Lesson 3: The Language of Sets

It is natural for us to classify items into sets or groups and consider

how those sets overlap with each other. We can use the concepts about sets
to understand relationships between and among objects.
Source: google.com

Set

Some sets occur very often in mathematics, and so we use special symbols for them.
Some such symbols follow:
N = The natural numbers or positive integers = {1, 2, 3, …}
Z = All integers, positive, negative, and zero = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
R = The real numbers.

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. A set is well-defined if an object

can be classified clearly whether or not it belongs to a set. For example, the set of even
integers less than 10 is well-defined since it is clear that the set contains particular members
of the set referring to 2, 4, 6, and 8.
We use capital letters of the English alphabet to name sets. The members of a set are
called elements. We use the symbol to denote that an element belongs to or member of
a set while ∉ if an element does not belong to a set.
For example, let V the set of the vowels in the English Alphabet. Write symbolically
to describe u and w with respect to the given set V.
u V since the elements of V are a, e, i, o, and u.
w∉V since w is not a vowel. It is actually a consonant.
The cardinality of a set A refers to the number of elements of A. It is denoted by n(A).
Given set V above, n(V) = 5.

Methods in Writing a Set

The following methods can be used to write a set:
a. Roster Method – this is done by listing the elements of the set, enclosed in curly brackets.
Example: Z = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
b. Rule Method – this is done by describing the elements
Example: Z = {the set of the first positive integers}
The set-builder notation in the form A = {x t } read as “A is the set of all x such
that x is…} can be used to write a set by describing each element of the set.
Example: Z = {x x is one of first positive integers}
or Z = {x x N, x }, (note that N is the set of natural numbers)
Try this!
Let C is the set of provinces in Region I - Philippines. Write C using roster method
and rule method.
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Types of Sets
The following are common types of sets:
1. Universal set refers to all sets under investigation that are assumed to be contained in
some large fixed set, which we denote by U.
2. Empty set is a set that contains no elements. An empty set can be name using { } or ∅.
An empty set is also called a null set.
3. Finite set is a set consisting of elements in which the number of element is countable.
Consider the sets:
A = { 5, 7, 9, 11} and B = { 4 , 8 , 16, 32, 64, 128}
Obviously, A, B contain a finite number of elements, i.e. 4 elements in A and 6 in B.
Thus they are finite sets.
4. Infinite set is a set consisting of elements in which the number of element is not
countable or indefinite Consider the sets:
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, …}
X = {x 1 < x < 1th
In N, there are infinite numbers in the set. Note that X is also an infinite set since the
numbers between 1 and 10 have no definite number of elements. Unless you specify that
x is an integer, then it becomes a finite set.
5. A subset is a set taken from another set. Let A be a given set whose elements are the
integers from 1 to 10. From A, we form a set B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}. Hence, B is considered
to be a subset of A. In symbol, we write B ⊆ A.
A subset is classified into two:
a. Proper subset is a subset that is not identical to the original set - it contains fewer
elements. We use the symbol “⊂”.
b. Improper subset is a subset whose elements are indentical to the original set and the
empty set.

To determine the number of subsets of set A, denoted by s(A), use the formula: s(A) =
, where n is the number of elements of A.

Example: Let C = {red, blue, yellow}. List the proper and improper subsets of C.
Note that C has n = 3 elements. Using the formula, t. Hence it has 8 subsets: 6
proper subsets and 2 improper subsets.
Proper subsets:
{red}, {blue}, {yellow}, {red, blue}, {red, yellow}, {blue, yellow}
Improper subsets:
{red, blue, yellow}, { }

Try this!

Given R = {a, b, c, d}. List all the subsets of R.

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Relations and operations on sets

A. Relationships between and among sets

The relationships between two or more sets can be described as follows:
1. Equal sets. Two or more sets are equal if they have the same elements.

Example: Let A = {a, c, t} and B = {c, a, t}

Since the A and B have exactly the same elements regardless of the order of the
elements, A and B are equal sets. We write A = B.

2. Equivalent sets. Two or more sets are equivalent if they have the same number of
elements.

Example: Let C = {4, 7, 10} and D = {x, y, z}

Both C and D have 3 elemements, that is, n(C) = n(D) = 3. Therefore, C and D are
equivalent sets. We write C D.

3. Joint sets. Two or more sets are joint sets if they have at least one common element.

Example: Let E = {the letters of the word “math”} and F = {the letters of the word
“music”}. Examine the common elements found in both E and F. We see that they have a
common element, m. Therefore, E and F are joint sets.

4. Disjoint sets. Two or more sets are disjoint sets if they do not have at least one common
element.

Example: Let G ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and H = {6, 7, 8, 9, 10}. Since we do not see any
element common to G and H, then G and H are disjoint sets.

B. Operations on Sets
Let us consider two sets A and B to illustrate the four operations namely: union,
intersection, difference, and complement.
1. The union of two sets denoted by A ⋃ B contains all the elements contained in either set
(or both sets). More formally, x ∊ A ⋃ B if x A or x B (or both).

2. The intersection of two sets denoted by A ⋂ B contains only the elements that are in
both sets. More formally, x A ⋂ B if x A and x B.

3. The difference of two sets denoted by A – B contains the elements found in A but not in
B. Conversely, B – A contains the elements found in B not in A. More formally, x (A –
B) if x A and x ∉ B. Moreover, x (B – A) if x B and x ∉ A.

4. The complement of a set A contains everything that is not in the set A. The complement
is notated A’, or Ac, or sometimes ~A.
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Example:
Let U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
A = {2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 10}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 10}
Perform the following operations:
a. A ⋃ B
b. A ⋂ B
c. A – B
d. B – A
e. Ac
f. Bc
Answers:
a. A ⋃ B = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}
b. A ⋂ B = {2, 3, 7, 10}
c. A – B = {6, 8}
d. B – A = {5, 9}
e. Ac = {1, 4, 5, 9}
f. B c
= {1, 5, 6, 8}

The Venn Diagram

A Venn diagram is a pictoral representation of sets using enclosed areas in the plane. The
universal set U is represented by the points in a rectangle, and the other sets are represented
by circles lying within the rectangle.
The following diagram illustrates the real number system using a Venn Diagram.

Fig. 1. The Real Number System

https://images.app.goo.gl/AhaEpgB17iqQBtBr5
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Let us present given sets using a Venn Diagram.

Example 1. Show a Venn Diagram for

U = { 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9}, A = { 1, 2, 3}, and B = {5, 7, 9}

A and B are Disjoint Sets

Example 2: Show a Venn Diagram for

U = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}, C = {3, 5, 7}, and D = {7, 9, 11}

C and D are Joint Sets

Example 3: Show A Venn Diagram for

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, E = {4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}, and F = {4, 5, 7}

F is a subset of E (F ⊂ E)
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Example 4:
A survey asks 200 people on what beverage they drink in the morning. Suppose 20
report tea only, 80 report coffee only, 40 report both.
1. How many people drink tea in the morning?
2. How many people drink neither tea or coffee?
Solution.
This problem can be answered by creating a Venn diagram. Draw two overlapping
circles since based on the problem, there are people who drink both coffee and tea.
1. We can find the people who drink tea by adding those who drink only tea to those who
drink both. Hence, there are 30 + 40 = 70 people.
2. Those who drink neither are those not contained in the any of the three other groupings,
so we can count those by subtracting from the cardinality of the universal set, 200. Hence,
there are 200 – 80 – 30 – 40 = 50 people who drink neither.
The Venn Diagram for the problem is illustrated below: