Chapter 1

Introduction

Composite materials are commonly used in structures which require lightweight, yet
strong components. There is still a need to be able to improve on these materials.
There is a push to produce materials which have “smart” capabilities, which are able
to sense, actuate and respond to the surrounding environment. Much research is be-
ing directed towards these new “smart” materials. So-called “adaptive” materials are
also becoming increasingly popular. An “adaptive” material which incorporates fibre
reinforced composites and shape memory alloy (SMA) wires, is being investigated for
use, not only for building and improving the performance of structures, but also for use
in the fatigue life enhancement of existing structures. This thesis investigates several
aspects of these new materials. Thermomechanical characterisation of not only the
SMA wires by themselves, but also the SMA-composites are important factors which
need to be determined before these materials can be used in structures. Chapters 2
and 3 delves into both of these aspects.

There are also many applications which SMA-composites can be applied to, and
SMAs are a group of alloys that exhibit a phenomenon known as the shape mem-
ory effect, (SME). This effect gives the alloys the ability to “recover” their original
shape after being heated above a certain transition temperature, after being pseudo-
plastically deformed. There is also a large recovery strain, of up to 8%, associated with
the transition. Because of this unique property, a large research effort is currently be-

1
 Chapter 1. Introduction

ing undertaken, directed towards the use of SMAs in the actuation of smart structures
for shape control, vibration control and for damage mitigation. SMAs also have a very
high damping capacity due to a superelastic effect. This property of SMAs is extremely
useful in vibration damping as well as reducing impact damage in structures. With
the possibility of using SMA-composites in real structures such as in aviation, high
speed transport industry and the automotive industry, there are increasing demands
on knowing how the composites will react under everyday conditions. One aspect of
this is the behaviour of SMA-composites under low velocity impact. The results of the
low-velocity impact behaviour of these SMA-composites are shown in Chapter 4 of this
thesis.

Other novel applications of SMA-composites include their use in damage mitigation.

Cracks which develop in metallic structures, if left unchecked, can lead to disastrous
consequences. For example (Waterton and Hewat, 1955), during the 1950’s, a series
of fatal Comet aircraft accidents led to a better understanding of fatigue and its af-
termath if left unchecked. Fatigue cracks had developed in the corners of the square
windows, which eventually underwent catastrophic failure.

There have been a number of successful techniques used to enhance the strength
and fatigue life of cracked structures. Some of these applications include mechanical
repairs, which involve the riveting of a metal plate over the cracked surface. Such a
repair can have problems whereby cracks can start to develop from the rivet holes and
there can be a difficulty in detecting further cracking beneath the plate. The applica-
tion of bonded composite repairs to cracked components has been a major development.

Bonded composite repairs, along with riveted repairs, act as a stress bridge whereby
a reduction in the stress concentration is obtained by an alternate load path being cre-
ated by the patch. The patch slows the growth of the crack enough to allow it to grow
at a steady and controlled rate. It also reduces the opening of the crack. Bonded com-
posite repairs have been successfully used for repairing damage in metallic components,

2
 Chapter 1. Introduction

(Baker (1997)), particularly in aircraft.

To-date, researchers have investigated the use of SMAs embedded in composites

and epoxies in order to prevent damage or induce damage mitigation within those
composites. Chapter 5 investigates, analytically, the possibility of embedding SMA
wires into a composite matrix for use as a SMA patch to bridge or slow down crack
growth in cracked metallic specimens.

The present chapter will detail the properties of SMAs as well as give some back-
ground as to the applications of these SMAs. It will also detail some of the results
which have been previously observed for both SMAs as well as SMA-composites.

1.1 General Properties of Shape Memory

Alloys

1.1.1 Martensitic Transformations

The shape memory effect is based on a martensitic transformation of the material

between an austenitic and a martensitic phase. It involves lattice transformations,
which occur by shearing deformation and the movement of atoms in the crystal struc-
ture. This motion of atoms occurs with a one to one lattice movement, between lattice
points in the crystal structure of the parent (or austenitic) phase and the transformed
(or martensitic) phase. During the transformation there is no change in the concentra-
tion of atoms in the different phases. The martensitic transformation is dependent only
on the temperature of the transformation and not on the time spent at the transforma-
tion temperature. The austenitic phase is transformed into the martensitic phase only
when the chemical free energy of the martensitic phase is less than that of the austenitic
phase. Tamura (1992), explains the energetics of this martensitic transformation by
the free energy change described in equation 1.1:

3
 Chapter 1. Introduction

∆GA→B = ∆GA→B
C + ∆GA→B
NC (1.1)

where ∆GA→B
C is the chemical free energy change and ∆GA→B
NC is the non chemical
energy opposing the transformation, which involves terms such as the elastic strain
and surface energy. At all times during the transformation there is an energy balance
between the two opposing energy terms in the system. ∆GA→B is the driving force
for the start of the transformation. By cooling or application of an external stress,
the transformation goes ahead, whereas the heating or removal of a stress reverses it.
When ∆GA→B is a minimum the transformation occurs.

The martensitic transformation is a first order, or exothermic, transformation. The

transformation from austenite to martensite occurs progressively, i.e. atomic layer by
atomic layer, each atom having to move only a small distance, but once all the layers
have transformed, the new martensite structure has formed. This process is known as
Bain strain. The next step in the transformation of the crystal structure involves a
shape change of the structure. The ‘new’ crystal structure of the material, obtained
from the Bain strain will be a different shape and occupies a different volume to the
surrounding austenitic material. Therefore the crystals must adjust to take this into
consideration. The new martensite structure or the surrounding austenite structure
must change shape via slip or twinning accommodation.

(a ) o rig in a l (b ) tw in n in g (c ) s lip

Figure 1.1: Schematic representation of (a) the original form and (b) and (c),
two crystallographic forms possible during a martensitic transformation.

Slip accommodation is a permanent process since the bonds between adjacent atoms

4
 Chapter 1. Introduction

Figure 1.2: Crystallographic structures found in SMAs.

are broken and new bonds are formed. Twinning accommodation is fully reversible but
does not favour volume changes. Figure 1.1 shows the difference between deformation
via twinning and slip. The final martensitic structure has the individual cells of the
martensitic phase, but the overall shape is similar to that of the parent phase, austen-
ite. For the shape memory effect, to be reversible, twinning must and is the dominant
process. The twin boundaries, which are apparent within the crystallographic struc-
ture, have a very low energy and are also very mobile. If a stress is applied to the
structure the twin boundaries are able to move very easily to form a new shape to
accommodate the stress.

1.1.2 One Way Shape Memory Effect

Shape memory alloys have highly ordered crystallographic structures. Many of the
alloys have a B2 structure which is similar to that of a body centered cubic structure,
however, the central atom is different to those surrounding it, as seen in Figure 1.2.

For the one way shape memory effect (SME), the SMA starts off in an austenitic
phase, austenite being the high symmetry phase. Depending on the temperature, the
SMA will undergo a martensitic transformation where Ms is the temperature at which
martensite starts to form, Mf is the temperature at which this transformation finishes,
As is the temperature at which austenite starts to form and Af is the temperature at
which this transformation finishes. The austenite is cooled down to below a temper-

5
 Chapter 1. Introduction

c o o l d e fo rm h e a t c o o l

T > A f T < M f T < M f T > A f T < M f

Figure 1.3: The one way shape memory effect.

Figure 1.4: Crystallographic overview of the shape memory effect (after Way-
man and Duerig, 1990).

ature, Mf , at which point it can transform into a variation of martensite known as

R-phase, which will be discussed in detail later. At this point the material still has
the same shape but is in a low symmetry phase and is much softer than austenite. It
is possible to deform the material and during this deformation the twin boundaries
migrate into a biased distribution of martensite variants. This deformation occurs
via the twinning process, such that the martensite is able to accommodate the shape
change in such a way that it is reversible. When the deformed martensite is heated to
a temperature, Af , it returns to the austenite phase and its original shape since that is
the only reverted structure possible. The one way shape memory effect is schematically
represented in Figure 1.3. Figure 1.4 shows this process in terms of the geometry of
the crystal structure. Once the material has been heated to above the temperature,
Af , it will remain in its original shape.

6
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1.3 Degradation Effects of the Shape Memory Effect

Van Humbeeck and Stalmans (1998) wrote extensively on the degradation effects of
SMAs and a brief summary is given here. SMAs can degrade in several ways. Firstly
there is the heat cycling effect of transforming between austenite and martensite which
leads to changes in such parameters as the transformation temperatures, recovery
stresses, transformation hysteresis and the two-way memory effect. SMAs can de-
grade due to thermal cycling since the changes in transformation induce defects (Van
Humbeeck and Stalmans, 1998; Rı́os-Jara and Guénin, 1987). Further to this there can
be a change in the transformation temperatures of the alloys after extensive thermal
cycling, however there is no clear indication of a trend as to whether the transforma-
tion temperatures and hysteresis increases (Perkins and Muesing, 1983; Thumann and
Hornbogen, 1988) or decreases (Tadaki et al., 1987; Amengual et al., 1989). McCormick
and Liu (1994) showed that there was a dependence on applied stress to the thermal
cycling. Without stress the transformation temperature decreased with increasing cy-
cle as did the transformation heat. This was due to an increase in the dislocation
density with cycling. However, when a stress was applied, there was an initial decrease
in the transformation temperatures followed by an increase with further cycling.
The second way that SMAs can degrade is a mechanical mechanism through stress
or strain cycling at constant temperature. Degradation of the SMA behaviour has been
found to occur during thermal cycling, caused by work hardening and an increase in
dislocation density, (Filip and Mazanec, 1993; Tadaki et al., 1988). The stress-strain
behaviour of SMAs tends to degrade with cycling due to the introduction of dislocations
and slip (Tadaki et al., 1988).

1.1.4 R-Phase Transition

Near equiatomic NiTi SMAs can exhibit an intermediate phase transformation which
precedes the martensitic phase transformation. During this intermediate phase, a
rhombohedral distortion of the B2 phase occurs, hence the term R-phase transfor-
mation. During this transformation, which is a first order transformation, there can

7
 Chapter 1. Introduction

be a temperature hysteresis of as little as 1.5 ◦ C, (Otsuka, 1990), in comparison to the

martensitic transformation which can have a hysteresis of up to 50◦ C. There is also an
increase in the electrical resistivity, internal friction peaks and thermal activity, (Sta-
chowiak and McCormick, 1988). The R-phase transformation in SMAs does produce a
SME and superelasticity, and it has been described, (Otsuka, 1990)), as a martensitic
transformation with a small temperature hysteresis. The austenite to R-phase trans-
formation is fully reversible and the size of the hysteresis is dependent on the interfacial
energies of the phase boundaries.

The details of the R-phase transformation can be found in many papers, includ-
ing Stachowiak and McCormick (1988), Ling and Kaplow (1981) and Leclerq et al.
(1994). Tobushi et al. (1996) showed that the thermomechanical properties, including
the shape memory effect and superelasticity, due to the R-phase transformation, are
stable under cyclic deformation. Ling and Kaplow (1981) showed that a recoverable
strain of 1.37% can be obtained with the R-phase transformation, before the marten-
sitic transformation occurs.

To obtain an R-phase transformation several conditions can be used. Dislocations

can be introduced into the system via cold working and annealing, precipitates can
be introduced by solution treating and aging the alloys or introduction of a third
element which suppresses the martensitic transformation can also be used (Miyazaki
and Otsuka, 1986). Due to the properties of the R-phase transformation, these alloys
can be used for such devices as thermal actuators, where a small temperature hysteresis
and reliability are required.

1.1.5 Superelasticity

Superelasticity or pseudoelasticity is a property that is exhibited by some SMAs, which

allows them to be elastically deformed to large strains at an almost constant stress. This
transformation is completely isothermal and reversible strains of up to 11%, (Duerig
et al., 1999), can be achieved. In general, pseudoelasticity refers to the non linear

8
 Chapter 1. Introduction

s
a u s te n ite m a rte n s ite

S tre s s s
a u s te n ite m a rte n s ite

2
E la s tic E n e rg y

e e
S tra in
p t

Figure 1.5: Stress vs Strain characteristics showing superelasticity (after

Duerig and Zadno (1990)).

unloading characteristics that are observed, whereas superelasticity refers to materials

which exhibit a stress plateau and an inflection point upon unloading. An example of
a superelastic stress-strain curve is shown in Figure 1.5. This curve shows the loading
and unloading stresses, σ1 and σ2 as well as the total strain, t and the permanent
residual strain, p . The stored elastic energy is shown as the shaded region below the
unloading curve. There is an initial elastic loading up to σ1 at which time, as further
straining occurs, the stress remains constant up until a certain strain and then contin-
ues to be elastically deformed until a strain of t . If the wire is unloaded, as seen at t ,
it unloads elastically with a hysteresis in the unloading curve. There is also a residual
strain, p , after complete unloading has occurred.

Superelasticity usually occurs via either twinning or via the stress induced marten-
sitic (SIM) transformation. Normally martensite is formed as the alloy cools to below
a temperature, Ms , under no stress. However it is possible for martensite to be formed
above Ms , by the application of stress. The resulting martensite is known as SIM, and
the transformation of it from its austenitic parent phase is wholly mechanical and inde-
pendent of temperature. Usually the SMA is in a stable austenitic state when a stress
is applied. At this point the austenite reverts to martensite via SIM transformation.

9
 Chapter 1. Introduction

At a critical stress, the martensite is more stable than the austenite, and so the struc-
ture reverts to martensite and a plateau stress is obtained. This plateau occurs since,
during the transformation, different variants are formed. It has been found, (Wayman
and Duerig, 1990), that above Ms the stress required to produce SIM increases linearly
with temperature. This linearity can be described by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation
in the form:

dσ ∆H
=− (1.2)
dMs T o
where σ is the applied stress, Ms is the shifted Ms temperature, T is the temperature,
∆H is the latent heat of transformation and o is the transformational strain in the
direction of applied stress.

Superelasticity usually occurs within a very small temperature window between A f

and Md , Md being the highest temperature that it is possible to form martensite. This
temperature window is between 50-100 K wide, (Van Humbeeck and Stalmans, 2000).
Above Md , the critical stress for inducing martensite is greater than to move disloca-
tions and, thus, no more SIM can be formed. The reason is that martensite becomes
unstable at temperatures between Af and Md . Figure 1.6 shows a stress-temperature
diagram, (after Duerig and Zadno, 1990), which explains this phenomenon.
Martensite is most stable and is formed easily below Af . This is the region where
the thermal shape memory effect is observed. Between Af and Md is where the supere-
lastic effect occurs. Above the critical stress required to induce martensite, no further
transformations occur. When a SMA is heated above its transformation temperature
it becomes austenitic. If a stress is then applied to the alloy in this state, large defor-
mation strains can be obtained and SIM is formed. Upon removal of the stress, the
martensite reverts to its austenitic parent phase. The deformation characteristics of
the non linear SIM transformation show that if T > Md , then austenite is deformed
plastically in slip. If T < Ms , deformation is due to the motion of martensitic twin
boundaries. For both cases, low recoverable strains are obtained when unloaded.

10
 Chapter 1. Introduction

s lip

S tre s s

s u p e re la s tic ity
m a rte n s ite tw in n in g

M s
A f M d

T e m p e ra tu re
Figure 1.6: Stress vs temperature phase diagram showing the temperature
range where superelasticity occurs. (After Duerig and Zadno (1990)).

The permanent residual strain, p , seen in Figure 1.5 has been attributed to the
formation of dislocations and lattice defects, (Duerig and Zadno, 1990; Miyazaki and
Otsuka, 1986; Lim and McDowell, 1994), due to loading of the SMA. It is particu-
larly clear during cyclic loading, when residual martensite forms in subsequent cycles
and this, and dislocations due to slip deformation, are major causes of the permanent
residual strain, (Miyazaki and Otsuka, 1986). Stabilization of pseuodoelasticity can be
achieved by increasing the critical stress required to induce slip in the alloy, (Miyazaki
and Otsuka, 1986). This stabilization occurs because it has been found that residual
martensitic plates are formed during loading. These variants also exist in the unloaded
state, indicating that a stress field of these variants exists which is similar to that of
the applied stress. Subsequent deformation will, thus, require less applied stress since
a stress field already exists.

Superelastic alloys have large energy storage capabilities, of up to 10 J/g in some

cases, (Van Humbeeck and Stalmans, 2000). This leads to good elasticity which is useful
in many different applications. The alloys have up to 10 times better elastic storage
capacity, (Duerig et al., 1999), compared with other more commonly used materials,
such as steel or titanium. The elastic energy of a superelastic alloy can be determined

11
 Chapter 1. Introduction

by calculating the area under the unloading curve, as shown in Figure 1.5. Several
researchers have investigated the strain behaviour under cycling, of superelastic SMAs.
Lin et al. (1994) investigated the effects of cycling the strain of superelastic alloys. They
completed several tests on superelastic wires. These tests included, loading-reloading
the wire to various maximum strains, reloading with various unloading strains, cycling
between a maximum strain, decreasing the strain amplitude and increasing the strain
amplitude. They discovered that the reverse transformation stress is independent of the
maximum strain, the martensitic stress and the reverse transformation stress decrease
as the number of strain loading cycles increases.

1.1.5.1 Improving the superelastic behaviour of SMAs

Several methods have been investigated to improve the superelastic behaviour of SMAs.
The superelastic temperature window can be increased by increasing the austenitic
strength, decreasing the stress rate, decreasing the hysteresis and eliminating the R-
phase transition. These can be achieved by cold working, ageing and varying the
composition of the alloys, (Duerig and Zadno, 1990). Duerig and Zadno (1990), found
that after cold working, the alloys must undergo a post-anneal process. By varying the
annealing temperature the amount of cold work in the alloys can be varied. By de-
creasing the annealing temperature the amount of cold work in the alloys is increased,
leading to an increase in the austenitic strength. Stress rate is decreased, permanent
residual strain is decreased and stiffness is increased. The Ms temperature is decreased
and the superelasticity temperature window shifts to lower temperatures. However the
negative aspect is that the ductility of the alloys decreases. Short annealing times at
high temperature tends to produce high strength superelastic alloys without shifting
Ms and without bringing out an R-phase transformation, thus improving the superelas-
ticity. An increase in the room temperature stiffness is also obtained via cold working.

Superelastic alloys can be broken down into more stable compounds by ageing, thus
enhancing the superelasticity and shifting the transformation temperatures. Lower
strength superelasticity and higher ductility can be achieved but the temperature win-

12
 Chapter 1. Introduction

dows that these occur in are very small, of the order of 30◦ C. Constant stress plateaus
are usually flatter and wider for aged superelastic alloys.

By varying the composition of NiTi binary superelastic alloys with the addition
of such elements as vanadium, cobalt, iron, aluminium and chromium, the Ms tem-
perature can be decreased. Brachet et al. (1997) found that by substituting iron, the
Ms temperature decreased substantially, and a pre-martensitic R-phase transformation
was produced, both of which enhance the superelastic effect. However the disadvantage
is that the alloys become less ductile. Also by adding copper, the hysteresis can be
reduced as well as the R-phase prevented, (Duerig and Zadno, 1990).

The superelastic effect of SMAs leads to a high damping capacity for the alloys.
Linear superelasticity is not dependent on the austenite to martensite transformation,
(Zadno and Duerig, 1990), but can occur over a wide temperature range. During
mechanical cycling after a certain number of cycles, the unresolved strain tends to
zero.

1.1.6 Damping Properties of Shape Memory Alloys

Shape memory alloys have been found to have excellent damping properties. This
comes about due to the internal frictional forces which act between the martensite-
martensite twin boundaries and the boundaries between the martensite and matrix
phases. The Cu alloy, Cu-Zn-Al, has the best damping properties of all the shape
memory alloys due to the martensite interface movements.

Studies of the passive damping characteristics of SMA reinforced polymer matrix

composites (Piedboeuf et al., 1998) showed that an increased superelastic effect can
be achieved by chrome doping (0.2%) the NiTi wires. The loss factor decreases and
the potential energy increases with increasing temperature and when the strain ampli-
tude is increased there is an increase in the loss factor and dissipated energy. At low
frequencies (∼0.1 Hz) it was found that the values in both the dissipated energy and

13
 Chapter 1. Introduction

loss factors were large and decreased significantly as the frequency increased. This was
also accompanied by a sharp decrease in the hysteresis. It was also observed that the
behaviour was dependent on amplitude.

Damping characteristics of NiTi and Cu based SMAs with respect to the effect of
annealing condition, strain amplitude and strain rate were investigated by Liu and Van
Humbeeck (1997). They found that the damping capacity of the deformed martensite
was related to the annealing conditions, the martensite damping decreases when cycli-
cally loaded in tension-compression and the temperature of the specimen increases with
increasing strain rate and strain amplitude. They also determined that when the NiTi
was cyclically loaded, the maximum stresses increased with increasing cycles but the
rate of increase slowed down with further cycling.
The damping properties of SMAs have seen investigated uses for such things as
bullet proof materials or armour (Paine and Rogers, 1995), as well as in the civil engi-
neering field of earthquake resistant structures (Graesser and Cozzarelli, 1991; Hodgson
and Krumme, 1994; Wittig and Cozzarelli, 1992; Whittaker et al., 1995).

1.1.7 Two Way Shape Memory Effect

Apart from the effect described in Section 1.1.2, known as the one-way memory ef-
fect, there exists another effect known as the two-way memory effect (TWME). This
process is illustrated in Figure 1.7. In this case the original material is deformed at a
temperature T < Mf . The material can then be heated to above Af where it returns
to its original shape. The material is then cooled to below Mf where it returns to its
deformed shape. The limitation of this effect is that the amount of work produced by
this process cannot be greater than the energy put into the system.

The TWSME occurs when a large amount of deformation occurs to the SMA in
its martensitic state. Dislocations are introduced and when the SMA is heated, the
martensite transforms but the dislocations remain. When the SMA is cooled again, the

14
 Chapter 1. Introduction

Figure 1.7: Two way memory effect.

martensite re-forms in such a way that the stress fields of the dislocations are accom-
modated. Thus, as certain martensite variants are preferentially formed, a macroscopic
shape change is observed and the TWSME occurs (Tadaki et al., 1988). Other methods
of producing the TWSME are to excessively deform the alloy while it is above its M s
temperature in order to produce SIM and then removing the load to allow it to return
to its original state (Schroeder and Wayman, 1977; Delaey et al., 1974; Perkins, 1981)
and training the alloy by using the SME, whereby the alloy is deformed while below
Ms and then heated to above Af (Schroeder and Wayman, 1977; Perkins, 1981). In
a similar manner, a combination of both SIM and SME training can also induce the
TWSME (Perkins, 1981). The TWSME has also been shown (Stalmans et al., 1992)
to be influenced by the transformation strain induced during training.

1.1.8 Ni-Ti and Cu based Alloys

There are a number of alloys, which exhibit the shape memory effect, however, not all
of them generate large strains or forces when activated. Two SMAs which generate
large amounts of strain and are capable of generating a large force upon transformation
back to the austenitic phase are nickel titanium (Ni-Ti) alloys and copper (Cu) based
alloys. The Ni-Ti alloys have the ability to recover plastic strains of up to 8% (Melton
(1990) and Chapter 3) and Cu based alloys such as NiTiCu can recover up to 6% strain
(Furukawa, 2001; Zhang et al., 1995; Nam et al., 1990; Chapter 3). Ni-Ti alloys tend
to be more thermally stable, ductile and corrosion resistant than the Cu based alloys.
However the Cu based alloys are less expensive to produce and are easily melted and
extruded in air with a larger range of transformation temperatures available.

15
 Chapter 1. Introduction

A comparison of the properties of NiTi, CuZnAl and CuAlNi can be found in Van
Humbeeck and Stalmans (1998). The physical properties of the alloys depend largely
on their composition. For example, Ni-Ti alloys are most effective when they have a
binary, equiatomic composition.

1.2 Review of Shape Memory Alloys Embedded

in Composites and Epoxy Resins
A significant amount of work has been done in the area of SMAs embedded into com-
posite structures. The main idea behind this work has been to obtain a better un-
derstanding of the effects that embedded SMAs have on the material properties of
composite structures, as well as to determine the benefits of embedding the SMAs.
Composite structures embedded with SMAs have many applications including shape
control for use in changing the camber of aircraft wings (Beauchamp et al., 1992; Kudva
et al., 1996), as is described in Section 1.5, as well as in vibration control (Friend and
Mattey, 1998; Bidaux et al., 1997; Gotthardt and Bidaux, 1988; Bidaux et al., 1996;
Hebda et al., 1995) in order to enhance the performance of structures.

The integrity of the SMA wires with respect to the SME has been investigated by
Paine and Rogers (1991), in order to determine whether the wires lose any of their
shape memory properties during the curing cycle of thermoplastics. It was found that
by training the SMA wires, by thermally cycling them, the recovery stresses obtained
after actuation become more repeatable. These trained actuators also had a higher
recovery stress due to the generation of residual stresses during training. The A f and
Ms temperatures were also higher than those of untrained actuators. Paine and Rogers
(1991) also simulated the thermosetting process and found that it had little effect on
the recovery stress of the SMA wires. Indeed, the recovery stress versus temperature
behaviour was very similar to that of the unprocessed actuators.

16
 Chapter 1. Introduction

Jonnalagadda and Sottos (1997) investigated the internal stresses induced by actu-
ation of a thin SMA ribbon embedded in a polymer matrix. The SMA ribbons were
sandblasted to increase the adhesion to the polymer matrix. A room temperature cure
polymer was used in order to be rid of any residual stress effects produced from the
actuation of the SMA. The composites were then studied using photoelastic methods
and the resulting photoelastic fringes were found to be due entirely to the actuation of
the SMA ribbons.

Rogers et al. (1991) conducted experimental and analytical analyses of embedded

SMA hybrid composites using photoelastic techniques to determine the stress/strain
distribution. SMA wires were pre-strained to 5% and embedded into a photoelastic
epoxy specimen. A crack was opened 0.5 mm away from the SMA actuators. A load
was applied to the specimen and the actuator was activated. From the photoelastic
fringes it was determined that the stress intensity factor at the crack tip decreased by
24% for the activated specimen when compared with an unactivated specimen. Only
the portion of SMA wires close to the crack were pre-strained to 5%. A 2D finite
element model of the SMA actuators was investigated using an equivalent Young’s
modulus and stiffness for the SMA elements since the SMA actuator was 1/10 the
thickness of the test specimen. The coefficient of thermal expansion was assumed to
have a negative value since the SMA will contract (which is the opposite to a normal
metal) when thermally heated. The results of the FE model compared favourably to
those obtained experimentally, considering the simplification of the model to two di-
mensions and other assumptions made.

1.2.1 Interfacial Properties of SMA-Composites

Before embedding SMA wires into any type of composite or epoxy matrix the interfacial
properties between the two should be investigated in order to obtain the strongest
interface possible. The interfacial properties are particularly important for applications
in which the recovery stress generated by the SMA is an important factor, since the

17
 Chapter 1. Introduction

recovery stress is directly related to how much stress can be transferred from the wire
to the composite without the interface breaking down. Elspass and Kunzmann (1996)
found that SMA wires embedded into an epoxy matrix system had excellent adhesion
resulting in good damping and high stroke performance in deflection experiments.
Several researchers (Kline et al., 1995; Paine and Rogers, 1993) also investigated
the effect of surface treatment on the wires before embedment into a polymer matrix.
Comparisons between untreated, hand sanded, acid etched and sandblasted wires were
made and it was found by Kline et al. (1995) that the acid etching and hand sanded
surfaces had a detrimental effect on the bond strength, decreasing it by 22.3% and 14%
respectively. However, Paine and Rogers (1993) found that all treatments produced
a better bond than the untreated wire. Both researchers agree that the sandblasted
surfaces had the best adhesion, with a bond strength of up to 217% greater than the
untreated wire (Kline et al., 1995).
Researchers from the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne
(Balta et al., 2001; ADAPT, 2001; Balta and Michaud, 1999) found through pull-out
tests, that the oxide coating which existed on the SMA wires was sufficient to give a
good interfacial bond. In fact the bond strength was so great that in some cases, where
the wires were embedded into a kevlar fibre reinforced composite, the composite would
fail before the wire/matrix interface.

1.3 Constitutive Modelling of SMAs and

SMA-Composites
There have been many attempts to accurately model the thermomechanical behaviour
of SMAs. From traditional thermodynamic modelling it can be shown (Liang, 1990)
that the stress-strain relation of the shape memory effect can be given by

dσ ∆S A→M ∆H A→M
= − A→M = − (1.3)
dT  T0 (F )A→M

18
 Chapter 1. Introduction

which is another form for the Clausius-Clapeyron equation, where S is the entropy of
the system, H is the enthalpy, P the pressure and M and A, denote the martensitic
and austenitic phases, respectively. T0 (F ) is the temperature at which the phases are
in equilibrium as a function of the applied force, F. This equation has limitations in
that certain thermodynamic elements, such as the entropy of the system, are required
and, thus it is, impractical for engineering design. Based on this model, researchers
have developed models which include more practical variables. What follows is a brief
summary of these models.

1.3.1 Internal Variable Models

Tanaka and Sato (1986) and Tanaka (1986) developed a one dimensional constitutive
model to describe SMAs based on thermomechanical principles, in particular, free
energy and internal variables. They used the state variables of strain, temperature
and martensite fraction. Tanaka (1986) assumed that the transformation kinetics had
an exponential form, in order to describe the martensitic fraction as a function of the
stress and temperature. Equations 1.4 and 1.5 describe the martensitic fraction, ξ, for
the austenite to martensite and the reverse transformations, respectively.

ξA→M = 1 − exp [AM (Ms − T ) + BM σ] (1.4)

ξM →A = exp [AA (As − T ) + BA σ] (1.5)

where AM , AA , BM and BA are material constants based on the transformation temper-

atures. These constitutive equations are used to describe and predict the stress-strain,
pseudoelasticity and energy dissipation of pseudoelasticity qualitatively. However, in
order to compare experimental results with these constitutive equations, modifications
are required.

Based on the Tanaka model a one-dimensional constitutive model was determined

by Liang and Rogers (1990) by modifying the exponential form of the transformation

19
 Chapter 1. Introduction

kinetics equation to a cosine function of ξ. It was proposed that this cosine function of
ξ would better correlate the experimental data to the qualitative results. A constitutive
model for the stresses was developed (equation 1.6) and the martensitic functions for
the forward and reverse transformations are shown in equations 1.7 and 1.8.

σ − σo = D( − o ) + Σ(ξ − ξo ) + Θ(T − To ) (1.6)

where D is Young’s modulus, Θ is the thermoelastic tensor and Σ is the transformation

tensor which represents a change in the volume during the phase transformation. The
subscript ‘o’ indicates the initial conditions.

ξA→M = 0.5(1 − ξA )cos [aM (T − Mf ) + bM σ] + 0.5(1 + ξA ) (1.7)

ξM →A = 0.5ξM {cos [aA (T − As ) + bA σ] + 1} (1.8)

where

π
aA =
Af − A s
π
aM =
Ms − M f

Based on this form of the transformation kinetics, constitutive equations to describe

the SME in one-dimension were established and when compared to experimental re-
sults some deviations from the real behaviour during the beginning and ends of the
transformations were still observed, but overall it produced a good correlation.

A three-dimensional constitutive model was developed by Liang and Rogers (1992),

which was based on the 1st and 2nd laws of thermodynamics and was defined by three
parameters; the equivalent strain, the absolute temperature and the martensitic frac-
tion. The constitutive equations obtained were non-linear and, thus, required large
computational effort. As such it is currently not practical for design purposes.

Brinson (1993) developed a one-dimensional constitutive model which was based on

the cosine model of Liang and Rogers, but varied with the martensitic fraction being

20
 Chapter 1. Introduction

divided into two components, a stress induced and a temperature induced component,
as given in equation 1.9.

ξ = ξ S + ξT (1.9)

By separating ξ it is possible to predict and describe the SIM transformation at

all temperatures. The resulting constitutive equation (based on equation 1.6) can be
rewritten as

σ − σo = D( − o ) + Σ(ξs − ξso ) + Θ(T − To ) (1.10)

which describes the SME at all temperatures with any initial percentage of twinned
martensite.

Brinson (1993) also introduced non-constant material functions in order to better

predict the SME due to the change in the material properties, for example, to account
for the changes in the Young’s modulus with increasing temperature.

Boyd and Lagoudas (1994a) developed a constitutive model which was based on
Tanaka’s exponential model. By replacing the tensile stress with a von Mises stress and
by applying the first and second laws of thermodynamics the evolution relationships
for the internal state variables in the inelastic process were determined. To account for
the inelastic process it was also assumed that the energy was a function of the fraction
of martensite.

1.3.2 Other Models

Müller and Xu (1991), Achenbach and Müller (1985) and Achenbach (1989) based their
models on thermodynamics, statistical physics and the free energy in ferroelectrics and
ferromagnetics. Falk (1983) modified this model to obtain a simpler explicit relation
and these models were used to determine the changes in the elastic modulus, shape

21
 Chapter 1. Introduction

memory effect, temperature, and stress induced transformation as well as hysteresis

effects under uniaxial stresses. Van Humbeeck et al. (1988), Huo (1989) and Ortin
and Goicoechea (1997) are examples of other researchers who also developed successful
statistical models.

Kafka (1994a, 1994b) developed a model based on the plasticity effects observed in
heterogeneous materials, where the constitutive equation consists of an elastic and an
elastic-plastic term.

A one-dimensional continuum non-isothermal model was developed by Abeyaratne

et al. (1994) which was based on a Helmholtz free energy function associated with
a three well potential energy function. Each potential energy well can be related to
a phase (or phase variant) of the material. The model was also based on the kinetic
relation based on thermal activation theory and a nucleation criterion taking into con-
sideration a critical value of the energy barrier. They considered the effects of high
loading rates on the SMAs. During high loading rates, the heat that is generated by
the phase transformation has an effect on the SMA behaviour and the temperature
field becomes non-uniform.

McNichols and Cory (1987) developed a model based on non-equilibrium thermody-

namics and demonstrated that it is possible to describe the complex thermomechanical
and thermal behaviour of Nitinol.

Graesser and Cozzarelli (1994) developed a one-dimensional model based on the

hysteretic response of the damping behaviour of SMAs. They modelled the stress in-
duced transformation of SMAs and the inelastic strain rate as a function of stress, phase
fractions and other internal variables. Using this model they were able to reproduce the
elastic and inelastic states as well as differences exhibited by the loading and unloading
of a SMAs. Superelastic effects and hysteresis due to martensite twinning can also be
described by the model. Graesser and Cozzarelli (1994) then extended their model to

22
 Chapter 1. Introduction

describe a three-dimensional behaviour which is rate dependent and describes uniaxial

loading, shear loading and non-proportional biaxial loading, however this model wasn’t
experimentally verified.

Šittner et al. (2000a) developed an algorithm in order to predict the hysteretic

responses of SMAs using only seven material parameters: the elastic modulus, E, co-
efficient of linear expansion, α, maximum transformation strain, γm , martensitic and
austenitic start temperatures, Ms and As , respectively, the slope of the temperature
dependence of the transformation start stresses in pseudoelastic tests above Af , s and
the reorientation stress observed as yield stress in tensile tests below Mf , σ re .

The following constitutive equation was used:

 = el + th + tr

 
σ k1 σ (1.11)
= + α(T − Ts ) + ξγm tanh
E σ re − k2

where el , th and tr are the elastic, thermal and transformation strains, respectively,
Ts is the test start temperature, and k1 and k2 are two fitting parameters. The third
term of equation 1.11 describes the inelastic transformation strain associated with the
martensitic transformation.

Based only on the thermomechanical aspects of SMA hysteresis and from the consti-
tutive equation given in equation 1.11, a fitting procedure, RCLOOP, which calculates
the σ −  − T behaviour of the hysteresis of the SMAs, was developed. The simu-
lations are based on a path dependent algorithm which simulates the kinetics of the
thermoelastic transformation. The simulation results are able to accurately predict
the responses of SMAs to complex thermomechanical loading paths and load histo-
ries, including uniaxial thermomechanical load tests with partial internal cycles. It is
also capable of calculating some of the property changes of SMA-composites and the
stress, strain, martensite fraction and recovery stresses. It has been shown ( Šittner et

23
 Chapter 1. Introduction

al., 2000a, 2000b; Schrooten et al., 2000) that experimental results compare extremely
well with the predicted responses of the SMAs.

1.3.3 SMA-Composite Constitutive Models

Some work has been undertaken into modelling the behaviour of SMA-composites.

The Mori-Tanaka method (Mori and Tanaka, 1972) was seen by many researchers
(Sullivan, 1994, Lagoudas et al., 1994; Boyd and Lagoudas, 1994b) to be the most ef-
fective method to use in order to determine a constitutive model for SMA-composites.
This method is based on deriving the effective properties with respect to phase volume
fractions and phase elastic properties.

Another formulation used by Jia and Rogers (1992) and Rogers et al. (1989), was
based on the micromechanical behaviour of SMAs and classical lamination theory.

In order to predict residual and transformational stresses during the cool down
period of a cure cycle for SMA-composites, Berman and White (1996) developed a
mechanical model using a three-phase plane strain cylinder model. Experimental re-
sults obtained from NiTi wires were used for property modelling and they were able
to predict the residual stress effects due to the SMA wires. They determined that the
most successful way of reducing residual stresses is to reduce the recovery strain on the
SMA wires. They also discussed the possibilities of designing a SMA-composite such
that there is no residual stresses.

Liang and Rogers (1989), investigated the activation stresses and strains of SMA
wires embedded into composites using finite element techniques and 3D constitutive
modelling. By solving the finite element formulation the stress distribution and dis-
placement field were determined. It was predicted that the stresses in the SMA fibre
decreased rapidly at the free edges whereas the stresses in the matrix near the fibre

24
 Chapter 1. Introduction

increased. The strains in the structure around the free edge were in the range of
plasticity. Stresses away from the free edge were found to be constant. It was also de-
termined that the shear stresses between the matrix and the SMA fibre, away from the
free edge, were small enough that the integrity of the interface would be maintained.
It was shown that small stresses were transferred from the SMA fibre to the matrix.

Results from a mathematical model (Aboudi, 1997) coupling both micro and macro
effects was able to predict the overall response of SMA-composites. It was predicted
that there is a significant effect on the composite response due to SMAs.

Lin and Rogers (1991) used numerical calculations to determine the stress distribu-
tion in the actuator and matrix. The internal stress distribution of the composite was
able to be determined using the shape recovery mechanism of the SMA actuator and
the boundary condition in the lateral direction. It was shown that the normal stresses
in the actuator and the matrix became uniform at a short distance from the edge, the
required resultant forces can be obtained using different host laminate composites.

Based on the algorithm developed by Šittner et al. (2000a), mentioned in Section

1.3.2, Schrooten et al. (2000) have shown that the algorithm, with some alterations,
can accurately predict the strain generated within a SMA-composite.

1.4 Impact Damage of Laminate and Hybrid

Composites

1.4.1 Impact Damage of Composite Laminates:

Background

Fibre reinforced composites are made up of several components. Fibres, matrix and
the fibre interphase region, which exists between the fibre and the matrix. The fibres

25
 Chapter 1. Introduction

bear most of the applied load. Some common fibres used in composites today include
glass, carbon and kevlar fibres. Beaumont (1979) determined that the main energy
absorbing mechanism in glass fibre composites is the sliding of the debonded fibres.
The toughness of a carbon fibre composite can be determined by fibre pullout. For low
velocity impact loading, improved toughness can be obtained by increasing the fibre
diameter, however this produces lower fibre failure strain which in turn reduces the
energy absorbing capabilities of the laminate. The trend is toward the use of smaller
fibre diameters. However, for low stiffness fibres it is possible to obtain high strain to
failures, however, large energy absorbing capabilities usually produces poor residual
compressive properties.

The matrix of a composite protects, aligns and stabilises the fibres. It also allows
stress transfer between the fibres. Usually the stiffness and the strength of the matrix
is much less than that of the fibres. Research has been done to improve the tough-
ness of the matrix since impact induced delaminations can decrease the load bearing
of the composite by 50%, (Cantwell et al., 1983). Brittle laminates usually fail by
extensive delamination, (Williams and Rhodes, 1982). Tougher laminates tend to fail
by transverse shear in the impact region. Failures involving fibre fracture tend to have
large energy dissipation whereas failures involving matrix interphase fracture have low
fracture energies. Impact damage failures include delamination, interlaminar matrix
cracking, longitudinal matrix splitting, fibre matrix debonding, fibre pull out and fibre
fracture. The amount of damage which occurs in a structure during an impact event
is dependent on the projectile’s velocity. There is a threshold velocity below which no
detectable damage occurs. Above the threshold velocity, no surface damage occurs,
except for indentation from the impact tup. Internal damage occurs, which consists of
delaminations and matrix cracking. When there is an increase in the impact velocity,
surface damage occurs consisting of fibre breakage. For high velocity impacts perfo-
ration of the laminate can occur. During an impact event, the impactor meets the
laminate and transmits a compressive wave and a shear wave through the laminate,
(Abrate, 1998). Surface waves are transmitted away from the impact point. These

26
 Chapter 1. Introduction

waves travel through the thickness of the laminate, reflecting from the back face, the
specimen undergoes bending deformation like a fixed plate and this is when damage in
the specimen is initiated. If the impact velocity is large enough, a compressive wave
can be reflected from the back surface which generates tensile stresses which produces
failure in the back face of the specimen.

For low velocity impact specimens, the impact resistance of composites depends on
the ability of the composites to absorb energy elastically. Sjoblom (1987), showed that
if the kinetic energy is just above the threshold value, there is a sudden drop in the
measured contact force. This threshold force can be used to indicate the initiation of
damage within the laminate. Elber (1985) showed that the properties of the matrix
determines the extent of the impact damage. The properties of the fibres determines
the penetration resistance of the composite. Sankar and Sun (1986) showed that tensile
pre-loading of a specimen decreases the threshold impact velocity. Morita et al. (1997),
did an investigation of the impact damage resistance of CF/PEEK and CF/toughened
epoxy laminates. They found that the damage state and damage shape produced
by low and high impact velocities were the same,regardless of the material or impact
velocity used.

1.4.2 Influence of Stacking Sequence on Laminate Strength

Strait et al. (1992) investigated the effects that the stacking sequence of the laminates
had on the impact resistance of carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic toughened epoxy
laminates. They used carbon fibre reinforced thermoplastic toughened epoxy in various
layup sequences, including cross ply, quasi-isotropic and woven. They determined that
differences in layup geometry had little effect on the energy required for the onset of
damage. They did find that the energy of the maximum load was dependent on stack-
ing sequence, where the energy for quasi-isotropic layups was 26% higher than for cross
ply, and 48% higher than [0◦ ,45◦ ]. In contrast to this Morita et al. (1997) calculated a
ratio of damage area to impact energy (DA/IE) and found that the lower the difference
in stacking angle of the plys, the lower the ratio was. An impact model was developed

27
 Chapter 1. Introduction

by Clark (1989) which described the effect of stacking sequence on impact damage and
it was found that as the relative angle between plys increases so too does the size of
the delaminations.

Morita et al. (1997) investigated the effects of stacking sequence on low and high
velocity impact damage by using a stacking parameter, β, which follows on from the
bending mismatch work of Liu (1988). The stacking parameter, β, is an indication
of the amount of bending stress discontinuity that exists at the interlaminar interface
and is directly proportional to the size of the impact damage area. Fuoss et al. (1998)
showed that for a stacking sequence of [-45◦ ,0◦ ,45◦ ,90◦ ]s in comparison to a variety of
other layups, the predicted delamination area, from finite element modelling, produces
the smallest delaminations.

1.4.3 Delaminations During Impact

The most important type of damage concerning composite laminated structures is de-
lamination, since this can significantly reduce the strength of a structure by changing
the stiffness characteristics of the material. Damage initiation is matrix dominated,
(Griffin, 1987). When the crack reaches an interface between plies of different direc-
tions, delaminations occur. Delaminations are initiated by shear stresses within the
laminate plies, (Sjoblom, 1987). For thin laminates, bending stresses at the back face
of the laminate produces matrix cracks which are in a reverse pine tree pattern. Usu-
ally delaminations occur between laminate plies of different orientation. The shape of
the delamination is that of a “peanut”, in the direction of the ply. Plots of delami-
nation area versus initial kinetic energy are usually made to determine the effects of
impact damage on structures. There are several theories about how delaminations are
initiated. Liu (1988) proposed that there is a bending stiffness mismatch, in which dif-
ferent plies have different bending rigidity, therefore, in a laminate, the different plies
will want to bend in different directions, thus producing high interlaminar stresses.
Lesser and Filippov (1991) offered an explanation due to the differing displacements
under loading. When two plies of differing orientation are bonded together in a lam-

28
 Chapter 1. Introduction

inate they are forced to deform as a single entity, thus producing significantly high
interlaminar stresses and, thus, the possibility that delaminations will be initiated.

1.4.4 Impact Damage Size

The size of the damage area depends on several factors. The projected damage area
is proportional to the kinetic energy of the impactor, (Malvern et al., 1987, 1989),
different laminates have different damage areas versus kinetic energy curves, due to
differences in the number of interfaces that exist between the laminate plies. The total
delaminated area is linearly proportional to the kinetic energy of the impactor. The
layup and the number of plies in a laminate affects the size of the resulting damage
areas. The total area versus the projected area of delamination in kevlar/epoxy lam-
inates (Malvern et al., 1987) shows that the total area increases twice as fast as the
projected area (as measured by C-scan). There is also a linear variation which is given
by

K=k1 + k2 A,

where k1 is the threshold energy, A is the total delamination area and k2 is the apparent
surface fracture energy. Malvern et al. (1987) showed that the dynamic fracture
energies are at least one order of magnitude greater than static tests.

1.4.5 Residual Properties of Impact Damaged Composites

1.4.5.1 Residual Tensile Strength

The major influences on the tensile strength of a laminate are the strength to failure of
the fibres. The intrinsic material properties have very little effect. As the initial kinetic
energy of the impactor increases there is a region on the residual tensile strength curve
that shows no damage. The strength then decreases until a maximum damage size is
reached after which point no further decrease in the residual strength occurs. Jones
et al. (1985) showed that as damage size increases there is a maximum value above

29
 Chapter 1. Introduction

which any further increases in damage size produces a small decrease in the residual
strength. Babic et al. (1989) showed that the impact strength and toughness of a
laminate is dependent on the number of fibres per cross sectional area, and not on the
type of matrix used. The reduction in tensile strength of impacted specimens has been
found to be due to fibre cracking, (Pavier and Clarke, 1995).

1.4.5.2 Residual Compressive Strength

Composite materials are much more sensitive to compressive loading after impact.
Compressive strength is greatly reduced compared to the tensile strength of compos-
ites for the same amount of damage. Local instabilities are obtained and there is a
significant reduction in the strength of a composite when impact damaged. Low veloc-
ity impacts produce large changes to the compressive strength. The compression after
impact (CAI) is one of the failure mechanisms which is used to evaluate the extent of
the damage and is dependent on the energy absorbed by the specimen. The general
trend is that there is an effect of the fibre properties on the residual tensile compres-
sive strength, (Cantwell, 1986). The reduction in compressive strength has been found
(Pavier and Clarke, 1995) to be due to a redistribution of stress due to buckling of
delaminated plies.

1.4.5.3 Fatigue

Delaminations have more effect on the static properties of a laminate than the fatigue
properties, a review on the topic of the results of the fatigue behaviour of impact
damaged composites is given by Jones et al. (1987).

1.4.6 Reduction of Impact Damage in Composites

Many researchers have investigated different methods of increasing the impact resis-
tance of composite materials. The main thrust is to toughen the matrix in some way.
Stronger matrix materials allow the ultimate shear stress to be increased. Since the
main cause of delaminations is the shear stresses existing between the plies, if the max-

30
 Chapter 1. Introduction

imum shear stress can be reduced, by making the matrix material more ductile and
by having a larger contact area between the laminate and the impactor, the impact
damage can be reduced, (Sjoblom, 1987).

1.4.6.1 Impact Damage of SMA-Composites

There has not been a large amount of research effort into the impact damage of SMA-
composites. Paine and Rogers (1994a) investigated the use of superelastic SMAs em-
bedded into composite materials to improve the low velocity impact damage of lami-
nates and a review of this work is shown in Chapter 5. Low velocity impact perforation
tests were also carried out by Paine and Rogers (1994b) whereby a SMA-composite
layer was constructed and laminated to a host composite surface, in order to provide
easier observations of the fracture modes involved. Comparisons were made for differ-
ent types of composite layers including kevlar/epoxy, SMA/epoxy and Al wire/epoxy.
The ply layup for these surfaces were in the axial direction. Effects on variations in the
thicknesses of the surface layer specimens were also investigated. The base composites
had a cross ply layup. The specimens were clamped in order to prevent slipping and a
low velocity drop weight impactor was used. Comparisons of the total energy for the
perforations was used for the various hybrid materials. In order to compare the ener-
gies of these varying thickness specimens, the energies were normalised. A normalised
energy dissipated per volume of the specimen was used to compare the different hybrid
materials since for tensile mode fracture the strain energy dissipated is related to the
specimen volume.

Peak impact force and energy dissipated were increased by the hybrid surface lay-
ers, however the NiTi/epoxy hybrid layer showed the greatest increase in dissipated
energy. The variation in the normalised energy with thickness ratio of the NiTi/epoxy
layer shows it is the only case which is capable of improving the energy dissipation, in
comparison to the other layers which serve only to increase the thickness of the lower
composite beam. By normalising energy dissipated by volume, the results could hide
the true meaning, for example, the kevlar/epoxy and NiTi/epoxy showed the same

31
 Chapter 1. Introduction

improvements to impact energy per unit mass. Paine and Rogers (1994b) also deter-
mined that the main failure mode of the layers was failure of the epoxy matrix. It was
also shown that the strain energy was distributed along the NiTi wires and that by
increasing the volume fraction of the NiTi hybrid layer, it is possible to obtain small in-
creases in the energy dissipated. A large number of the SMA wires were separated and
debonded from the composite compared with the smaller Vf specimens. This difference
may have been due to a change in the failure mode from wire elongation to parting
of the wires. It is also shown that there is an optimum amount of material that can
be used before the dissipation of the energy starts to decrease again. The impact en-
ergy of the glass/epoxy specimens was also increased, but not to the same extent as the
graphite/bismaleimeide specimens, since the glass/epoxy already has a high toughness.

Birman (1996), modelled the impact behaviour of SMA-composites and showed

that by embedding SMA wires into a plate, the resistance to low velocity impact
could be improved and that by optimising their distribution throughout the plate, the
performance could be further improved.

1.5 Applications of SMAs

The applications of SMAs to industry are many and varied, ranging from biomedical
to space structures. There has also been increasing interest in using SMAs for shape
control of wings for aero-structures and helicopters, as well as use as a passive damping
system. Of particular interest is their use in the biomedical field, for objects such as
heart stents and orthodontics. Apart from the applications already mentioned, this
section will delve into other areas which SMAs have been applied to.

32
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.5.1 Shape Memory Alloys for Reinforcement and Shape

Control

SMAs have been found to have excellent stiffness properties and research has been
carried out into combining SMA fibres with composite fibres to produce a reinforced
composite matrix. This hybridized composite material then has the ability to alter
its stiffness properties. By heating the SMA fibres the stiffness increases by a fac-
tor of four and the yield strength of the material can also increase by a factor of 10
(Rogers, 1988). The hybridized composites can also be used in shape change as well as
for various vibration control tasks due to the excellent damping properties of the SMAs.

Work has also been done looking at SMA fibres embedded into metal structures
(Taya, 1991; Furuya et al., 1993; Yamada et al., 1993; Cho et al., 1997) in order to
improve the mechanical performance, increase the Young’s modulus, yield stress and
work hardening rates. By perforating holes into the metal specimen using a laser beam
and threading them with SMA fibres, Furuya et al. (1993) found that the resultant
metal matrix composite (MMC) had greatly improved stiffness, damping properties
and yield strength. When the MMC is heated to above Af , the SMA fibres shrink to
their original length, inducing a compressive stress within the matrix. This leads to
an increase in the tensile yield stress within the composite. Back stress strengthening
also occurs due to the stiffening of the SMA fibres when heated above Af .

SMAs have been used in the production of adjustable camber aerofoils (Beauchamp
et al., 1992) as well as for use in twist control of wings (Kudva et al., 1996). Beauchamp
et al. (1992) produced and tested a SMA adjustable camber control fin. The fin was
made from a moulded elastomer over a stiff leading edge. The leading and trailing
edges were joined by a spring backbone. The fin was cambered by fixing the leading
edge and applying a force using SMA wires to the trailing edge. This not only pro-
duced camber but also angle of attack. An electrical voltage was applied to the SMA
wires which allowed them to undergo a phase change and contract, pulling the trailing

33
 Chapter 1. Introduction

edge of the foil. By removing the voltage the wires returned to their original state,
leaving a wing with no camber. Kudva et al. (1996) have also looked at adaptive wing
structures, particularly using SMAs to twist the wing in certain directions for a smooth
continuous control surface. This leads to better maneuverability as well as additional
lift for the aircraft. Kudva et al. (1996) used SMA tubes embedded into the control
surfaces of the wings. They were able to obtain 1.25 degrees of wing tip twist, however
this was due to the fact that the stiffnesses of the control wing weren’t exact. An 8%
increase in the lift of the wing was obtained using the SMA embedded wing structure.
An investigation into the shape control of flexible composite beams was also completed
by Van der Wijst et al. (1997). They embedded pairs of SMA wires along the edges of
a rectangular polypropylene beam. They obtained bending moments within the beam
by actuating the wires, which attempt to contract to their original length. By using
a feedback control method, they were able to obtain desired shapes for the beams as
well as time varying shapes.

Changing the bending characteristics of composites by embedding SMA wires has

also been investigated. Giurgiutiv et al. (1997) embedded SMA wires into the top and
bottom of a composite plate and found that by pre-straining the wires to 5% and elec-
trically activating them they were able to achieve a midspan displacement of the plate
of 4.5 mm. This was the initial phase in the development of a SMA active composite
tab for rotor blade tracking. Chaudry and Rogers (1991), also studied the response
of composite beams to an internal force produced by a SMA wire threaded through a
sleeve contained within the composite. In this case the force applied to the structure
was concentrated at the end of the sleeve. An experiment was completed in order to
determine the deflection of the beam when the SMA wire was actuated and it was
determined that for the maximum deflection the SMA wires produced a recovery stress
of the order of 103 MPa.

The post buckling behaviour of composites with embedded SMA wires under load
was investigated by several researchers (Thompson and Loughlan, 1997; Ho et al.,1997).

34
 Chapter 1. Introduction

Thompson and Loughlan (1997) carried out experimental tests in which SMA wires
were inserted into sleeves inside the composite which were produced by first embed-
ding steel wires of a similar diameter and then withdrawing them after the composite
curing process. The SMA wires were pre-strained to 6% and constrained externally.
They discovered that the activation of pre-strained SMA wires produced significant
post buckling deflection alleviation for load levels three times that of the critical buck-
ling values. They determined that by embedding the SMA wires into the laminate,
the applied loading was redistributed and a uniform axial membrane stress was pro-
duced. They also found that there was a temperature increase in the laminate when
the SMA wires were activated, therefore a laminate stacking sequence should be cho-
sen such that any temperature dependent properties are minimised. Ho et al. (1997)
used SMA strips which were sandwiched between two Al panels to investigate thermal
post-buckling behaviour. The SMA strips were pre-strained to 3%. Buckling using the
Al/SMA sandwich panels showed promising results in increasing the temperature at
which thermal post-buckling occurs in comparison to a plain Al specimen.

The use of the R-phase transformation of embedded NiTi SMA fibres was investi-
gated in order to change the stiffness of a composite beam by Bidaux et al. (1997).
They determined stiffness changes by looking at the change of the vibration frequency
of the beam.

1.5.2 Couplings and Fasteners

The application of SMAs in the area of couplings and fasteners has been around for
many years. A coupling produced for the Grumman F-14 aircraft was developed by
Raychem in 1971 (Melton, 1998). The idea behind using SMAs in couplings is that the
coupling can be designed and made bigger then required. The coupling is then attached
by heating. During heating, above Af , the coupling contracts and is fixed in place.
Other couplings and fasteners can be used in many applications as described in Borden
(1990) and Kapgan and Melton (1990), ranging from marine and industrial couplings,
aircraft hydraulic tubing, cable connectors for electromagnetic shielding braid and her-

35
 Chapter 1. Introduction

mitic sealing of thin walled metal cylinders to metal, ceramic or plastic substrates.

1.5.3 Space Applications

SMAs have been used in space applications to aid in the deployment of satellite equip-
ment due to the light weight of the alloys and the work output available. The most
successful use of SMAs in space would be the deployment of the Hubble Space Tele-
scope, whereby the mechanism used to unfold and position the solar panels while in
space, were a specially bent SMA element designed by Dornier. Other design hinge
applications for use in deploying reflector surfaces on antenna truss structures have
also been investigated for use. In the Mars Pathfinder mission, SMA wires were used
in a rotating arm in order to conduct experiments to measure the environmental effects
on solar arrays (Jenkins and Landis, 1995).

1.5.4 SMA Actuators

SMA actuators are also commonly used both in a sensor and actuator capacity. The
most common uses are in thermal detection devices, such as fire sprinklers (Van Moor-
leghem and Otte, 1990), kettles and air conditioners. In these cases when the surround-
ing environment reaches a certain temperature, usually As or Ms of the SMA device,
the SMA actuates and opens pressure valves or releases springs which allows the es-
cape of pressure or water depending on the type of application. Applications where the
SMA is purposely activated include robotic applications (Furuya and Shimada, 1990)
and space applications (McDonald Schetky, 1990) for deployment of large solar arrays
or truss mountings. In these cases it is usually a single use application, however these
are able to be tested many times over. Other types of actuators include grippers or
positioners which require repeated use.

1.5.5 Biomedical Applications

NiTi has been found to have excellent bio-compatibility and as such biomedical appli-
cations of SMAs have become very successful over the last decade. Superelastic NiTi,

36
 Chapter 1. Introduction

in particular, has been investigated and used in applications such as stents, for use
in scaffolding or bracing tubular passages or lumens and in particular to open blood
vessels and support grafts. A tube of NiTi can be laser etched into the form of a stent
which can then be inserted into a blood vessel or heart valve using a catheter. When
the stent contacts with the inside of the body it warms up and expands to 3-8 times
the diameter of the catheter, thus opening the vessel. Superelastic SMAs are ideal for
biomedical applications because the elasticity they exhibit make them easy to employ,
leading to less invasive procedures and they are more compliant compared to other
commonly used materials such as stainless steel. Superelastic NiTi is 10-20 times more
flexible than stainless steel (Duerig et al., 1999). This means that they are able to
conform and contour themselves to the surrounding vessels. Superelastic SMAs also
have similar stress-strain characteristics to other biological materials such as bone or
tendons (Duerig et al., 1999) which means that they can easily react to the pressure
exerted by the surrounding environment when in place. As such, NiTi orthopaedic
devices such as hip implants and bone spacers (Haasters et al., 1990) are ideal and are
currently being used in practice.
It has also been shown that the bio-compatibility of NiTi is improved due to the T iO 2
layer which forms on the surface (Trepanier et al., 1997; Trigwell and Selvaduray, 1997;
Chan et al., 1990; Lausmaa et al., 1986). Tests have also shown that people using NiTi
orthodontic wires had no change in the concentration of Ni in their blood (Trepanier
et al., 1999).

The constant stress property of superelastic alloys makes them ideal for orthodontic
use (Sachdeva and Miyazaki, 1990). Usually orthodontic wires need to be re-tightened
over time as the teeth move, however with superelastic orthodontic wires there is no
need for tightening because as the teeth move, so do the wires, applying a constant
force over time. This leads to a reduction in the number of visits that a patient needs
as well as a reduction in the pain which can occur with the use of stainless steel wires.

37
 Chapter 1. Introduction

(a ) (b )

Figure 1.8: (a) Image of the vertical tail produced using a SMA reinforced
composite panel and (b) results upon activation of the vertical tail, showing
the shift in the dynamic behaviour (after ADAPT (2001)).

1.5.6 Vertical Tail

As part of the EURO-ADAPT project (ADAPT, 2001) a vertical tail with an aero-
dynamic profile, 500 mm in length, was designed and manufactured (ADAPT, 2001).
The panels consisted of kevlar fibre pre-preg with embedded NiTiCu SMA wires. The
vertical tail was constructed with aluminium spars and ribs and the wires were acti-
vated using a current. The idea was to demonstrate the ability of SMA-composites to
enhance the damping properties of a vertical tail. The tail was loaded with an exciter
at the tip and it was found that the vibrational properties could be adjusted as a
function of the SMA wire activation. Further tests are currently in progress. Figure
1.8(a) shows the finished product and (b) shows the results of the shift in the dynamic
behaviour of the tail before and after activation.

1.5.7 Ornamental and Other Items

SMAs have been used in clothing (Furakawa, 2001) such as brassieres, wedding dress
petticoats and shoes which use the superelastic effect to maintain shape and comfort.

38
 Chapter 1. Introduction

They have also been used in eyeglass frames (Furukawa, 2001; Chute and Hodgson,
1990).

The world of fine jewels has not been left untouched by the novelty of SMAs. A
diamond necklace of flowers which opens up when the necklace is warmed to body
temperature, as well as brooches in the shape of peacocks, whose feathers open out
when heated to body temperature are among several pieces which the jeweller Hole-
mans (Holemans, 2001) designed in conjunction with researchers at the Katholieke
Universiteit Leuven. Also, bracelets which contract around the wrist when placed in
direct contact with the skin and can only be removed by running under cold water have
also been designed and made (Holemans, 2001). An 18 carat gold alloy of martensitic
AuCuAl was also produced (Levey et al., 1995) which produces a unique surface effect
with a glittering appearance, ideal for use in the production of jewellery items.

Antennas in mobile telephones (Furukawa, 2001) also make use of the superelastic
effect and have been around for many years.

Tennis rackets have been made which make use of the high damping capacity of
SMAs as well as snow skis which have embedded SMA strips which, when contacted
with the snow transform to martensite and improve the damping efficiency of the skis
(Van Humbeeck, 1999). High strength fishing wire which looks and feels like the nylon
variety but has much larger strength and elasticity has also been produced (Furukawa,
2001).

39