2020-06-03

MCG 3141
Biomechanics

Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Axial loading

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

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Axial Loading
Introduction

The mathematical relationship between stress

and strain depends on the type of material
from which the body is made.

If the material behaves in a linear elastic

manner, then Hooke’s law applies, and there is
a proportional relationship between stress and
strain.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

Axial Loading
Introduction

When a bar is subjected to a force P applied along its

centroidal axis, it will deform.

The localised deformation that occurs at each end will

tend to even out and become uniform throughout the
midsection of the bar.

If the material remains elastic then the strains caused

by this deformation are directly related to the stress in
the bar. As a result, the stress will be distributed more
uniformly throughout the cross-sectional area when the
section is taken farther and farther from the point
where any external load is applied.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Introduction

The minimum distance from the bar’s end where this

occurs can be determined using a mathematical
analysis based on the theory of elasticity.

It has been found that this distance should at least

be equal to the largest dimension of the loaded cross
section. Hence, section 𝑐 – 𝑐 should be located at a
distance at least equal to the width (not thickness) of
the bar.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

Axial Loading
Saint-Venant’s principle

The stress distribution at the support will also even out and become uniform over the cross
section located the same distance away from the support.

The fact that stress and deformation behave in this manner is referred to as Saint-Venant’s
principle.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Elastic deformation

Using Hooke’s law and the definitions of stress and strain, an equation can be developed to
determine the elastic displacement of a member subjected to axial loads.

The bar is subjected to concentrated loads at its ends and a variable external load distributed
along its length. Here we wish to find the relative displacement d (delta) of one end of the bar
with respect to the other end as caused by this loading. Localized deformations that occur at
points of concentrated loading and where the cross section suddenly changes are neglected.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

Axial Loading
Elastic deformation

The stress and strain due to the load P can be expressed as:

𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝛿
𝜎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜀
𝐴 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Provided the stress does not exceed the proportional limit, we can apply Hooke’s law:
𝜎 𝐸 𝑥 𝜀

𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝛿
𝐸 𝑥
𝐴 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝛿
𝐴 𝑥 𝐸 𝑥

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Elastic deformation

For the entire length of the bar, it is necessary to integrate the expression to find 𝛿:

𝑃 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝛿
𝐴 𝑥 𝐸 𝑥

where,

𝛿 = displacement of one point on the bar relative to the other point

𝐿 = original length of bar

𝑃 𝑥 = internal axial force at the section, located a distance x from one end

𝐴 𝑥 = cross-sectional area of the bar expressed as a function of x

𝐸 𝑥 = modulus of elasticity for the material expressed as a function of x .

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

Axial Loading
Elastic deformation

For constant load and cross sectional area, the internal force 𝑃 throughout the length of the
bar is also constant. As a result, the previous equation can be integrated to yield:

𝑃𝐿
𝛿
𝐴𝐸
If the bar is subjected to several different axial forces along its length, or the cross-sectional
area or modulus of elasticity changes abruptly from one region of the bar to the next, the
above equation can be applied to each segment of the bar where these quantities remain
constant .

𝑃𝐿
𝛿
𝐴𝐸

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Sign convention

Force and displacement are positive if they cause tension and elongation.

They are negative if they cause compression and contraction.

𝑃𝐴𝐵 5 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝐵𝐶 3 𝑘𝑁
𝑃𝐶𝐷 7 𝑘𝑁

𝑃𝐿 5 𝑘𝑁 𝐿 3 𝑘𝑁 𝐿 7 𝑘𝑁 𝐿
𝛿 ⁄
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

11

Axial Loading
Sign convention

𝑃𝐿 5 𝑘𝑁 𝐿 3 𝑘𝑁 𝐿 7 𝑘𝑁 𝐿
𝛿 ⁄
𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸

The double subscript notation is used to indicate this relative displacement (𝛿 ⁄ ); however, if
the displacement is to be determined relative to a fixed point , then only a single subscript will
be used.

For example, if 𝐷 is located at a fixed support, then the displacement will be denoted as simply
𝛿 .

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

12

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Axial Loading
Procedure for analysis

To determine the relative displacement between 2 points on an axially loaded member:

1. Determine the internal forces (using the method of sections)

– If the force varies along the member length due to an external distributed loading, a section should
be made at the arbitrary location 𝑥 from one end of the member and the force represented as a
function of 𝑥 (e.g., P 𝑥 ).

– If several constant external forces act on the member, the internal force in each segment of the
member, between any 2 external forces, need to be determined.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

13

Axial Loading
Procedure for analysis

To determine the relative displacement between 2 points on an axially loaded member:

2. Determine the displacement:

– If the cross-section varies along the member length, the area must be expressed as a function of
its position x (e.g., A 𝑥 ).

– If A, E or the internal loading suddenly changes, then the displacement should be applied to each
segment for which quantities are constant.

– Be sure to account for the proper sign for the internal force when substituting the data into the
equations and use a consistent set of units.

• Preferably, Newtons and mm (or pound and in.).

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Example 4.1

A composite A-36 steel bar is made of two segments, AB and BD, having cross-sectional
areas of 𝐴 1 𝑖𝑛 and 𝐴 2 𝑖𝑛 . Determine the vertical displacement of A and the
displacement of B relative to C. 𝐸 29 10 𝑘𝑠𝑖.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Example 4.1

Solution

1. Determine the internal forces (using the method of sections)

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

16

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Axial Loading
Example 4.1

Solution

2. Determine the displacement:

Assuming an elastic deformation of an axially loaded member, the vertical displacement of A

relative to the fixed support D is:

𝑃𝐿 15 𝑘𝑖𝑝 2 𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛.⁄𝑓𝑡. 7 𝑘𝑖𝑝 1.5 𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛.⁄𝑓𝑡. 9 𝑘𝑖𝑝 1 𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛.⁄𝑓𝑡.

𝛿 ⁄
𝐴𝐸 1 𝑖𝑛. 29 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝⁄𝑖𝑛 2 𝑖𝑛. 29 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝⁄𝑖𝑛 2 𝑖𝑛. 29 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝⁄𝑖𝑛

𝛿 ⁄ 0.0127 𝑖𝑛.

Displacement of B relative to C:

𝑃 𝐿 7 𝑘𝑖𝑝 1.5 𝑓𝑡 12 𝑖𝑛.⁄𝑓𝑡.

𝛿 ⁄ 0.00217 𝑖𝑛.
𝐴 𝐸 2 𝑖𝑛. 29 10 𝑘𝑖𝑝⁄𝑖𝑛

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

17

Axial Loading
Example 4.2

A rigid beam AB rests on the two short posts. AC is made of steel and has a diameter of 20
mm while BD is made of aluminum and has a diameter of 40 mm. Determine the displacement
of point F on AB if a vertical load of 90 kN is applied over this point. Take 𝐸 200 GPa,
𝐸 70 𝐺𝑃𝑎.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

18

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Axial Loading
Example 4.2

Solution

1. Determine the internal forces (using the method of sections)

The compressive forces acting at the top of each post are determined from the equilibrium of member
AB

These forces are equal to the internal forces in each post.

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

19

Axial Loading
Example 4.2

Solution

2. Determine the displacement:

Post AC:
𝑃 𝐿 60 10 𝑁 0.300 𝑚
𝛿 286 10 m 0.286 mm
𝐴 𝐸 𝜋 0.010 𝑚 200 10 𝑁⁄𝑚

Post BD:
𝑃 𝐿 30 10 𝑁 0.300 𝑚
𝛿 102 10 m 0.102 mm
𝐴 𝐸 𝜋 0.020 𝑚 70 10 𝑁⁄𝑚

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

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Axial Loading
Example 4.2

Solution

2. Determine the displacement:

By proportion of the blue shaded triangle, the displacement of point F is therefore

400 𝑚𝑚
𝛿 0.102 mm 0.184 𝑚𝑚 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟓 𝒎𝒎
600 𝑚𝑚

MCG 3141
Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Adapted from Dr. Catelas

21

Philippe Rousseau, Ph.D.

Roger-Guindon Hall, room 2045
Courriel: Philippe.Rousseau@uOttawa.ca

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

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