Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pharmacognosy Laboratory Manual: First Edition Nidal A. Jaradat, PH.D Samah Al-Jabi, B.SC Pharmacy
Pharmacognosy Laboratory Manual: First Edition Nidal A. Jaradat, PH.D Samah Al-Jabi, B.SC Pharmacy
2005
Table of contents
Introduction 1
1. Carbohydrates (Starch) 3
2. Sage leaves 11
3. Thyme leaves 14
4. Peppermint leaves 17
5. Senna leaves 21
6. Digitalis leaves 25
7. Belladonna leaves 28
8. Rhubarb rhizomes 33
9. Ginger rhizomes 36
1
المقدمة
ﺇﻥ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺩﻟﻴل ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺒﺭﻱ ﻴﻌﺘﺒﺭ ﻤﺭﺸﺩﹰﺍ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﹰﺎ ﺠﻴﺩﹰﺍ ﻟﻤﺴﺎﻕ ﻤﺨﺘﺒﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻘﺎﻗﻴﺭ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﺔ /ﻜﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﺩﻟﺔ
)ﺭﻗﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻕ (١٠٣٣٣٢ :ﺤﻴﺙ ﻴﻀﻡ ﺍﺴﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﺎﺌﻊ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﻠﻤﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻌﺎﺌﻠﺔ ﻭﻭﺼﻔﹰﺎ ﻤﺨﺘﺼﺭﹰﺍ
ﻟﺸﻜل ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺠﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺩﻡ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ﻻﻏﺭﺍﺽ ﻁﺒﻴﺔ ﻋﻼﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﻭﻁﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻻﺼﻠﻲ
ﻼ ﻻﻨﺴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺘﺔ ﻭﻫﺫﺍ ﻤﻬﻡ ﺠﺩﹰﺍ ﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﺩﻟﺔ ﺤﻴﺙ ﻴﺘﻤﻜﻥ ﻓﻲ ﻨﻬﺎﻴﺔ
ﻭﻜﺫﻟﻙ ﻴﻀﻡ ﺃﻴﻀﹰﺎ ﺸﺭﺤﹰﺎ ﻤﻔﺼ ﹰ
ﻭﺍﻴﻀﹰﺎ ﻴﻀﻡ ﻫﺫﺍ ﺍﻟﺩﻟﻴل ﺒﻌﺽ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻤﺔ ﻟﻴﺘﻌﺭﻑ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﻁﺎﻟﺏ ﻤﻥ ﺸﻜل ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺘﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺠﻲ ﻭﻤﻥ
ﺍﻟﺠﺯﺀ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻡ ﻤﻨﻬﺎ ،ﻤﺜل ﺒﺫﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﻲﺀ ﻭﺒﺫﻭﺭ ﻜﺎﻻﺒﺎﺭ ﻭﺃﻭﺭﺍﻕ ﺍﻟﺩﻴﺠﻴﺘﺎﻻ.
2
Carbohydrates
Starch
Definition:
Carbohydrates: natural plant products – organic compounds consist of C,H and O .
Carbohydrates
Complex polysaccharides: substances with very high molecular weight and consist
of a large number of monosaccharide units linked together through glycosidic linkage.
Starch ( Amylum ):
Natural plant product which is a mixture of amylose (25%) and amylopectin (75%).
Amylose:
Linear molecule consists of 250 – 300 glucose units of α – D – glucose units
linked together through α – 1,4 glycosidic linkage.
More water soluble than amylopectin
Amylose + I2 → blue color
Amylopectin:
Branched molecule consists of more than 1000 units of α- D – glucose linked
together through α – 1,4 and α- 1,6 glycosidic linkage.
Amylopectin is less water soluble than amylose.
Amylopectin + I2 → violet color
Plants containing starch:
Cereal seeds contain 50- 65 % starch
Ginger rhizomes 50% starch.
Potato tubers 80- 90% starch.
Commercial sources of starch:
3
Properties of Starch:
1. White mass powder, odorless with starchy taste
2. Insoluble in water and form colloidal solution with water.
3. Starch + I2 → Deep blue color.
4. Starch + NaOH or chloral hydrate → gelatinization
5. Starch + H2O → gel ( with heat)
6. Corn starch and wheat starch have neutral pH
Rice starch has slightly alkaline pH
Potato starch has slightly acidic pH
Identification tests for starch:
1) Give positive reaction with Fehling’s solution test:
Starch + HCl (hydrolysis) + NaOH (neutralization) + Fehling’s solution → Red
colour
2) Give positive reaction with Molisch’s test
Starch + H2SO4 + α- naphthol → Purple ring
3) Starch + H2O → gel (jelly form) with heat
4) Starch + I2→ deep blue → colour disappears (with heating) → the colour
reappears with cooling.
The general uses:
1. Nutritive.
2. Demulcent.
3. Pharmaceutical uses as tablets filler and binder.
4. Antipruritic: Baby paste®- (Vitamed company) used in case of diaper rash,
skin irritation (ZnO, Starch).
5. Industrial uses: papers, clothes.
6. Antidote in case of poisoning from Iodine.
Microscopical characters:
I. Potato starch
o Central and eccentric hilum ( dot shape )
o The horse shoe-shaped hila are eccentrically situated, small and unapparent
o Clear striations(rings are clearly evident)
o Mussel- shaped
4
Rice plant
5
Wheat plant
6
Corn plant
Homework:
Q1 –Find other sources of starch or other plants which contain high percentage of
starch.
Q2-Search about drugs containing starch which are used in the pharmaceutical
market.
7
Practical works:
I. Make identification chemical tests which detect the presence of starch in the capsule
number ……………………….
Identification test results:
1.
2.
3.
4.
II. Observe the physical characters of Potato, Wheat, Corn and Rice starches (colour,
odour, texture& taste).
III. Observe the solubility of Starch with water and alcohol before and after boiling:
8
Fill the results for these physical and identification tests in the following table:
Results:
Potato starch Corn starch Rice Starch Wheat starch
Colour
Texture
Odour
Taste
PH
Water + NaOH
V. Microscopical examination:
Prepare a mount in water (half spatula of Starch on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of water)
then observe the granule under the microscope and draw the description below:
9
3. Rice starch microscopical features:
Fill in the following table as you see all the Starch features under the microscope:
Hila
Striations
Aggregations
10
Sage leaves: Folia Salviae
Chemical constituents:
1- Volatile oil: a mixture of “camphor 8%, camphene 30%, cineole,
thujone 50% ,borneol”
2- Flavonoids
3. Ursolic acid
Uses:
Antiseptic, antispasmodic, carminative, antidandruff, flavoring agents
* Thujone acts as anti oxidant, so we can use it to improve the memory (inhibits
acetyl choline synthesis in the brain) and it is recommended to be used in the
treatment and prophylaxes of Alzheimer's disease.
11
Microscopical examination:
Characteristic microscopical examinations:
1. Transparent and multicellular long hair (g).
2. Gland scale (a).
3. Epidermis with stomato and glandular hairs (b).
a) Fragment from the upper leaf epidermis in top view with glandular hair scale,
stomata & stalk cells of two broken glandular hairs.
b) Fragment from the lower leaf epidermis in top view with stomata & glandular
hairs.
c) Glandular hair.
d) Fragment from the leaf epidermis in top view.
e) Gland scale in side view.
f) Fragment of glandular hair.
g) Multicellular hairs.
Homework:
Q1- Search in the literature for other chemical constituents of Sage leaves.
Q2- List the trade names of drugs containing Sage leaves.
12
Practical works:
1. Put half spatula of dry Sage leaves powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of
chloral hydrate, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the
description below:
2. Put a small section of fresh Sage leaf on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of water,
then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the description below:
Odour
Taste
Leaves hairs
Stoma
13
Thyme leaves: Folia Thymi
14
Microscopical examination
Characteristic leaves tissues under the microscope:
1. Multicellular thick- walled bent hairs (b).
2. Epidermis with short cortical hairs (a).
3. Gland scales (f1, f2).
4. Elongated multicellular hair (c).
Homework:
1. Investigate in the literature the other uses of Thyme in medicine.
2. List trade of drugs containing Thyme leaves extract in the Palestinian
pharmaceutical market.
15
Practical works:
1. Put half spatula of dry Thyme leaves powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of chloral
hydrate, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the description below:
2. Put a small section of the fresh Thyme leaf on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of water,
then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the description below:
Odour
Taste
Leaves hairs
Leaves glands(oil
glands)
16
Peppermint leaves: Folia Menthae
17
Chemical constituents :
I. Peppermint oil (V.O) 1-2% yellow & pungent: 1. menthol 50-90%
2. menthone 3. menthafurane 4. menthyl acetate 5. valeric acid 6.cineole
7. jasmone .
II. Resins .
III. Tannins .
Uses:
1. Carminative.
2. Flavoring agent (gums, tooth paste, mouth wash).
3. Internally menthol has a depressant effect on the heart.
4. Antiseptic.
5. Antipruritic.
6. Counter irritant ( menthol).
Microscopical examination
The characteristic key elements are:
1. Multicellular non-glandular hair (translucent hairs) (d).
2. Epidermis with gland scales (a).
Homework:
Q1-List the other uses in the folk remedies for Peppermint plant in Palestine.
Q2- Search for the other Biochemical constituents of Peppermint leaves.
18
Practical works:
1. Put half spatula of dry Peppermint leaves powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops
of chloral hydrate, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the
description below:
2. Put a small section of the fresh Peppermint leaf on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of
water, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the description
below:
Odour
Taste
Leaves hairs
Leaves glands(oil
glands)
19
3. List trade names for drugs containing menthol in the pharmaceutical markets
in the table below:
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
20
Senna leaves: Senna leaflets: Folia Sennae
Latin names:
Cassia acutifolia Vahl. Synonym Cassia senna L.- (Alexandrian Senna or
Egyptian Senna)
Cassia angustifolia .Vahl. – (Indian Senna)
Family: Leguminosae
21
Pharmacological effects of Sennosides
Uses
* Treatment of constipation.
In small doses laxative, but in large doses purgative.
1) Brontraeger test:
Little amount of Senna leaves (1 spatula) + NH3 (or KOH) → red color.
22
Microscopical examination:
The characteristic key elements are:
o The leaves hair (b1, d).
o Paracytic stoma (g).
o Calcium oxalate druses (c).
o Sclerenchyma fibers (vascular tissue with crystals) (f).
o Mucilaginous cell (e).
a) Fragment with a leaf cross section, upper palisade parenchyma (1), spongy
parenchyma with Ca-oxalate (2), lower palisade parenchyma (3).
b 1) epidermal fragment with hair.
b 2) epidermal fragment with broken hair.
c) Calcium oxalate druses.
d) Broken hair.
e) Fragment of mucilagenous cell between epidermises (1) and palisade
parenchyma(2).
f) Fragment of schelernchyma fibers.
g) Epidermal fragment with paracytic stomata.
Homework:
Q1- List all the trade names of drugs containing sennoside A, B in the pharmaceutical
market.
Q2- Why are Senna drugs widely distributed in the pharmaceutical market?
23
Practical works:
1. Put half spatula of dry Senna leaves powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of
chloral hydrate, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the
description below:
Margin:
Shape:
Base:
24
Digitalis leaves : Foxglove leaves: Folia Digitali
Latin names: Digitalis purpurea L.
Digitalis lanata L
Family: Scrophulariaceae
D. purpurea D. lanata
Biennial or perennial herbaceous plant reaches 1-1.5 meters in height with bell-shaped
flowers .
Both leaves surfaces are hairy.
D.Purpurea : has hairy leaves with purple flowers.
D.Lanata : has very hairy leaves with whitish pink flowers .
Colour: dark grayish green
Odour: no marked odour.
Taste: distinctly bitter.
Origin:
Southern and Central regions of Europe.
Chemical constituents
Glycosides: cardiac (steroidal) group:
1. Digoxin.
2. Digitoxin.
3. Gitoxin.
Uses
1. Congestive heart failure.
2. Arrhythmia.
25
Microscopical examinations:
Characteristic microscopical features:
1. Anomocytic stoma (2).
2. Covering trichome (4).
3. Trichome with a collapsed cell (10).
4. Glandular trichomes with unicellular heads (11).
5. Fragment of a large covering trichomes (13).
Homework:
Write a short report about the history of Digitalis leaves in medicine.
26
Practical works:
Put half spatula of dry Digitalis leaves powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of chloral
hydrate, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the description below:
27
Belladonna leaves: Deadly night shade leaves: Folia Belladonnae
Latin name:Atropa belladonna L.
Family:Solanaceae
28
Constituents
Alkaloids tropane group (0.4%)
1. Atropine
2. Hyoscyamine
3. Scopolamine
4. Hyoscine
Pharmacological effects & Uses:
1. Atropine:
a)Antisecretory drug, so itused in: peptic ulcer therapy, gastritis, sinus nasal
secretions, allergy and asthma.
b) Antispasmodic: decrease intestinal hyper motility.
c) Pupil dilator (mydriasis effect): used in the eyes surgery and in the
eyes examinations .
d) Parasympatholytic agent, so it is used as antidote in case of poisoning from:
1- Pilocarpine
2- Physostigmine
3- Organophosphate insecticides.
e) CNS stimulant (very dangerous to be used as CNS stimulant).
4- Hyoscine: sedative effect used in case of colic's (renal and intestinal colic's ).
29
Microscopical examinations
Key elements:
1. Cuticular striation and numerous anisocytic stomata (2).
2. Glandular trichomes with uniseriate, multi-cellular stalks and unicellular heads (6).
3. Reticulate & thickened vessels (8).
1. Upper epidermis in surface view showing cuticular striations and part of the
underlying palisade (pal) .
2. Lower epidermis in surface view showing cuticular striation and numerous
anisocytic stomata.
3. Pollen grains.
4. Upper epidermis in surface view showing an anisocytic stoma.
5. Part of the lamina in sectional view, showing two idioblasts in the spongy
mesophyll and scattered microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate.
6. Glandular trichomes with uniseriate, multi-cellular stalks and unicellular
heads.
7. Glandular trichomes with unicellular stalks and multicellular heads, one
attached to a fragment of the epidermis over a vein.
8. Fragment of the inner tissues of the stem in longitudinal sectional view
showing reticulately thickened vessels, xylem parenchyma, fibers and
unlignified parenchymatous cells containing calcium oxalate crystals.
9. Part of the lamina in sectional view showing the upper epidermis, an idioblast
in the palisade and other cells containing scattered prisms and
microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate.
10. Part of a covering trichome.
11. Multicellular head from a glandular trichome.
Homework:
Q1. Search for other alkaloids which are isolated from Belladonna plant.
Q2. Write a paragraph about the history of Belladonna.
30
Q3. Fill the following table in drugs containing Solanaceous alkaloids:
31
Practical works:
Put half spatula of dry Belladonna leaves powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of
chloral hydrate, then observe this slide under the microscope and draw the description
below:
32
Rhubarb rhizomes: Radix Rhei
Identification test:
Test for anthraquinone (Brontrager test); Powder + H2O + KOH → intensive red
colour.
33
Microscopical examination
The characteristic key elements are:
1. Calcium oxalate druses (a).
2. Pitted reticular vessels(c).
3. Elongated or rounded –polygonal, thin-walled parenchyma cells.
Homework:
Q1- Why Rhubarb rhizomes have anti diarrhea activity in small doses while they
are purgative in large doses.
Q2- List the trade names for drugs containing Rhubarb rhizomes.
34
Practical works:
Colour:
Odour:
Taste:
35
Ginger rhizome : Jamaica Ginger: Rhizoma Zingiberis
36
Chemical constituents:
1- Volatile oil 3% (zingiberene, zingiberol, zingiberenol, zingerone).
2- Starch 50 %.
3- Protein.
4- Sugars (glucose, sucrose).
5- Resins (oleo- resin).
Uses:
Carminative, condiment, flavouring agent, cause anorexia, popular drink.
Used also in the throat problems (voice loss).
Microscopical examination
The characteristic key elements are:
1. Starch granules (50%) (e).
2. Scalar form vessel (a).
3. Sclerenchymal fiber (b).
4. Parenchyma & oleo-resin cell (d).
Homework:
Q1- Where are Ginger rhizomes cultivated now for commercial purposes?
Q2- Find other uses for Ginger rhizomes.
Q3- List the trade names for drugs containing Ginger rhizomes.
37
Practical works:
1. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Ginger rhizomes powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below)
Colour:
Odour:
Taste:
38
Licorice: Liquorice : Glycyrrhiza: Sweet roots : Radix Liquiritiae
Chemical constituents
1. Glycoside –Saponin group: Glycyrrhizin 50 time sweeter than sucrose.
2. Flavonoids –Liquiritin & Isoliquiritin.
3. Proteins.
4. Sugars (glucose, sucrose).
39
Uses:
1. Expectorant.
2. Antihistaminic.
3. Flavoring agent for Aloe, Quinine, NH4CL, Chocolates.
4. Anti-inflammatory activity –used in treatment of peptic ulcer seborrhea &
mucous membranes ulcers.
5. Demulcent.
6. Soft drink.
Qualitative Tests
1) Powder + H2O + KOH → red color
2) Powder + H2O → persistent frothing
3) Powder + H2SO4 60% → yellow color
N.B!
Glycyrrhizin increases fluids and sodium retention and decreases potassium
,so a person with cardiac problems and hypertension must avoid Licorice
DRUGS:
Gingisan®:
Liquid & ointment (oral):
Teva Company
Chamomile flowers + Eucalyptus leaves + Licorice roots
Indications: gingivitis and stomatitis.
40
Microscopical examination
Key elements:
1. Sclerenchymal fibers(c).
2. Reticular vessels (d).
3. Cortical parenchyma (f).
4. Fragments from the pith with crystal cell layers (b).
41
Practical works:
1. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Licorice roots powder ,then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below)
Colour:
Odour:
Taste:
42
Fenugreek seed :Semin Trigonellae
Latin name: Trigonella foenum graecum L.
Family: Leguminosae
Fenugreek seeds
43
Chemical constituents:
1. Saponin glycoside.
2. Fixed oil 66%.
3. Protein.
4. Mucilage.
5. Alkaloids (trigonilline, choline).
6. Bitter principles.
Uses:
1. Nutrient.
2. Demulcent.
3. Lactogenic.
4. Stomachic.
5. Hypoglycemic agent.
44
Microscopical examination
The characteristic key elements:
1. Epidermis of the testa (a).
2. Corona- (cuticle, epidermis, hypodermis of the testa) (b).
3. Hypodermis of the testa (c).
4. Epidermis & paranchymatous cells of the cotyledons (e).
45
Practical works:
1. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Fenugreek seeds powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
Colour:
Odour:
Taste:
46
Lin seed ( Flax seed ): Semin Lini
Latin name: Linum usitatissimum L.
Family: Linaceae
47
Microscopical examination:
Characteristic microscopical features:
1. Pigment cell layer (b).
2. Fragment from the seed coat(c).
3. Cotyledon tissue (e).
48
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the seeds and describe them
below:
2. Identification test for the fixed oils: put little powder on a clean slide + 1-2
drops of Sudan III then examine the slide under the microscope.
3. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Lin seeds powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
49
Black mustard seeds: Sinapis Nigrae Semina
Latin name: Brassica nigra L.
Family: Cruciferae
50
Microscopical examination
Characteristic key elements:
1. Mucilaginous epidermis of the testa & sclereids (a).
2. Aleurone & oil droplets(c).
3. Thin walled epidermis filled with mucilage (e).
51
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the seeds and describe them
below:
2. Identification test for the fixed oils: put little powder on a clean slide + 1-2 drops of
Sudan III then examine the powder under the microscope.
3. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Black Mustard seeds powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
52
Calabar bean: Physostigmatis Semina
(Toxic plant)
Latin name: Physostigma venenosum Balfour.
Family: Leguminosae
Uses:
Increase intestinal motility, mydriosis agent,
Used to treat myasthenia gravis.
N.B!
Observe the physical properties of Calabar seeds (shape, colour)
Homework:
1. Find all the trade names for medications containing physostigmine.
2. What are the other therapeutic uses of physostigmine?
53
Nux vomica seeds: Strychni Semen
Toxic plant
54
Cinnamon bark: Cortex Cinnamomi
Latin name: Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees. (Ceylon Cinnamon) (Sri Lanka)
Cinnamomum cassia Nees. (Chinese Cinnamon)
Family: Lauraceae
55
Chemical constituents
C. zeylanicum constituents:
1. Cinnamon oil (volatile oil):
a. Cinnamic aldehyde 60-70%.
b. Eugenol.
2. Mucilage (mannitol ) 3. Sugars 4. Starch.
5. Tannins (phlobatannin).
Cinnamon cassia has the same constituents except eugenol.
Contains Cinnamic aldehyde 80%.
Uses
1. Carminative. 2. Flavor. 3. Antiseptic. 4. Antidiarrhea.
5. Powerful germicide.
Microscopical examination
Key elements:
1. Modularly ray tissue with calcium oxalate needles (a).
2. Fibers (b).
3. Stone cells(c).
Homework:
Q1- Why does Cinnamon bark gum cause tooth decay?
Q2- Find other chemical constituents of Cinnamon bark.
Q3- Find trade names for drugs containing Cinnamon bark.
56
Practical works:
b. Odour:
c. Taste:
3. Identification of Tannins:
Little powder + drops of FeCL3 solution ----------------- dark green colour.
5. Examine the characteristic particles under the microscope using chloral hydrates as
an amount.
57
Cinchona bark: Cortex Cinchonae: Cinchonae Rubrae Cortex
58
Microscopical examinations
Characteristic elements:
1. Cork (8).
2. Single fiber (1).
3. Cork and phelloderm in sectional view (5).
4. Parenchymatous cells containing starch granules and brown pigment (3).
Homework:
Q1- List all other species of Cinchona which are present in nature.
Q2- Why does Cinchona bark causes irritation for human skin?
Q3- List the trade names for drugs containing Quinine and Quinidine in the
Palestinian markets.
Q4- Write a full report a bout Cinchona history in medicine.
59
Practical works:
b. Odour:
4. Examine the characteristic particles under the microscope using chloral hydrates as
an amount.
60
Chamomile flowers (Flos Chamomillae )
Other species:
1- Anthemis cotula
2- Anthemis arvensis
3- Anthemis nobilis –Roman Chamomile.
61
Roman Chamomile is not so rich in volatile oils like German Chamomile
Chemical constituents
1. Volatile oil (1%) Chamomile oil:
a) Azulene (chamazulene)-sesqueterpenes.
b) Bisabolol.
2. Bitter principles: anthemic acid.
3. Flavonoids (apigenin – a trihydroxy flavone).
N.B! Chamomile oil has blue color.
Uses:
1. Antispasmodic.
2. Antiseptic.
3. Anti inflammatory (respiratory system {vapor inhalations}
inflammations & ophthalmic inflammations .
4. Carminative.
5. Stomachic.
6. Cosmetics (facial creams, skin lotions, shampoo).
7. Diuretic.
62
Microscopical examination for German Chamomile:
Characteristic microscopical features:
1. Petal tips from a disk (a). 4- Side of stigma ( j ).
2. Connective of a stamen (b). 5- Stone cells from the base of the ovary (g).
3. Pollen grains (f).
a) Petal tip from a disk ( upper epidermis in top view), elongated epidermis cells,
more or less rectangular, cell walls sometimes more or less undulated.
b) Connective of a stamen.
c) Epidermis cells with compositae gland in top view.
d) Fragment of a petal in top view, mesophyll cells with small Ca-oxalate
rosettes.
e) Fragment from the sepal, greenish cell wall at times sclerenchymatose &
pitted.
f) Pollen grains with granular echinate structure & 3 emergences.
g) Stone cells from the base of the ovary.
h) Fragment from the filament epidermis in top view, filament thin, rounded with
central vascular bundle.
i) Epidermis fragment from the petal of a ray, outer wall of inner epidermis.
strikingly papillose, cuticle striation.
j) Side of stigma.
Homework:
Q1- List all the folk uses of Chamomile flowers extract.
Q2-Give all the drugs which are present in the pharmaceutical market containing
Chamomile flowers.
63
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the flowers and describe
them below:
64
Clove buds: Flos Caryophylli
65
Chemical constituents:
Dento drops.
Dentin drops.
66
Microscopical examination
Characteristic microscopical features:
1. Sclerenchymatose fiber from the bud (f).
2. Secretory glands (b2).
3. Pollen grains with 3 emergences(C).
Homework:
Q1- Draw transverse section of clove buds.
Q2- Search for other trade names of drugs containing Clove buds.
67
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the buds and describe them
below:
68
3. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Clove buds powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
4. Identification of Tannins:
Powder + FeCl3 ------------------ must produce dark green colour
69
Capsicum fruits: Fructus Capsici
Latin name: Capsicum annum Linne var.longum
Capsicum minimum Linne.
Capsicum frutescens Linne
Family: Solanaceae
70
Microscopical examination:
Key elements:
1. Seed shell epidermis with mesenteric cells (a).
2. The inner epidermis of the fruit with marked pitted rosulate cells (b).
3. Oil droplets, characterized by red colour (c).
a) Fragment from the seed shell epidermis with mesenteric cells, cell wall very
undulated, side wall markedly thickened & stratified, slightly greenish.
b) Fragment from the inner epidermis of the fruit with marked pitted rosulate
cells, very characteristic.
c) Oil droplets, characteristic by red colour.
d) Cells from the outer epidermis in top view.
e) Fragment from the endosperm.
Homework
Q1-List all the trade names of drugs containing Capsicum extract in the Palestinian
market.
Q2- Search for other uses of Capsicum fruits.
71
Practical works:
Student's name:……………………… Registration number:……………….
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the fruits and describe them
below:
2. Write the name of each part of the following Capsicum fruit section.
3. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Capsicum fruits powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
72
Fructus Anisi: Anise fruit
Latin name: Pimpinella anisum L.
Family: Umbelliferae
73
Microscopical examination:
1. Seed wall epidermis with hairs (arcuate hairs, verrucose hair cuticle) (a).
2. Calcium oxalate rosettes from the endosperm indication for Umbelliferae
seeds(e).
3. Endosperm with minute calcium oxalate rosettes (h).
a) Fragment of the seed wall epidermis with hairs ( arcuate hairs, verrucose hair
cuticle).
b) Fragment of seed wall epidermis.
c1) Tissue fragments with yellow- brown secretary ducts, epithelial cells, and
transverse cells.
c2) like c1 but without epithelial cells.
d) Stone cells.
e) Calcium oxalate rosettes from the endosperm indication for Umbelliferae seeds.
f) Sclerenchymal fibers.
g) Droplet of fatty oil.
h) Fragments from the endosperm with minute calcium oxalate rosettes.
Home work:
Q1- Draw transverse sections of Anise fruits and explain each part.
Q2- Find in the literature the first nation which used Anise fruits in medicine.
74
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the fruits and describe them
below:
2. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Anise fruits powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
75
Caraway fruits: Fructus Anisi
Latin name: Carum carvi L.
Family: Umbelliferae
Notes:
Perennial and biennial herbaceous plant.
Colour: brown, or pale brown.
Odour: aromatic.
Taste: aromatic and slightly pungent.
Origin: Egypt, Marocco.
Chemical constituents:
Volatile oil: 3-7 %: carvone, carveol and limonene.
Fixed oils, Proteins, Sugars, Tannins and Resin.
Uses:
Lactogenic, carminative, condiment and flavoring agent.
76
Microscopical examination:
Characteristic microscopical features:
1. Fragment from the transverse cell layer(c).
2. Oil droplets (d) (with Sudan solution).
a) Fragment with the pointed end of transverse cells of the endocarp and yellow
brown schizogenous secretory duct, transverse cells markedly long, not very
numerous.
b) Fragment from the endosperm with minute calcium oxalate druses, cell walls
swell strongly in chloral hydrate, very numerous.
c) Fragment from the transverse cell layer.
d) Oil droplets, numerous.
e) Isolated stone cells from the vicinity of the vascular bundles, rare
f) Sclerenchymal fiber fragment with adhering vessel from the ribs
g) Fragment from the transverse cell layer from the side with dark secretory duct.
Homework:
Q1. Search for the Palestinian Folk remedies for Caraway fruits.
Q2. Why do Caraway fruits have lactogenic effect?
77
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the fruits and describe them
below:
2. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Caraway fruits powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
78
Latin name: Foeniculum vulgare L.
Family: Umbelliferae
Constituents
Volatile oil:
Fenchone , Anethole and limonene.
Uses:
1. Carminative.
2. Antispasmodic.
3. Flavoring agent.
4. Sedative for the menstrual pains.
5. Treatment of inflammated eyes.
79
Microscopical examination
Characteristic microscopical features:
1. Pitted parenchyma (a).
2. Corner collenchyma (c).
3. Yellowish oil droplets, numerous (d).
4. Endosperm with minute calcium oxalate rosettes (e).
80
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the fruits and describe them
below:
2. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Fennel fruits powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
3. Prepare a transverse section of the cremocarp and observe this section under
the microscope.
81
Cardamom fruits: Fructus Cardamomi
Latin name: Elettaria cardamomum White and Maeon.
Family: Zingiberaceae
Perennial small trees (2-3) m.
The plant has very large leaves.
Fruits form: capsule.
Fruits color: pale green to yellow.
Seeds: brownish black.
Taste and odor: aromatic.
Indigenous: India & Sri Lanka.
Chemical constituents:
1- Volatile oil: a- Terpenyl acetate b- borneol c- cineole d- limonene
2- Fixed oil
3. Starch
Uses:
Flavoring agent, carminative, condiment, antibacterial activity and halitosis treatment.
82
Microscopical examination
The characteristic microscopical features:
1. Stone cell layer (a1).
2. Cells from the endosperm with calcium oxalate single crystals (c).
3. Perisperm fragments containing starch (d).
a1) Stone cell layer of the seed pod in side view, the cell walls dark
brown.
a2) Like a1 but in top view.
b1) seed pod with lightly pitted epidermis cells, with the delicate
walled cell layer, and large cells of excretory cell layer in top view.
b2) like b1 without transverse layer.
b3) like b2 without excretory cell layer.
c) Cells from the endosperm with calcium oxalate single crystals.
d) Perisperm fragments containing starch.
Homework:
Write other constituents of Cardamom fruits.
83
Practical works:
1. Observe the physical characters of the powder and the fruits and describe them
below:
2. Prepare a chloral hydrate mount of Cardamom fruits powder, then observe the
characteristic features under the microscope (draw these features below).
84
References
85