforts
M a n ufac turing F u n c tions
Manufacturing
Functions
Plant Process Tool Administration Work

Engineering Engineering Engineering and Control Standards
M a n ufac turing F u n c tions
M a n ufac turing Pr o c es ses
Manufacturing
Processes
Primary Second Finishing

Processes Processes Processes
• Casting & Molding • Machining • Coating

• Deformation Processes • Heat Treatment • Painting
• Powder Processes • Polishing
C l a s si fic ati on o f M a n ufacturing Pr o c e sses
Manufacturing Process Selection
STEPS in Selecting a Manufacturing Process
1. Based on the part specification, identify the material
• The FACTORS that influence the selection of
class, the required number of parts, and the size,
a process to make a part are:
shape, minimum thickness, surface finish, and
• Quantity of parts required
tolerance on critical dimensions of the parts.
• Complexity-shape, size, features
2. Decide what the objective of the process selection
• Material
process is – Min cost, Max quality and Min time.
• Quality of part
• Cost to manufacture 3. Using the identified constrains, screen a large number
• Availability, lead time, and delivery of processes to eliminate the processes incapable of
schedule meeting them.
4. Having narrowed the possible processes to a smaller

number, rank them based on manufacturing cost.
1 . Qu a ntity o f Pa r ts R e q uir ed
• Total number of parts produced
• Rate of production (unit per time)
• Volume  Batches or lots  Cost
• Cost – Tooling, Labor cost, material cost
• Cost  Economic batch size
• Time needed to change and setup tooling 

Flexibility Labor cost
Fig. compares the cost of making an aluminum connecting rod

by sand casting and die casting
Qu a nti ty o f Pa r ts R e q ui red
C a s e Stu d y
• Four polymer processes are under consideration for making the plastic bumpers.
Material cost = $ 30 per part
2 . Sh a pe a n d F e a tur e C o m pl exi ty
The complexity of a part refers to its shape and type and number of features that it
contains. One way of expressing the complexity of a component is through its information
content I, expressed in number of digital bits of information
• In mathematics, the geometric mean is a mean or average, which indicates the central
tendency or typical value of a set of numbers by using the product of their values.
Sh a pe a n d F e a ture C o m plexi ty
Complexity rating
Ability of Manufacturing Processes to
Produce Shapes
Pr o c es s s e l e cti on c h a r t ( Pr o ces s ve r s u s
s i z e /mas s r a n ge).
R a n ge o f a va i l abl e s e c ti on th i c k nes s
3 . In fl uenc e o f M a te rial o n Pr o c e ss Se l e ction
• Main Factors for process selection
• Melting point
• Level of deformation resistance
• Ductility
4 . R e qui red Qu a l ity o f th e Pa r t
1. Freedom from external and internal defects
2. Surface finish
3. Dimensional accuracy and tolerance
R e q uired Qu a l i ty o f th e Pa r t
• Surface Finish:
• Rt is the height measured from maximum peak to the deepest trough

• Ra is the arithmetic average based on the absolute value of the deviations from the mean
surface line
C o s t vs s u r fa ce fi n i s h a n d to l e ranc e
C o s t vs s u r fa ce fi n i s h a n d to l e ranc e
5 . C o s t to M a n ufacture
The total unit cost of a part is
m is weight of material
f is fraction of scrap
is the production rate
k is the number of times the tooling must be replaced because of wear
n is the total production run for the part
q is fraction of a given product for machine produce several products
L is load factor (the fractional time the equipment is productive)
two is capital write-off time (time to pay off the equipment)
6 . Ava i l abi li ty, L e ad T i m e , a n d D e l i ver y
• The availability of the production equipment.
• The time to make tooling.
• The reliability of the expected delivery date for parts made by outside suppliers.
• Careful scheduling with the design cycle may be needed to mesh with the
production schedule.
Thank You!
Product Design
BITS Pilani (DFMA)

C o n tent


Manufacturing Process Selection
STEPS in Selecting a Manufacturing Process
1. Based on the part specification, identify the material
• The FACTORS that influence the selection of
class, the required number of parts, and the size,
a process to make a part are:
shape, minimum thickness, surface finish, and
• Quantity of parts required
tolerance on critical dimensions of the parts.
• Complexity-shape, size, features
2. Decide what the objective of the process selection
• Material
process is – Min cost, Max quality and Min time.
• Quality of part
• Cost to manufacture 3. Using the identified constrains, screen a large number
• Availability, lead time, and delivery of processes to eliminate the processes incapable of
schedule meeting them.
4. Having narrowed the possible processes to a smaller

number, rank them based on manufacturing cost.
D e s i gn F o r M a n ufacture ( D F M )
Minimize total number of parts
Standardize components
Use common parts across product lines
Standardize design features
Aim to keep designs functional and simple
Design parts to be multifunctional
Design parts for ease of fabrication
Avoid excessively tight tolerances
Minimize secondary and finishing operations
Utilize the special characteristics of processes

Sp e c ifi c D e s i gn R u l es
• Space holes in machined, cast, molded, or stamped parts so they can be made in
one operation without tooling weakness.
• Avoid generalized statements on drawings, like “polish this surface” or “toolmarks

not permitted,”. Notes on engineering drawings must be specific and
unambiguous.
• Dimensions should be made from specific surfaces or points on the part, not from
points in space.
• Dimensions should all be from a single datum surface rather than from a variety
of points to avoid overlap of tolerances.

Sp e c ifi c D e s i gn R u l es
• The design should aim for minimum weight consistent with strength and stiffness
requirements.
• Whenever possible, design to use general-purpose tooling rather than special

dies, form cutters, and similar tools.
• Use generous fillets and radii on castings and on molded, formed, and machined
parts.
• Parts should be designed so that as many operations as possible can be

performed without requiring repositioning.

D e s i gn F o r As s e m bly ( D F A)
Storing Handling Positioning Joining Adjusting Securing Inspection

Ge n eral Gu i d elines
1. Minimize the total number of parts:
• The criteria for an essential part (theoretical part) are:

– The part must exhibit motion relative to another part that is declared essential.
– There is a fundamental reason that the part be made from a material different from all
other parts.
– It would not be possible to assemble or disassemble the other parts unless this part is
separate, that is it is an essential connection between parts.
– Maintenance of the product may require disassembly and replacement of a part.
– Parts used only for fastening or connecting other parts are prime candidates for
elimination.
T h e oretic al M i n i mum N u m ber o f Pa r ts
• Simplify your design by eliminating all unnecessary separate parts
• Another step is to modularize – combine parts into a larger, more complex part. Questions
to identify the possibility are:
– Must the parts move relative to one another?
– Must the parts be electrically isolated?
– Must the parts be thermally isolated?
– Must the parts be of different materials?
– Does combining the parts prevent assembly of other parts?
– Will servicing be adversely affected?
– If the answer to these questions is “no”, then one should find a way to combine the two parts

1. Assembly Efficiency (Ema)
2. Minimize the assembly surface
3. Use subassemblies
4. Mistake-proof the design and assembly


Sy s te m Gu i d el ines
First guideline:
Second guideline:
• Reduce the number of parts through functional modularity
Reduce the number of parts through assembly modularity;
• Examine each part and ask how the part function can be
several difficult to manipulate parts are bundled together
instead completed by a neighboring part
onto a feature such as a board that is easy to manipulate
• Another idea is to fabricate several parts as one part by
and assemble; for example, computer motherboard
using other fabrication processes

Third guideline: Fourth Guideline:
Design a product so that it is assembled outwardly. • Design parts so that they are easily oriented.
• This makes assembly possible with no re-orientations. • Parts should have self-locating features so that precise
• Do not design a product that requires parts to be alignment by assembly process is not required.
fastened on the inside of an enclosure. • Color tick marks or indents make orientation easier; i.e.,
in electrical components, one way pin patterns or pin
identification labels should be used.

Fifth Guideline:
• Reduce the variety of parts
• Using the same commodity items such as fasteners can avoid
errors
• It also increases the economies of scales for the part

H a n dli ng Gu i d el ines
First Guideline: Second Guideline: Third Guideline:
Maximize part symmetry to make Augment asymmetries such that they can Design parts so that they do not tangle or
orientation unnecessary be easily oriented stick together.
If parts cannot be made symmetric, force Change parts that are difficult-to-handle
Specifically important for automated
the asymmetry to be an obvious into those that are easy to handle.
assembly equipment Gravity may be used
asymmetry – simply mark the orienting as aid Slippery or messy parts should have
features handling features designed in it.

H a n dli ng Gu i d el ines
Fifth Guideline: Sixth Guideline:
Fourth Guideline:
Prevent nesting of parts Provide parts with orienting features
Distinguish different parts that are shaped
Nesting occurs when parts that are stacked Helps identify the asymmetries
similarly through non-geometric means.
on top of one another clamp to one another inherent in the part
Examples are vacuum formed plastic coffee
lids or cups
Certain features can be designed in to
prevent nesting

H a n dli ng Gu i d el ines: Exa m p les
Fig.: Geometrical features affecting part handling

DEG 531– P R O D UCT D E S IG N 18 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus
In s e rti on Gu i d el ines
• A poor design will necessitate holding or grasping

parts from below or from the side while they are
being fastened.
• If parts cannot be assembled from top down
exclusively, then apply as few insertions as
possible.
• Assemble only from top and have fasteners come
in from only one side; this eliminates re-orientation
of the product during assembly.
• Do not make assembly system constantly re-
orient the product; worst-case is when the
subassembly needs to be turned over.

In s e rti on Gu i d el ines: Exa m p les
Incorrect geometry can allow a part to jam

during insertion
Provision of self-locating features to

avoid holding down and alignment
Provision of air-relief passages to improve

insertion into blind holes
In s e rti on Gu i d el ines: Exa m p les
Provision of chamfers to allow easy insertion

J o i n ing Gu i d elines
• After inserting the object, the next job is to fasten/join it.
• Fasteners, snap fits, welds or adhesives can be used.
• Reduce number of fasteners, without reducing the attachment

strength.
• This can be done by changing a portion of the fasteners to be of

a quick-insert type.
• Locate fasteners in places where one has access to the

fastener.
• Provide flats for uniform fastening and fastening ease.
• Provide proper spacing between successive fasteners to allow

the fastening tool to have enough space to operate.

Thank You!
Product Design
BITS Pilani (DFMA)

C o n tent


D e s i gn F o r M a n ufacture ( D F M )
Minimize total number of parts
Standardize components
Use common parts across product lines
Standardize design features
Aim to keep designs functional and simple
Design parts to be multifunctional
Design parts for ease of fabrication
Avoid excessively tight tolerances
Minimize secondary and finishing operations
Utilize the special characteristics of processes

D e s i gn F o r As s e m bly ( D F A)
Storing Handling Positioning Joining Adjusting Securing Inspection

R o l e o f Sta n dardi zation In D F M A
• Benefits of Standardization:
– Cost Reduction Purchasing

Material
Product qualityParts
costs
logistics
availability
– Quality Improvement
Reduce costs through
Feature
raw material
standardization
standardization
– Production Flexibility Reliable
Supplier
FlexibleQuicker
Prequalification of Financially
delivery of
reduction means
parts supplier
manufacturing standard stronger
low-
improved quality
deliveries cost parts
suppliers
Reduction of inventory
– Manufacturing Responsiveness and floor space
requirements

Gr o u p T e c h nology
• Group technology (GT) is a methodology

in which similar parts are grouped together
in order to take advantage of their
common characteristics.

Be n efi ts o f Gr o up T e c h nol ogy
• GT makes possible standardization of part design and elimination of part duplication.
• By being able to access the previous work of the designer and the process planner, new
and less experienced engineers can quickly benefit from that experience.
• Process plans for making families of parts can be standardized and retained for future use.
Therefore, setup times are reduced and more consistent quality is obtained.
• Also, since the tools and fixtures are often shared in making a family of parts, unit costs are
reduced.
• With production data aggregated in this way, cost estimates based on past experience can
be made more easily, and with greater precision.

Pa r t C l a s si fi cation
Part
Classifications
Experience- Production
Classification Engineering
based flow analysis
and coding database
judgment (PFA)

M i s ta ke-Proofing ( Po k a- Yok e)
• Anticipate and avoid simple human errors that occur in the manufacturing
process by taking preventive action early in the product design process.
• It should not be individual error but considered as a system error
• It aims for zero defect policy
Common mistakes:
• Mistakes setting up work-pieces and tools
in machines or in fixtures
• Incorrect or missing parts in assemblies
• Processing the wrong work-piece
• Improper operations or adjustment of
machines
F r e quent M i s ta kes
Frequent
Mistakes
Defective
Design Manufacturing Human
material
mistakes mistakes mistakes
mistakes

F r e quent M i s ta kes: D e s i gn Pr o c es s
• Providing ambiguous information on engineering drawings or specifications
• Incorrect information: Mistake in conversion of units or just plain wrong

calculations.
• A poorly developed design concept that does not fully provide the needed
functionality.
• Hastily made design decisions that result in poorly performing products with low
reliability, or with dangers to the safety of humans or hazards for the
environment.

F r e quent M i s ta kes: M a te rial Se l e ction
• Material that is poorly chosen because not all performance requirements have
been considered in the selection.
• Material that does not meet specifications but gets into production, or purchased
components that are not up to quality standards.
• Parts with hard-to-detect flaws such as internal porosity or fine surface cracks
because of poorly designed dies or molds, or improper processing conditions.

F r e quent M i s ta kes: M a n ufacturing
• Omitted operations: Failure to perform a required step in the process plan.
• Omitted part: Forgetting to install a screw, gasket, or washer.
• Wrong orientation of part: A part is inserted in the proper location but in the
wrong orientation.
• Misaligned part: Alignment is not sufficiently accurate to give proper fit or

function.
• Wrong location of part: Part is oriented properly but in wrong location. Example:
The short bolt is put in the location for the long bolt.

F r e quent M i s ta kes: M a n ufacturing
• Selection of wrong parts: Many parts look very much alike. Example: A 1-inch bolt is
used instead of 1¼ inch bolt.
• Misadjustments: An operation is incorrectly adjusted.
• Commit a prohibited action: Often this is an accident, like dropping a wrench, or a safety
violation, like failure to lock-out a power panel before hooking up a motor.
• Added material or parts: Failure to remove materials. e.g., leaving on protective cover, or
cores in a casting. Adding extra parts, e.g., dropping a screw into the assembly.
• Misread, mismeasure, or misinterpret: Error in reading instruments, measuring

dimensions, or understanding correct information.

M i s ta ke-Proofing Pr o c es s

M i s ta ke-proofi ng
Mistake Proofing Devices

Checklists
Control of Control of
variability, complexity
Guide pins, guide ways, and slots
Specialized fixtures and jigs
Control of Limit switches

mistakes
Counters

D F A An a l y si s: Exa m p le
ASM Handbook, Vol. 20, ASM International, Materials Park, OH, 1997, P. 68
D F A An a l y si s: Exa m p le
D F M A Exa m p l e

D F M A Exa m p l e

D F M A Exa m p l e

Po te ntial c o n fli cts b e tw een D F A a n d D F M
• Kodak Camera part:
Thank You!
Product Design
Reliability
BITS Pilani
Design for Reliability,
Safety and Quality
DE G531– P R O D UCT D E S IG N 2 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

C o n tent
• Introduction
• Reliability Theory
• System Reliability
• Maintenance and Repair
• Design for Relatability
• Design for Safety
• Summary

In tr o duction
• A hazard is the potential for human, property, or environmental damage.

• A risk is the likelihood, expressed either as a probability or as a frequency, of a
hazard’s occurring.
• Reliability is a measure of the capability of a part or a system to operate without
failure in the service environment.
• Safety is relative protection from exposure to hazards.

R i s k As s e s s ment
• Tolerable risk:
• Acceptable risk:
• Unacceptable risk:

R e l i abil ity T h e or y
• Reliability is the probability that a system, component, or device will perform without
failure for a specified period of time under specified operating conditions.
• R(t) is the reliability with respect to time t , then F(t) is the unreliability (probability of
failure) in the same time t .
If N0 components are put on test, the number surviving to or at time t is NS (t), and the number
that failed between t = 0 and t = t is Nf (t).
From the definition of reliability
The hazard rate, or instantaneous failure rate, is the number of

failures per unit time per the number of items exposed for the
same time.

• The hazard rate or failure rate is given in terms like 1 percent per 1000 h or 10-5 per hour.
Components in the range of failure rates of 10-5 to 10-7 per hour exhibit a good
commercial level of reliability.
Forms of the failure curve: (a) three-stage (bath tube) curve typical of electronic equipment; (b) failure curve
more typical of mechanical equipment.
Im p o rtant D e fi n itions R e l a ted to R e l i abili ty
• Cumulative time to failure (T): When N0 components are run for a time t without
replacing or repairing failed components
• where t1 is the occurrence of the first failure, etc., and k is the number of failed
components.
• Mean life: The average life of the N0 components put on test or in service,
measured over the entire life curve out to wear out.
• Mean time to failure (MTTF): The sum of the survival time for all of the components
divided by the number of failures.
Im p o rtant D e fi n itions R e l a ted to R e l i abili ty
• Mean time between failures (MTBF): The mean time between two successive
component failures.

Sy s te m R e l i abi lity
• MTBF is a measure Reliability
• MTBF – Length of time a product is in operation before failure.
• MTBF = 1 / Failure rate
• Failure rate = Ratio of number of failure to operating time

C o n stant F a i l ure R a te
• For the special case of a constant failure rate, h (t) = λ

Exa m p le
• If a device has a failure rate of 2× 10-6 failures/h, what is its reliability for an operating
period of 500 h? If there are 2000 items in the test, how many failures are expected in
500 h? Assume that strict quality control has eliminated premature failures so we can
assume a constant failure rate.

Exa m p le

• Series Reliability: If the components are so arranged that the failure of any
component causes the system to fail. n
Rs   Ri
i 1
RA RB RC
• It is obvious that if there are many components exhibiting series reliability, the
system reliability quickly becomes very low.

• Parallel reliability: It is an arrangement of components is one in which it is necessary

for all components in the system to fail in order for the system to fail.
RA
RB
n
Rs  1   (1  Ri )
i 1
• A system in which the components are arranged to give parallel reliability is said
to be redundant; there is more than one mechanism for the system functions to
be carried out.
• In a system with full active redundancy, all but one component may fail before the
system fails.
• Other systems have partial active redundancy, in which certain components can
fail without causing system failure, but more than one component must remain
operating to keep the system operating.

• A simple example would be a four-engine aircraft that can fly on two engines but
would lose stability and control if only one engine were operating.
• This type of situation is known as an n out of m unit network. At least n units must
function normally for the system to succeed rather than only one unit in the
parallel case and all units in the series case.
• The reliability of an n out of m system is given by a binomial distribution, on the

assumption that each of the m units is independent and identical.

• Series-parallel system: n-series stages, each with ni parallel components.

• Reliability of series parallel system
voice
control
voice
control
voice
R  [1  (1  R c ) 2 ][ 1  (1  R v ) 3 ]
0.90
0.98 0.92 0.98
0.98 0.92+(1-0.92)(0.90)=0.992 0.98
0.98 x 0.992 x 0.98 = 0.953

Exa m p le
• A reliability block diagram for an engineering system is given below. Determine

the overall system reliability.
5
4

Exa m p le

Exa m p le

Exa m p le
• Complex system consists of 550 components in a series configuration. Tests on a

sample of 100 components showed that 2 failures occurred after 1000 h. If the failure
rate can be assumed to be constant, what is the reliability of the system to operate for
1000h? If an overall system reliability of 0.98 in 1000 h is required, what would the failure
rate of each component have to be?

Exa m p le- 1

M a i ntenance a n d R e p air
• An important category of reliability problems deals with maintenance and repair of

systems.
• If a failed component can be repaired while a redundant component has replaced it in

service, then the overall reliability of the system is improved.
• If components subject to wear can be replaced before they have failed, then the system
reliability will be improved.
• Preventive maintenance is aimed at minimizing system failure. Routine maintenance,

such as lubricating, cleaning, and adjusting, generally does not have a major positive
effect on reliability, although the absence of routine maintenance can lead to premature
failure.

• Maintainability is the probability that a component or system that has failed will be
restored to service within a given time. The MTTF and failure rate are measures
of reliability, but the MTTR and repair rate are measures of maintainability.

• It is important to try to predict maintainability during the design of an engineering

system. The components of maintainability include
1. The time required to determine that a failure has occurred and to diagnose the
necessary repair action.
2. The time to carry out the necessary repair action.
3. The time required to check out the unit to establish that the repair has been effective
and the system is operational.
• An important design decision is to establish what constitutes the least repairable

assembly, that is, the unit of the equipment beyond which diagnosis is not
continued but the assembly simply is replaced.
• Availability is the concept that combines both reliability and maintainability.

Exa m p le
• A system has a unit with MTBF = 30,000 h and a standby unit (MTBF = 20,000 h). If the
system must operate for 10,000 h, what would be the MTBF of a single unit (constant
failure rate) that, without standby, would have the same reliability as the standby
system?

Exa m p le

D e s i gn fo r R e l iabi li ty
• Why should a company commit resources for deploying a DFR process?

– Reduction of warranty costs
– Reduction of field failure repair
– Customer satisfaction
• One case in point is the recently publicized Xbox issue, which has cost Microsoft more than a
billion dollars in warranties (aside from loss of business and market share).
• Clearly, in order to be profitable, an organization’s products must be reliable, and reliable

products require a formal reliability process.

• Three important statements summarize the best practice reliability philosophy of successful
companies:
1) Reliability must be designed into products and processes using the best available science-based
methods.
2) Knowing how to calculate reliability is important, but knowing how to achieve reliability is
equally, if not more, important.
3) Reliability practices must begin early in the design process and must be well integrated into the
overall product development cycle.
• Understanding when, what and where to use the wide variety of reliability engineering tools
available will help to achieve the reliability mission of an organization.
• With such increasing complexity in all aspects of product development, it becomes a necessity to
have a well defined process for incorporating reliability activities into the design cycle.
• Distinction Between Reliability and Quality:

– Traditional quality control assures that the product will work after assembly and as designed.
– Whereas reliability provides the probability that an item will perform its intended function for a designated
period of time without failure under specified conditions. In other words, reliability looks at how long the
product will work as designed, which is a very different objective than that of traditional quality control.

T o o l s u s e d fo r D e s i gn fo r R e l i abi lity
• The Stress-Strength Interference principle states that a

product fails when the stress experienced by the product
exceeds its strength.

D e s i gn fo r R e l iabi li ty Pr o c es s

• Define:
– The purpose of this stage is to clearly and quantitatively define the reliability requirements and goals for a
product as well as the end-user product environmental/usage conditions.
– Requirements can be determined in many different ways, or through a combination of those different ways.
Requirements can be based on contracts, benchmarks, competitive analysis, customer expectations, cost,
safety, best practices, etc. Some of the tools worth mentioning that help in quantifying the "voice of the
customer" include KANO models, affinity diagrams and pair-wise comparisons.
– The system reliability requirement goal can be allocated to the assembly level, component level or even down
to the failure mode level.
– Once the requirements have been defined, they must be translated into design requirements and then into
manufacturing requirements. A commonly used methodology is the Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
approach using what is commonly called the House of Quality tool.
• Identify:
– In this stage, a clearer picture about what the product is supposed to do starts developing. It is important to
understand how much change is introduced with this new product.
– A product can be an upgrade of an existing product, an existing product that is introduced to a new market or
application, a product that is not new to the market but is new to the company or it could be a completely
new product that does not exist in the market.
– With more design or application change, more reliability risks are introduced to the success of the product
and company.
– A thorough change point analysis should reveal changes in design, material, parts, manufacturing, supplier
design or process, usage environment, system's interface points, system's upstream and downstream parts,
specifications, interface between internal departments, performance requirements, etc.

• A formal methodology called Change Point Analysis can be used to examine what changes, if any,
have taken place. The purpose of this exercise is to identify and prioritize the Key Reliability
Risk items and their corresponding Risk Reduction Strategy.
• Designers should consider reducing design complexity and maximizing the use of standard (proven)
components.
• A good tool to assess risk early in the DFR program is the Failure Mode and Effective Analysis
(FMEA).

• Analyse and Assess:

– Engineering judgment and expert opinion
– Physics of Failure (PoF) analysis
– Simulation models
– Prior warranty and test data from similar products/components

Ph y s i c s o f F a i l ure M o del
Root Cause Analysis Physics of failure process


C a u ses o f U n r e liabi li ty
• Minimizing Failure:
• Margin of Safety
Design mistakes Manufacturing • Derating

defects
• Redundancy
• Durability
Exceeding
design limits
Maintenance • Damage Tolerance
• Ease of Inspection
Environmental • Simplicity
factors:
• Specificity

D e fe cts a n d F a i l ure M o d es
Hardware Software Organizational

Human failure
failure failure failure

R e l i abil ity C o s t

D e s i gn F o r Sa fe ty

D e s i gn F o r Sa fe ty
• A fail-safe design seeks to ensure that a failure will either not affect the product or
change it to a state in which no injury or damage will occur. There are three
variants of fail-safe designs.
– Fail-passive design: When a failure occurs, the system is reduced to its lowest-energy
state, and the product will not operate until corrective action is taken.
– Fail-active design: When failure occurs, the system remains energized and in a safe
operating mode.
– Fail-operational design: The design is such that the device continues to provide its
critical function even though a part has failed.

Po te ntial D a n gers
• Acceleration / deceleration • Radiation

• Chemical contamination • Structural
• Electrical • Temperature
• Environment • Life cycle factors
• Ergonomics • Materials
• Explosions • Mechanical
• Fire • Physiological
• Human factors • Pressure / vacuum
• Leaks or spills

Gu i d elines fo r D e s i gn fo r Sa fe ty
1. Recognize and identify the actual or potential hazards, and then design the product so
they will not affect its functioning.
2. Thoroughly test prototypes of the product to reveal any hazards overlooked in the initial
design.
3. Design the product so it is easier to use safely than unsafely.
4. If field experience turns up a safety problem, determine the root cause and redesign to
eliminate the hazard.
5. Realize that humans will do foolish things, and allow for it in your design. More product
safety problems arise from improper product use than from product defects. A user-
friendly product is usually a safe product.
6. There is a close correspondence between good ergonomic design and a

safe design.
– Arrange the controls so that the operator does not have to move to manipulate them.
– Make sure that fingers cannot be pinched by levers or other features.
– Avoid sharp edges and corners.
– Point-of-operation guards should not interfere with the operator’s movement.
– Products that require heavy or prolonged use should be designed to avoid cumulative
trauma disorders like carpal tunnel syndrome. This means avoiding awkward positions
of the hand, wrist, and arm and avoiding repetitive motions and vibration.

7. Minimize the use of flammable materials, including packaging materials.
8. Think about the need for repair, service, or maintenance. Provide adequate
access without pinch or puncture hazards to the repairer.
9. Electrical products should be properly grounded to prevent shock. Provide

electrical interlocks so that high-voltage circuits will not be energized unless a
guard is in the proper position.

Wa r n ing L a b els

Su m m ary
• Modern society places strong emphasis on avoiding risk, while insisting on

products that last longer and require less service or repair.
• This requires greater attention to risk assessment in the concept of a design, in

using methods for deciding on potential modes of failure, and in adopting design
techniques that increase the reliability of engineered systems.
• Extensive testing of preproduction prototypes to “work the bugs out” is a method

that works well.

THANK YOU!

Design for Environment
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
Sreeram
BITS Pilani
Su s ta inabi lity
• Social Sustainability
• Economical Sustainability
• Environmental Sustainability
DE G531 – Design for Environment 2 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Exa m p les o f p r o duc t d e s i gned i n c o n s ideration
w i th e n vi r onment

D e s i gn fo r En vi r onment
• Design for environment (DFE) is a method to minimize or eliminate environmental

impacts of a product over its life cycle.
• Effective DFE practice maintains or improve product quality and cost while reducing
the environmental impacts and create a more sustainable society.
• DFE expands the traditional manufacturer’s focus on the production and distribution of
its products to a close loop life cycles.

L i fe C y c l es
• Life cycle is basis of DFE.
• The natural life cycle represent growth and decay of
organic materials in a continuous loop.
• The product life cycle represent the extraction of
natural resources, their processing and production.
• DFE helps organizations to create best product
achieving sustainability over time and enable proper
recovery of materials used in products can be
reintegrated into any of the life cycle.

En vi r o nmental Im p ac ts d u e to w a s te

D e s i gn fo r En vi r onment Pr o c es s

Ste p 1 : Se t D F E Ag e n da: D r i ve r s, Go a l s & T e a m

Ste p 2 : Id e nti fy Po te ntial En vi r onmental Im p a cts

Ste p 3 : Se l e ct D F E g u i del ines

Ste p 4 : Ap p l y D F E g u i del ine to i n i ti al p r o duct
d e s i gn
• The design team of any organization apply the DFE guidelines and develop various prototypes
and then after many variations develop the final product.
• The guidelines were developed by German VDI (1993), British ICER (1993), University of
Manchester (1994), General Electric Plastcis (1995), Fiksel (1996), Bras (1998).
• Every conceptual design must be subject these guidelines and wherever needed the concepts
may be modified
• During the embodiment and final design stage, these guidelines must be again consulted to
ensure compatibility

Ste p 4 : Ap p l y D F E g u i del ine to i n i ti al p r o duct
d e s i gn
CERES (Coalition for Environmentally Responsible Economies States) Principles:
• Protect the biosphere: minimize release of pollutants.
• Sustainable use of resources.
• Reduction and disposal of waste.
• Wise use of energy: invest in energy conservation.
• Risk reduction: health risk to employees and community.
• Marketing of safe products and services.
• Damage compensation for environmental harm.
• Disclosure of processes that can cause environmental harm or health hazard.
• Environmental directors be recruited.
• Annual audit of progress in implementation of pollution-free practices and sharing the
audit results with public.

D F E: Pr o d uct Str u c ture Gu i d elines
Guidelines Reason
Design a product to be multifunctional. More efficient than many unique function product.
Minimize the numbers of parts. Reduce disassembly time and resources.
Avoid separate springs, pulleys, or harness. Instead, Reduce disassembly time and resources.
embed these functions into parts.
Make design as modular as possible, with separation Allow options of service, upgrade, or recycling.
of functions.
Design a reusable platform and reusable module. Allow options of service, upgrade, or recycling.
Locate unrecyclable parts in the subsystem that can Enables partial disassembly for optimum return.
be quickly removed.

D F E: Pr o d uct Str u c ture Gu i d elines
Guidelines Reason
In plastic parts, avoid embedded metal inserts or Creates the need for shredding and separation.
reinforcements.
Access and break points should be made obvious. Logical structure speeds disassembly and training.
Specify remanufactured parts.
Specify reusable containers for shipping or Reduce raw material consumption.
consumables within the product.
Design power-down features for different subsystem in a Eliminate unnecessary power consumption for idle
product when they are not in use. components.
Design individual parts with the same material. Eliminates the need for disassembly during
recycling. Neighbour parts may be ground or melted
as a group.

D F E: M a te rial Se l e c tion Gu i d elines
Guidelines Reason
List down the regulated and restricted materials. They are high impact.
Size the number of different types of materials. Simplifies the recycling process.
Eliminate incompatible materials. Reduce the need for disassembly and sorting
Choose recycled materials Stimulate the market for material that has been
recycled.
Materials that can be recycled, typically ones as pure Minimize waste; increase the end-of-life value of the
as possible (no additives). product.
Composite materials. Composites are inherently not pure materials, and so
not amenable to recycling.
Reduce strength to weight ratio of moving parts Reduce moving mass and therefor energy
consumption.
Prefer pure metals than alloys Easy to recycle
Parts should be clearly marked and easily removed Rapidly eliminate parts of negative value.
D F E: As s e m bly a n d D i s a ss embly Gu i d el ines
Guidelines Reason
Minimize the number of fasteners. Most of the time for disassembly is required for fastener removal
Minimize the number of fastener removal tools needed. Tool changing costs time.
Fasteners should be easy to remove Save time in disassembly
Fastening pints should be easy to access Awkward movements slow down manual disassembly
Snap fits should to be used Special tools may not be identified or available.
Try to use fasteners of material compatible with the parts connected Enables disassembly operations to be avoided.
If two parts cannot be compatible, make them easy to separate. They must be separated to recycle.
Eliminates adhesives unless compatible with both parts joined. Many adhesives cause complete contamination of parts for material
recycling.
Minimize the number and length of interconnecting wires or cables Flexible elements slow to remove; copper contaminates steel, etc.
used

5 R p r i nc ipl es
• Reduce
• Reprocess
• Reuse
• Recycle
• Recover

L i fe C y c l e As s e s s ment(LCA)

• Life-cycle assessment (LCA, also known as life-cycle analysis, ecobalance, and cradle-to-grave
analysis) is a technique to assess environmental impacts associated with all the stages of a
product's life from raw material extraction through materials processing, manufacture,
distribution, use, repair and maintenance, and disposal or recycling.
• Designers use this process to help critique their products. LCAs can help avoid a narrow outlook
on environmental concerns by:
– Compiling an inventory of relevant energy and material inputs and environmental releases;
– Evaluating the potential impacts associated with identified inputs and releases;
– Interpreting the results to help make a more informed decision.

Ste p s o f L C A
1. Goal and scope:
• Functional unit: which defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service delivered
by the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related.
• System boundaries: This will delimitations of which processes that should be included in the
analysis of a product system.
• Any assumptions and limitations:
• Allocation methods
• Impact categories: for example human toxicity, smog, global warming, eutrophication.

Ste p s o f L C A
2. Life cycle inventory:
• Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and
water. To develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data on
inputs and outputs.
• The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to be
assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries.
• The input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all activities within
the system boundary

Ste p s o f L C A
3. Impact Assessment:
• Material Chemistry – Percentage of material
that is safest for human usage as well as
environmental concerns
• Recycled Content – Percentage of material that
is gained from post industrial or postconsumer
recycled parts
• Disassembly – Percentage of material that is
easily disassembled
• Recyclability – Percentage of material that is
recyclable

Ste p s o f L C A
3. Impact Assessment: Example
Results for human toxicity potential comparing compact class vehicles

for different powertrain options (Messagie 2013). For calculation of WTW
life cycle values for the BEV, a vehicle life distance of 209,470 km charged
well-to-tank(WTT) delivery of energy from its source to the storage equipment in the vehicle with 2011 Belgian electricity mix has been assumed. All petrol and diesel
Tank-to-wheel (TTW) energy carrier is used to propel the vehicle during operation are Euro 5 standard. For detailed information, see Electronic
WTW= WTT+TTW Supplementary Material

Life Cycle Assessment allows for analysis at various stages
of a product's life
• Gate-to-gate– Focusing on one particular plant or
operation
• Cradle-to-gate - from extraction and up-stream

suppliers (mining of raw materials, processing and
transportation) to that plant or operation
• Cradle-to-grave- encompassing the entire life cycle of

the product from extraction through disposal
• Cradle-to-cradle - includes the entire cradle-to-grave

life cycle of the product with the addition of recycling the
product back to its original or alternative application
purposes.

L C A L i m itations
• LCA thoroughness and accuracy will depend on the availability of data; gathering of data can be
problematic; hence a clear understanding of the uncertainty and assumptions is important.
• Classic LCA will not determine which product, process, or technology is the most cost effective or top-
performing; therefore, LCA needs to be combined with cost analysis, technical evaluation, and social
metrics for comprehensive sustainability analysis.
• Unlike traditional risk assessment, LCA does not necessarily attempt to quantify any specific actual
impacts. While seeking to establish a linkage between a system and potential impacts, LCA models are
suitable for relative comparisons, but may be not sufficient for absolute predictions of risks.

C a s e Stu d y : Go a l a n d s c o p e
• Changes in the environmental profile of a popular passenger car over the last 30 years e Results
of a simplified LCA study (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.09.050).
• Function unit: Transport of passengers and their luggage for a total distance of 126,000
km in the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).
• The distance was determined on the basis of the average age of cars d 9 years (ACEA,
2011) d and the average annual mileage in EU countries, i.e., 14,000 km (ACEA, 2010).

• System boundaries: Raw material extraction up to waste management (Cradle-to-cradle)
• Limitations and assumptions : We skipped the impact of transport infrastructure.
• Period covered by our research (1976 to 2012) saw a technological leap in the construction of vehicles
(robotics, automation of assembly lines, new coating technologies) and significant changes in the
organization of production and supply chains of raw materials, energy and components
• Manufacturing model was limited to the environmental impact of materials used in the vehicle
• To ensure the comparability of the results, examined cars with a petrol engine, standard
equipment and fittings, and similar performance
• Data on the environmental impact of these materials come from the period from 2006 to 2009
• Aim was not to be absolutely accurate but to show trends in the development of car design and
their environmental consequences

• Limitations and assumptions in use phase of car :
• Period does not include maintenance of the car since its effect was considered to be insignificant
• Did not include the processes associated with fuel production and delivery
• Limitations and assumptions in materials recovered:
• materials recovered from vehicles that are withdrawn from use are used as secondary raw
materials in closed loop recycling.

• Data sources

• Data sources: Ecoinvent 2.1 data sets
• Allocation methods: ISO 14040
Software for reference: SimaPro, GaBi, openLCA
• Impact categories: CO2

C a s e Stu d y : i n ve n tor y



C a s e Stu d y : Im p a ct As s e s sment

Thank you!

Industrial Design
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde

BITS Pilani
Wh a t i s In d u stri al D e s i gn?
• The Industrial Designers Society of America (IDSA) defines the Industrial Design (ID) as “The
professional service of creating and developing concepts and specifications that optimize the
function, value and appearance of products and systems for the mutual benefits of both user and
manufacturer.”
DE G531 – Product Design 2 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Evo l u ti on Of Va r i ous D a i l y U s e Pr o d ucts

Go a l s o f In d us trial D e s ign ( ID )
• Utility: The product and human interface should be safe, easy to use and intuitive.
• Appearance: Form, line, proportion and color are used to integrate product into a pleasing
whole.
• Ease of Maintenance: Product must be designed to be easily maintained and repaired.
• Low cost: Form and features have large impacts on the tooling and production cost, so they
must be considered carefully.
• Communication: Product designs should communicate corporate design philosophy and mission
through the visual quality of product.

N e e d fo r In d us trial D e s i gn

In d u strial D e s i gn C y c l e

C u s tomer Se n s es i n R e l ation to Ae s th eti cs
D e s i gn o f Pr o d uc t

C u s tomer Se n s es i n R e l ation to Ae s th eti cs
D e s i gn o f Pr o d uc t
Airport Stuttgart- Inspiration from nature

Au to moti ve s ty l i ng p r o c ess

Ae s th etic N e e ds o f In d u stri al D e s i gn

N e e d o f Er g o nomic s D e s i gn

Er g o nomic N e e ds fo r In d us tr ial D e s i gn

C a s e Stu d y : M o to rola R AZ R m o b il e p h one
• The RAZR development team in 2003 used the previous questions to determine how important
industrial design would be in developing their new phone. RAZR ergonomics and aesthetics is
shown below:
•Performance features = Small size and less weight, VGA camera,
large keys with back lighting, color display with graphics, Bluetooth
for wireless headset
• Ergonomics = good user comfort, buttons were designed based
on accepted industry standards, flip phone allowed answering or
ending calls, new software for navigation, text messaging
• Durability = withstand 1 meter drop test
• Materials = laser cut keypad, laser etching, magnesium hinge,
anodized aluminum housing, composite antenna
• Appearance = futuristic look, became a status symbol, pride
among owners

As s e s s ing th e i m p o rtanc e o f R AZ R

Exa m p le: Ip h o ne c o m p arsi on

Ge n eral iz ed In d us tr ial D e s i gn Pr o c es s

T i m i ng fo r In d us trial D e s i gn fo r tw o ty p e s
o f p r o duc ts

R o l e o f In d us trial D e s i gn

As s e s s ing Qu a l ity o f In d us trial D e s ign
 Quality of User Interface: It is the rating of how easy the product is to use. Interface is related to
product’s appearance, feel and modes of interaction.
 Emotional Appeal: This is the rating of overall consumer appeal of product. Appeal is achieved
in part through appearance, feel, sound and smell.
 Ability to maintain and repair product: This is a rating of ease of product maintenance and
repair.
 Appropriate use of resources: This is a rating of how well resources were used in satisfying
the customer needs. This category mainly ask whether the investments were well spent.
 Product Differentiations: This is the rating of a product’s uniqueness and consistency with
the corporate identity. This differentiations arises predominantly from appearance.

As s e s s ment o f ID ’ s r o l e i n R AZ R d e ve l opment
p r o jec t

Er g o nomic : D e fi ne th e ta r g et c u s to mer

9 5 th p e r c entile U S m a l e M a n ikin

L i n e o f Si g h t

H a n d r e a ch z o n e

Au g mented r e a li ty
Augmented Reality

M i xe d r e a li ty
Touch and Feel the Pixels in Your Virtual Car

Ph y s i cal va l i d ation

M i xe d r e a li ty
Determine
Comparison
correct dimensions
of stampingand
toolcorrect
with CAD
positions
data of parts
C a s e Stu d y : c l a s s room fu r n iture/computer
w o r k s ta ti on
• Research Motivation:
– Children have been known to spend over 30% of their time at school.
– Most classroom activities involve sitting for long periods of time, with little or no breaks.
– Every effort should be made to ensure that young children do not experience back pain and other
musculoskeletal disorders due to prolonged sitting on improperly designed classroom furniture.
• This paper proposes a methodology and guidelines for the design of ergonomic-oriented classroom
furniture for first graders in the elementary school.
• The anthropometric measures of twenty first graders were used to develop regression equations
for the furniture dimensions.

M e th odol ogy/exper imental d e s ign
• It may be unrealistic to attempt to develop a classroom furniture design that “fits all” since
children continue to grow and often leave for the next grade at the end of the academic session.
It is therefore, unwise to design specific or custom made furniture for a particular elementary
school student.
• This research intends to propose guidelines and parameters for the design of ergonomic-
oriented classroom furniture which would accommodate at least 90% of all first graders in
elementary schools across the United States.
• Twenty (n=20) children, 12 males and 8 females, between the ages of 6 and 7 years old, typically
first graders from three elementary schools in the central Pennsylvania region were randomly
selected for the experimental analysis.

• Standard anthropometric measurements were used in obtaining the body dimensions of each
subject and in accordance to measuring techniques proposed by Parcells et al. (1999).
• all anthropometric measures were taken with the subject in a relaxed and exact posture on a flat
surface.
• Excessive clothing such as jackets, overalls, socks, and shoes were removed and the subjects
were measured in T-shirts and shorts.


R e s ul ts a n d d i s c uss ion
• From the relationship in Equation (1), the seat height can be determined (Equation (2)).
• In order to determine accommodations for larger population of users, the following criteria are
suggested.
1. The hip breadth (HP) should be shorter than the furniture width.
2. The buttock-popliteal length (BPL) should be bigger than the depth of the seat.
3. The seat height (SH) should be greater than the popliteal height.

Wo r k s ta ti o n/des k d e s i gn
• For the design of the workstation desk, it was assumed that the knee height is proportional to
the table height, knee height is assumed to be a function of the stature.

• A design may not fit most of a target population, especially if the design is based on the average
dimensions of the population.
• For example, the seat width and height of a particular group of children may vary based on the
individual differences highlighted earlier on.
• It is therefore important to consider a better way of setting the accommodation criteria in order
to design for a larger population size.
• The design guidelines for the proposed ergonomics- centered classroom furniture was obtained
using the growth charts for boys and girls (2e20 years) developed by the National Center for
Health Statistics (NCHS) and the National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion.

• In order to design the classroom furniture that would accommodate a larger population sample
(90% of the population of first graders in the United States), regression equations (5-10) were
used for the furniture design limits, taking into consideration the assumptions made and the
necessary constraints.
• Since adjustability is incorporated, then the accommodation range is assumed to be from 5th to
95th percentile. This means the design intends to fit 90% of the entire population of first graders
in the United States.


• The obtained chart values for the respective percentiles were then incorporated into the
regression equations (5-10) in order to determine the dimensions limits of the classroom
furniture.



Su m m ary
• The results of the analysis indicate that appropriate ergonomics oriented classroom furniture
could be designed based on the data obtained from the intended users.
• In summary, this paper analyzed anthropometric information obtained from the subjects to
provide adequate guidelines for the design of adjustable class room furniture.
• Values from relevant growth charts which comprises of stature-for-age and weight-for-age
percentiles limits for boys and girls of ages 2 to 20 years old was obtained and incorporated into
anthropometric equations in the quest of obtaining adjustability ranges for the classroom
furniture.

Su m m ary
• In order to accommodate at least 90% of the population of first graders, the following
dimensions obtained from Tables 4e9 are recommended (based on a recommended clearance of
1 to 2 cm): For seat height (25.83-32.23 cm); seat depth (27.41-33.86 cm); seat width (17.91-
23.29 cm); back rest (35.64-44.37 cm); arm rest (16.28-20.68 cm); and desk height (30.12-37.85
cm).
• Based on the recommended dimensions of the elementary school furniture design for first
graders, it will be easier to produce adjustable ergonomics-oriented classroom furniture within
the recommended design limits.

Su m m ary
• Even though adjustability could increase the cost of production, a major benefit of incorporating
adjustability into the furniture design is the opportunity to increase the accommodation limits.
• Based on the variability in the body sizes and dimensions of the students, individual classroom
furniture for the children is recommended, as this would provide the opportunity for each of the
children to adjust their desk/workstation based on their preference or comfort level.
• This will ultimately enable the reduction of the severity rate of pains and aches experienced by
the children.

C a s e Stu d i es
1. Gerda Gemser, Mark A.A.M Leenders, How integrating industrial design in the product
development process impacts on company performance, Journal of Product Innovation
Management, Volume 18, Issue 1, January 2001, Pages 28-38.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0737678200000692).
2. Yang-Cheng Lin, Hsin-His Lai, Chung-Hsing Yeh, Consumer-oriented product form design based
on fuzzy logic: A case study of mobile phones, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics
Volume 37, Issue 6, June 2007, Pages 531-543.
(https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169814107000558).
3. Jordi Porta, Gonzalo Saco-Ledo, María Dolores Cabañas, The ergonomics of airplane seats: The
problem with economy class, International Journal of Industrial Ergonomics, Volume 69, 2019,
Pages 90-95. (https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ergon.2018.10.003).

THANK YOU

Product Design
Reliability
BITS Pilani
Design for Reliability,
Safety and Quality
DE G531– PRODUCT DESIGN 2 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Content
• Introduction
• Reliability Theory
• System Reliability
• Maintenance and Repair
• Design for Relatability
• Design for Safety
• Summary

Example
• Complex system consists of 550 components in a series configuration. Tests on a
sample of 100 components showed that 2 failures occurred after 1000 h. If the failure
rate can be assumed to be constant, what is the reliability of the system to operate for
1000h? If an overall system reliability of 0.98 in 1000 h is required, what would the failure
rate of each component have to be?

Example-1

Maintenance and Repair
• An important category of reliability problems deals with maintenance and repair of
systems.
• If a failed component can be repaired while a redundant component has replaced it in

service, then the overall reliability of the system is improved.
• If components subject to wear can be replaced before they have failed, then the system
reliability will be improved.
• Preventive maintenance is aimed at minimizing system failure. Routine maintenance,

such as lubricating, cleaning, and adjusting, generally does not have a major positive
effect on reliability, although the absence of routine maintenance can lead to premature
failure.

• Maintainability is the probability that a component or system that has failed will be
restored to service within a given time. The MTTF and failure rate are measures
of reliability, but the MTTR and repair rate are measures of maintainability.

• It is important to try to predict maintainability during the design of an engineering
system. The components of maintainability include
1. The time required to determine that a failure has occurred and to diagnose the
necessary repair action.
2. The time to carry out the necessary repair action.
3. The time required to check out the unit to establish that the repair has been effective
and the system is operational.
• An important design decision is to establish what constitutes the least repairable

assembly, that is, the unit of the equipment beyond which diagnosis is not
continued but the assembly simply is replaced.
• Availability is the concept that combines both reliability and maintainability.

System Availability
Amy must choose a service provider for her company’s e-commerce
site. She will decide on server availability. Given the following server
performance data, which provider should she choose?
PROVIDER MTBF (hr) MTTR (hr)

A 60 4.0
B 36 2.0
C 24 1.0
SAA = 60 / (60 + 4) = .9375 or 93.75%
SAB = 36 / (36 + 2) = .9473 or 94.73%
SAC = 24 / (24 + 1) = .96 or 96%

Example
• A system has a unit with MTBF = 30,000 h and a standby unit (MTBF = 20,000 h). If the
system must operate for 10,000 h, what would be the MTBF of a single unit (constant
failure rate) that, without standby, would have the same reliability as the standby
system?

Example

Design for Reliability
• DFR is a process that ensures a product, or system, performs a specified function within a given
environment over the expected lifetime.
• Why should a company commit resources for deploying a DFR process?

– Reduction of warranty costs
– Reduction of field failure repair

– Customer satisfaction
• One case in point is the recently publicized Xbox issue, which has cost Microsoft more than a
billion dollars in warranties (aside from loss of business and market share).
• Clearly, in order to be profitable, an organization’s products must be reliable, and reliable

products require a formal reliability process.

• Three important statements summarize the best practice reliability philosophy of successful
companies:
1) Reliability must be designed into products and processes using the best available science-based
methods.
2) Knowing how to calculate reliability is important, but knowing how to achieve reliability is
equally, if not more, important.
3) Reliability practices must begin early in the design process and must be well integrated into the
overall product development cycle.
• Understanding when, what and where to use the wide variety of reliability engineering tools
available will help to achieve the reliability mission of an organization.

• With such increasing complexity in all aspects of product development, it becomes a necessity to
have a well defined process for incorporating reliability activities into the design cycle.
• Distinction Between Reliability and Quality:

– Traditional quality control assures that the product will work after assembly and as designed.
– Whereas reliability provides the probability that an item will perform its intended function for a designated
period of time without failure under specified conditions. In other words, reliability looks at how long the
product will work as designed, which is a very different objective than that of traditional quality control.

Tools used for Design for Reliability
• The Stress-Strength Interference principle states that a
product fails when the stress experienced by the product
exceeds its strength.

Design for Reliability Process

• Define:
– The purpose of this stage is to clearly and quantitatively define the reliability requirements and goals for a
product as well as the end-user product environmental/usage conditions.
– Requirements can be determined in many different ways, or through a combination of those different ways.
Requirements can be based on contracts, benchmarks, competitive analysis, customer expectations, cost,
safety, best practices, etc. Some of the tools worth mentioning that help in quantifying the "voice of the
customer" include KANO models, affinity diagrams and pair-wise comparisons.
– The system reliability requirement goal can be allocated to the assembly level, component level or even down
to the failure mode level .
– Once the requirements have been defined, they must be translated into design requirements and then into
manufacturing requirements. A commonly used methodology is the Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
approach using what is commonly called the House of Quality tool.

• Identify:
– In this stage, a clearer picture about what the product is supposed to do starts developing. It is important to
understand how much change is introduced with this new product.
– A product can be an upgrade of an existing product, an existing product that is introduced to a new market
or application, a product that is not new to the market but is new to the company or it could be a
completely new product that does not exist in the market.
– With more design or application change, more reliability risks are introduced to the success of the product
and company.
– A thorough change point analysis should reveal changes in design, material, parts, manufacturing, supplier
design or process, usage environment, system's interface points, system's upstream and downstream parts,
specifications, interface between internal departments, performance requirements, etc.

• A formal methodology called Change Point Analysis can be used to examine what changes, if any,
have taken place. The purpose of this exercise is to identify and prioritize the Key Reliability
Risk items and their corresponding Risk Reduction Strategy.
• Designers should consider reducing design complexity and maximizing the use of standard (proven)
components.
• A good tool to assess risk early in the DFR program is the Failure Mode and Effective Analysis
(FMEA).

• Analyse and Assess:
– Engineering judgment and expert opinion
– Physics of Failure (PoF) analysis: PoF utilizes knowledge of life-cycle load profile, package architecture,
material properties, relevant geometry, processes, technologies, etc, to identify potential Key
Process Indicator Variables (KPIVs) for failure mechanisms
– Simulation models
– Prior warranty and test data from similar products/components

Physics of Failure Model
Root Cause Analysis Physics of failure process


Causes of Unreliability
• Minimizing Failure:
• Margin of Safety
• Derating
Design mistakes Manufacturing
defects
• Redundancy
• Durability
Exceeding
Maintenance
• Damage Tolerance
design limits
• Ease of Inspection
• Simplicity
Environmental
factors:
• Specificity

Defects and Failure Modes
Hardware Software Organizational

Human failure
failure failure failure

Reliability Cost

Design For Safety

Design For Safety
• A fail-safe design seeks to ensure that a failure will either not affect the product or
change it to a state in which no injury or damage will occur. There are three
variants of fail-safe designs.
– Fail-passive design: When a failure occurs, the system is reduced to its lowest-energy
state, and the product will not operate until corrective action is taken. Eg. Circuit breaker
– Fail-active design: When failure occurs, the system remains energized and in a safe
operating mode. Eg. Redundant (standby) system
– Fail-operational design: The design is such that the device continues to provide its
critical function even though a part has failed. Eg. Valves

Potential Dangers
• Acceleration / deceleration • Radiation

• Chemical contamination • Structural
• Electrical • Temperature
• Environment • Life cycle factors
• Ergonomics • Materials
• Explosions • Mechanical
• Fire • Physiological
• Human factors • Pressure / vacuum
• Leaks or spills

Guidelines for Design for Safety
1. Recognize and identify the actual or potential hazards, and then design the product so
they will not affect its functioning.
2. Thoroughly test prototypes of the product to reveal any hazards overlooked in the initial
design.
3. Design the product so it is easier to use safely than unsafely.
4. If field experience turns up a safety problem, determine the root cause and redesign to
eliminate the hazard.
5. Realize that humans will do foolish things, and allow for it in your design. More product
safety problems arise from improper product use than from product defects. A
user-friendly product is usually a safe product.

6. There is a close correspondence between good ergonomic design and a

safe design.
– Arrange the controls so that the operator does not have to move to manipulate them.
– Make sure that fingers cannot be pinched by levers or other features.
– Avoid sharp edges and corners.
– Point-of-operation guards should not interfere with the operator’s movement.
– Products that require heavy or prolonged use should be designed to avoid cumulative
trauma disorders like carpal tunnel syndrome. This means avoiding awkward positions
of the hand, wrist, and arm and avoiding repetitive motions and vibration.

7. Minimize the use of flammable materials, including packaging materials.
8. Think about the need for repair, service, or maintenance. Provide adequate
access without pinch or puncture hazards to the repairer.
9. Electrical products should be properly grounded to prevent shock. Provide

electrical interlocks so that high-voltage circuits will not be energized unless a
guard is in the proper position.

Warning Labels

Summary
• Modern society places strong emphasis on avoiding risk, while insisting on
products that last longer and require less service or repair.
• This requires greater attention to risk assessment in the concept of a design, in

using methods for deciding on potential modes of failure, and in adopting design
techniques that increase the reliability of engineered systems.
• Extensive testing of preproduction prototypes to “work the bugs out” is a method

that works well.

THANK YOU!

Product Design
Cost Evaluation and Analysis
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
Content: Cost Evaluation
• Type of costs
• Break-Even Point
• Elements of Manufacturing Costs of a Product
• Activity-Based Costing
• Methods of Developing Cost Estimates
• Make-Buy Decision
• Manufacturing Cost
• Steps involved in Business case analysis
DE G531 – PRODUCT DESIGN 2 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Introduction
• An engineering design is not complete until we have a good idea of the cost
required to build the design or manufacture the product.
• The world is becoming a single gigantic marketplace.
• Maintaining markets requires a detailed knowledge of costs and an
understanding of how new technology can lower costs.
• Decisions made in the design process commit 70 to 80 percent of the cost of a
product.
• It is in the conceptual and embodiment design stages that a majority of the costs
are locked into the product.

Categories of Costs
Costs
Overhead costs
Indirect plant cost

Product Period
Cost Cost Investment costs
Management and
Fixed Cost administrative
expenses
Costs
Selling expenses
Fixed Variable
Cost Cost

Variable costs
• Materials
• Direct labor (including fringe benefits)
• Direct production supervision
• Maintenance costs
• Power and utilities
• Quality-control staff
• Royalty payments
• Packaging and storage costs
• Scrap losses and spoilage

Elements of cost

Break-Even Point

Break-Even Point
• The break-even point is the sales or production volume at which sales and costs
balance.
– Operating beyond the BEP results in profits.
– Operating below the BEP results in losses.
• Let P be the unit sales price ($/unit), v be the variable cost ($/unit), and f be the fixed
cost ($). Q is the number of production units, or the sales volume of products sold.
• The gross profit Z:

Example
• A new product has the following cost structure over one month of operation.
Determine the break-even point.
Total fixed cost = 1200 + 5000 + 900 + 1000

= $ 8100
Sale price = 8.50 + 1.70 = $ 10.20
What sales price would be needed for the product to BEP at 1000 units

Elements of Manufacturing Costs of a Product
Manufacturing
Cost
component assembly Packaging and

overhead
costs costs Shipping cost
Custom Part Standard Part

Selling Price
• The profit percentage (margin) is determined by the acceptance and competition in the
marketplace for the product.
• For unique products it may be 40 to 60 percent, but 10 to 30 percent is a more typical
value.
• A well-accepted business principle is that for a new business venture, the
expected return must exceed the cost of the investment that must be made.
• This leads to the following simplified markup pricing model

Overhead Cost
• An overhead cost is any cost not specifically or directly associated with the
production of identifiable goods or services
• Perhaps no aspect of cost evaluation creates more confusion and frustration in

the young engineer than overhead cost.
• Many engineers consider overhead to be a tax on their creativity and efforts.
• Overhead cost: 1) Factory overhead 2) Corporate overhead

Activity-Based Costing (ABC)
• In a traditional cost accounting system, indirect costs are assigned to products using direct
labor hours or some other unit-based measure to determine overhead cost.
• Rather than assigning costs to an arbitrary reference like direct labor hours or machine
hours, ABC recognizes that products incur costs by the activities that are required for their
design, manufacture, sale, delivery, and service.
• To implement an ABC system you must identify the major activities undertaken by the
support departments and identify a cost driver for each.
• Typical cost drivers might be hours of engineering design, hours of testing, number of
orders shipped, or number of purchase orders written.

Example
• A company assembles electronic components for specialized test equipment. Two products
A75 and B20 require 8 and 10.5 min, respectively, of direct labor, which costs $16 per hour.
Product A75 consumes $35.24 of direct materials and product B20 consumes $51.20 of
direct materials.
• Using a traditional cost accounting system where all overhead costs are allocated to direct
labor hours at a rate of $230 per DLH, the cost of a product would be:

Example

Example

Example
• It has been observed that product B20 is less costly to produce. This shift has come
entirely from changing the allocation of overhead costs from DLH to cost drivers based on
the main activities in producing the product.
• B20 incurs lower overhead charges chiefly because it is a less complex product using
fewer components and requiring less support for engineering, materials handling,
assembly, and testing.
Activity-Based Costing (ABC)
• Using ABC leads to improved product-based decisions through more accurate
cost data.
• ABC cost accounting is best used when there is diversity in the product mix of a
company in terms of such factors as complexity, different maturity of products,
production volume or batch sizes, and need for technical support.
• Computer-integrated manufacturing is a good example of a place where ABC can

be applied because it has such high needs for technical support and such low
direct labor costs.

Methods of Developing Cost Estimates
Analogy
Parametric and
Cost Evaluation
factor methods
Methods
engineering
Analogy
• In cost estimation by analogy, the future costs of a project or design are based on
past costs of a similar project or design, with due allowance for cost escalation
and technical differences.
• The method therefore requires a database of experience or published cost data.
• This method of cost evaluation commonly is used for feasibility studies of

chemical plants and process equipment.

Parametric and Factor Methods
• In the parametric or statistical approach to cost estimation, techniques such as
regression analysis are used to establish relations between system cost and key
parameters of the system, such as weight, speed, and power.
• For example, the cost of developing a turbofan aircraft engine might be given by
• where C is in millions of dollars, x1 is maximum engine thrust, in pounds, and x2

is the number of engines produced by the company.

Parametric and Factor Methods
• Determining the unit manufacturing cost of a part

Detailed Methods Costing
•

Detailed Methods Costing
Determine the material costs
Prepare the operations route sheet
Determine the time required to carry out

each operation
Convert time to cost

Manufacturing Cost
• Manufacturing costs begin to be determined in embodiment design as design
details become firmed up.
• Detailed manufacturing cost evaluation requires considerable specificity in

dimensions, tolerances, materials, and process planning.
• This equation estimates the unit manufacturing cost for a part in terms of the
material cost, labor cost, tooling cost, equipment cost, and overhead.

Manufacturing Cost
• Where, V is the volume of the part, CM is the material cost per unit weight, ρ is the
material density, and f is the fraction of scrap. OHm is a material overhead to
account for the procurement, inspection, storage, interest on this inventory, and
material handling costs. B is the purchase cost of components and OHb is the
overhead on B.
• Where, CL = Direct labor cost, cL is the direct labor wage rate, $/h, and Csu is the
total cost of machine setup for the process, tp = time to complete all operations to
make the part, OHL = Time for tool changing.
Product Profit Model
Variable Cost
Fixed Cost
• Np = Quantity of unit produced, T is the one-time costs for equipment and tooling.
M is the marketing and sales costs, OHC is corporate overhead costs, and CD is
the cost for developing the product and providing modest product updates.

Refinements to Cost Analysis Methods
• Cost Indexes:
– Because the purchasing power of money decreases with time, all published cost data
are out of date. To compensate for this, cost indexes are used to convert past costs to
current costs.
• The most readily available cost indexes are:

– Consumer Price Index (CPI)
– Producer Price Index (PPI)

• Cost-Size Relationships:
– The cost of most capital equipment is not directly proportional to the size or capacity of
the equipment.
– For example, doubling the horsepower of a motor increases the cost by only about
one-half.
– where C0 is the cost of equipment at size or capacity L0. The exponent x varies from
about 0.4 to 0.8, and it is approximately 0.6 for many items of process equipment.

• Learning Curve:
• For a 80 percent learning curve the
production time would be 80 percent of the
time before the doubling.
• There is a constant percentage
reduction for every doubled the
production.

Summary
• Cost is a primary factor of design that no engineer can afford to ignore. It is
important to understand the basics of cost evaluation so that you can produce
high-functioning, low-cost designs.
• Cost estimates are developed by three general methods:

1. Cost estimation by analogy with previous products or projects.
2. The parametric or factor approach uses regression analysis to correlate past costs with
critical design parameters.
3. Detailed breakdown of all the steps required to manufacture a part.

Example

Example

Example

Example

Example

THANK YOU!
Product Design
Legal Issues in Design
BITS Pilani
Dr. Nitin Kotkunde
Content: Legal and Ethical Issues in
Engineering Design
• Introduction to Legal and Ethical Issues
• Product Liability
• Design Aspect of Product Liability
• Legal and Ethical Domains
• Solving Ethical Conflicts

Typical Ethical Situation
• Should I authorize the release of production parts that are only marginally out of
specification?
• Should I condone the use of pirated design software?
• What should I do about the fact that my boss has inflated my credentials on the
résumé that went out with the last proposal?

Introduction
• The following are examples of where a design engineer might be concerned with
legal and ethical issues:
– Preparing a contract to secure the services of a product data management firm.
– Reviewing a contract to determine whether a contractor who built an automated production
facility has satisfactorily fulfilled the terms of a contract.
– Deciding whether it is legal and ethical to reverse engineer a product.
– Managing a design project to avoid the possibility of a product liability suit.
– Protecting the intellectual property created as part of a new product development activity.
– Deciding whether to take a job with a direct competitor that is bidding on a contract in the area
where you are now working.

Typical Ethical Situation Associated with Product
Design

Introduction
• The law is a formalized code of conduct describing what society feels is the
proper way to behave.
• Also, the evolution of technology creates new ethical issues. Ethics is the study
of human conduct that lays out the moral ground rules.
• Ethical conduct is the behavior desired by society that is separate from the
minimum standards of the law.
• For example, making a defective product despite taking all due care may subject
you to product liability law, but it is not generally considered unethical.

Contracts
• A contract is a promise by one person to another to do or not to do something.
Contracts
Express Implied Bilateral Unilateral

contract Contract Contract Contract

General Form of a Contract
1 Introduction to the agreement. Include title and date.
2 Name and address of all parties. If one of the parties is a corporation, it should be so stated.
3 Complete details of the agreement. State all promises to be performed. Include such details as
specifications and expected outcomes. Give details on promises of payments, including amounts,
timing of payments, and interest.
4 Include supporting documents such as technical information, drawings, specifications,
and statements of any conditions on which the agreement depends.
5 Time and date of the start of the work and of the expected completion.
6 Terms of payment.
7 Damages to be assessed in case of nonperformance. Statement of how disputes are to be arbitrated.
8 Other general provisions of the agreement.
9 Final legal wording. Signatures of parties, witnesses, and notary public.

Example: Contract

Discharge and Breach of Contract
• A contract is said to be discharged when the agreement has been performed to
the satisfaction of both parties.
• It can be discharged if it becomes impossible to perform due to circumstances

outside the control of the contracting parties.
• A breach of contract occurs when one party fails to perform his or her part of the
contract.
• A legal injury is said to have occurred, and the injured party can sue in court for
damages.

Liability
• Liability means being bound or obligated to pay damages or restitution.
• Two ways to incur liability are (1) breaking a contract or (2) committing a tort,
such as fraud or negligence.
• A breach of contract refers to violating a contract’s promise.
• Example: Failure to deliver detail drawings of a new machine by the date

specified in the contract is a breach of contract. It makes no difference whether
this was done intentionally or not.
• Fraud is intentional deceitful action aimed at depriving another party of his or her
rights or causing injury in some respect.

Liability
• Examples would be double billing a client or falsely certifying that a component
had passed the ASME pressure vessel code.
• Negligence is failure to exercise proper care and provide expertise in accordance

with the standards of the profession that results in damage to property or injury to
persons.
• For example, an engineer fails to include a major source of loading in design

calculations for a public project so that the design fails.
• To be liable for negligence it must be proved that the defendant did not take
reasonable and prudent action.

Tort Law
• A tort is a civil wrong that involves damage committed against a person or his or
her property, business, or reputation.
– Have a person’s rights been infringed upon?
– Did the act occur as a result of negligence or actual intent on the part of the defendant?
– Did the plaintiff suffer damages as a result of the act?
• Tort law deals with civil cases for which the penalty usually is monetary
compensation rather than confinement.
1. Misrepresentation 2. Nuisance 3. Negligence 4. Product liability

Product Liability
• Product liability refers to the legal actions by which an injured party seeks to
recover damages for personal injury or property loss from the producer or seller
of a product.
• A high percentage of product litigation alleges engineering negligence.
• In product liability law, the seller is liable for negligence in the manufacture or
sale of any product that may reasonably be expected to be capable of inflicting
substantial harm if it is defective.

Product Liability
• Negligence in design is usually based on one of four factors:
1. That the manufacturer’s design has created a concealed danger.
2. That the manufacturer has failed to provide needed safety devices as part of
the design of the product.
3. That the design called for materials of inadequate strength or failed to comply
with accepted standards.
4. Failure to warn the user of the product concerning possible dangers involved
in the product use.

Product Liability
• The criteria by which a defective and unreasonably dangerous nature of any
product may be tested in litigation are
1. The usefulness and desirability of the product
2. The availability of other and safer products to meet the same need
3. The likelihood of injury and its probable seriousness
4. The obviousness of the danger
5. Common knowledge and normal public expectation of the danger
6. The avoidability of injury by care in use of the warnings
7. The ability to eliminate the danger without seriously impairing the usefulness of the
product or making the product unduly expensive

Design Aspect of Product Liability
Take every precaution to assure that there is strict adherence to industry and government
standards.
All products should be thoroughly tested before being released for sale. An attempt should be made
to identify the possible ways a product can become unsafe
The strong emphasis on product liability has placed renewed emphasis on quality engineering as a
way to limit the incidence of product liability.
Make a careful study of the relationships between your product and upstream and downstream
components.
Documentation of the design, testing, and quality activities can be very important.
The design of warning labels and user instruction manuals should be an integral part of the design
process.
Create a means of incorporating legal developments in product liability into the design decision
process.
There should be a formal design review before the product is released for production.
Business Procedures to Minimize Risk of Product
Liability
1. There should be an active product liability and safety committee responsible for an
effective product liability loss control and product safety program.
2. Insurance protection for product liability suits and product recall expenses should
be obtained.
3. Develop a product usage and incident-reporting system just as soon as a new

product moves into the marketplace. It will enable the manufacturer to establish
whether the product has good customer acceptance and to detect early signs of
previously unsuspected product hazards or other quality deficiencies.

Protecting Intellectual Property
• Creations of the mind are becoming

more valuable in the information
Age.
• Modern information technology

makes it easy to transfer and copy
such information

Legal and Ethical Domains
• Quadrant 1: legal and ethical behavior, is

1 4 where you should strive to operate at all times.
Most design and manufacturing activities fall
Legal / ethical Illegal / ethical within this quadrant.
• Quadrant 2: The goal is to explain how to
identify unethical behavior and to learn what to
do about it when it occurs.
• Quadrant 3: illegal and unethical, is the sector
2 3
where “go-to-jail” cards are distributed.
Legal / unethical Illegal / unethical • Quadrant 4: illegal and ethical, is a relatively
rare event.

Codes of Ethics
• Values of professional ethics

– Honesty and truth
– Honor: showing respect, integrity, and
reputation for achievement
– Knowledge: gained through education and
experience
– Efficiency: producing effectively with minimum
of unnecessary effort
– Diligence: persistent effort
– Loyalty: allegiance to employer’s goals
– Confidentiality: dependable in safeguarding
information
– Protecting public safety and health

Code of Ethics for Engineers
Fundamental Principles
I Using their knowledge and skill for the enhancement of human welfare
II Being honest and impartial, and serving with fidelity their clients (including their
employers) and the public
III Striving to increase the competence and prestige of the engineering profession

The Fundamental Canons

1 Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance
of their professional duties.
2 Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence; they shall build their
professional reputation on the merit of their services and shall not compete unfairly with
others.
3 Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers and shall
provide opportunities for the professional and ethical development of those engineers under
their supervision.
4 Engineers shall act in professional matters for each employer or clients as faithful agents or
trustees, and shall avoid conflicts of interest or the appearance of conflicts of interest.
5 Engineers shall respect the proprietary information and intellectual property rights of others
6 Engineers shall associate only with reputable persons or organizations

The Fundamental Canons

7 Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner
8 Engineers shall consider environmental impact and sustainable development in the
performance of their professional duties
9 Engineers shall not seek ethical sanction against another engineer unless there is good
reason to do so under the relevant codes, policies and procedures governing that
engineer’s ethical conduct.
10 Engineers who are members of the Society shall endeavor to abide by the Constitution,
By-Laws and policies of the Society, and they shall disclose knowledge of any matter
involving another member’s alleged violation of this code of Ethics or the Society’s
Conflicts of interest policy in a prompt, complete and truthful manner to the chair of the
Committee and Ethical Standards and Review.

Solving Ethical Conflicts
I. Internal appeal option:
A. Individual preparation
1. Maintain a record of the event and details
2. Examine the company’s internal appeals process
3. Be familiar with the state and federal laws that could protect you
4. Identify alternative courses of action
5. Decide on the outcome that you want the appeal to accomplish
B. Communicate with your immediate supervisor
1. Initiate informal discussion
2. Make a formal written appeal
3. Indicate that you intend to begin the company’s internal process of appeal
C. Initiate appeal through the internal chain of command
1. Maintain formal contacts as to where the appeal stands
2. Formally inform the company that you intend to pursue an external solution

Solving Ethical Conflicts
II. External appeal option:
A. Individual actions:
1. Engage legal counsel
2. Contact your professional society
B. Contact with your client (if applicable)
C. Contact the media

Whistleblowing
• Whistleblowing is the act of reporting on unethical conduct
within an organization to someone outside of the organization
in an effort to discourage the organization from continuing the
activity.
• Sometimes whistleblowing is confined to within the

organization, where the whistleblower’s supervision is
bypassed in an appeal to higher management.

Condition for Whistleblowing
1. The harm that will be done by the product to the public is considerable and
serious.
2. Concerns have been made known to their superiors, and getting no satisfaction
from their immediate superiors, all channels have been exhausted within the
corporation, including the board of directors.
3. The whistleblower must have documented evidence that would convince a

reasonable, impartial observer that his or her view of the situation is correct and
the company position is wrong.
4. There must be strong evidence that releasing the information to the public would
prevent the projected serious harm.
Whistle-blower complaints in FY 2017-18 in India

THANK YOU!

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DE G531-Lecture 1- 18 Aug 2020.

Lecture 1: Overview of Handout;

September 10 – 20, 2020*

October 09 – 20, 2020*

November 10 – 20, 2020*

Lab & Case studies - 15 Continuous assessment Open Book

Surprise Quizzes - 5 Continuous assessment Open Book

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Lecture class google meet link: meet.google.com/prd-befg-hyi (Tuesday, Thursday, Friday,

• Lab google class room link: meet.google.com/wji-cqsa-qvr

Product Development”, 1/e, Pearson Education, New Delhi, 2004.

• Group of 2-3 students will recommended to do the project.

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 6 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

3 Case study on functional decomposition using generic black box method

4 Implementation of different concept generation techniques for concept development

5 Concept evaluation and product architecture building

7 Online demonstration on Reverse engineering and 3D printing setup

11 Life Cycle Assesment: Introduction to SimaPro/OpenLCA, case study by SimaPro

12 Final lab/project demonstration – Oral Presentations

• Class assessment is generally based on surprise quizzes (3-4).

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 8 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Expectation as Design Engineer?

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 9 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 10 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 11 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 12 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 13 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 14 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Product development process

• Product and process cycles

• Organization for product and design development

• Case studies for modern product development

DE G531 – P R O D U CT D E S IG N 17 BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Impact of Engineering design process:

– Product cycle time

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

– Original design (Innovative design)

– Redesign (Variant design)

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Challenge of Engineering Design Process

Definition of the problem

Generation of alternative solutions

Evaluation of alternatives and

Communication of the results

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

1. Achievement of performance requirements:

iii. Environmental requirements for performance

iv. Aesthetic requirements

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Design process (Morris Asimow : Morphology of design)

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Phase I: Conceptual Design

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

• Retrospective study of the design

• Three to six times in the life of the project

• Technical and Business aspects

Course Code – E N G IN E ERIN G D E S IG N BITS-Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 4 Phase 5