4/30/2020

SEVENTH SESSION:
CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS

UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL DE COLOMBIA

SEDE BOGOTÁ

SOIL MECHANICS

JULIO ESTEBAN COLMENARES MONTAÑEZ

TITULAR PROFESSOR

BOGOTÁ D.C
2020 - I
 4/30/2020

REVIEW
From last chapter:

I. The solution of a Two dimensional permanent flow problem in isotropic soil is a net
known as flow net, formed by two families of curves called equipotential lines and
flow lines which intersect at right angles (i.e. perpendicular).

II. From the flow net we can evaluate: a) Infiltration rate (q), b) Interstitial pressure (u) 
and the effective stresses, and (c) Hydraulic gradient (imax).  

III. Flow lines show the path followed by a fluid molecule when it moves through 
the  porous media.

REVIEW
From last chapter:

IV. The rate of seepage flowing between any two consecutive flow lines is constant and equal 
for any pair of flow lines which can be formed.

V. There is no transfer of seepage between two flow channels, it means, flow only occurs 
parallel to flow lines.

VI. The flow velocity is perpendicular to the equipotential lines.

VII. The energy difference between any two equipotential lines is the energy loss. This value is 
constant for the entire set on any two consecutive equipotential lines.
 4/30/2020

CONTENT

1. STRESS – STRAIN BEHAVIOUR MODELS

2. CHILE MODEL: LINEAR ELASTIC ISOTROPIC AND HOMOGEOUS

3. CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONSHIPS OF CHILE MODEL

4. PLANE STRAIN CONDITION

5. INCREASE OF STRESSES DUE TO OVERLOAD IN THE GROUND

6. STRAINS AND ELASTIC SETTLEMENT

1. STRESS ‒ STRAIN MODELS

Types of deformations:

I. ELASTIC DEFORMATION: It occurs immediately when the load is applied. It can be

recovered when the material is unloaded. This means that this type of strains occur
while the load is acting.

II. PLASTIC DEFORMATION: It is independent of the time and is not recoverable if the
material is unloaded.

III. VISCOUS DEFORMATION: It is not instantaneous. It requires a time offset between

the beginning of the loading process and the moment when the strain is appreciable.
 4/30/2020

1.1 ELASTIC MODEL

Strains are fully recovered, therefore there is no energy loss. The mechanic
properties of the material do not depend on the variation of the loading
magnitude. The relationship between the applied load and the strain can be:

I. Of linear character

II. Of non‐linear character

http://www.livestrong.com/article/450363‐theraband‐bedbound‐exercises/

1.1.1 LINEAR-ELASTIC MODEL

There exist a straight linear relationship between the load (or stresses) and the displacements (or 
strains) during loading and unloading.

The path of  the stress‐strain curve is the same for loading and unloading.

F  Kx
 4/30/2020

1.1.2 NONLINEAR ‒ ELASTIC MODEL

There is a non linear relation between load (or stress) and displacement ( or strain). 

The strains are recovered (no energy

loss)

Rigidity of the material depends on the

stress state during the loading process.

The stress‐strain curve is the same for 
loading and unloading.

1.2 PERFECT PLASTIC MODEL

Strains are permanent, this mean that the strains remain after the material has been 
unloaded. Strains occur when the stress (or force) limit value which characterizes the 
material, is exceeded.

Limit condition: When plastification occurs

F  T f  N tan  critic
The block begins its displacement, at constant speed, when the force F is equal to the 
friction force which opposes the movement.
 4/30/2020

1.3 VISCOUS MODEL

The strain rate is proportional to the stress applied. Applicable to most liquids and some solids
under certain conditions.

The strains depend on: (1) Temperature, (2) Time and (3) Stress applied

𝜕ε σ
𝜕𝑡 η

http://www.ndt‐ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Materials/Mechanical/Creep.htm

1.4 ELASTIC ‒ PLASTIC MODEL

After unloading, the strains are not recovered completely. A portion of the strains remain
after unloading (i.e. the material absorbs part of the deformation energy.

The load (or stress) is not proportional to the displacement (or strain)
 4/30/2020

1.5 VISCOELASTIC MODEL

This behavior is characterized by:

(1) Part of strains is recovered.
(2) Strain depends of time too.

2. LINEAR ‒ ELASTIC MODEL

It is the simplest model to describe the soil behavior.

In this model:

I. Strains depend on the increase of stresses in the same direction of strains. 

II. Normal strains are due to increases in normal stresses

III. Shear strains are due to increases in shear stresses.
 4/30/2020

2.1 BEHAVIOR DURING AXIAL LOADING

Taken fromM.BUDHU (2007)

2.1 BEHAVIOR DURING AXIAL LOADING

  E 

Taken from M.BUDHU (2007)
 4/30/2020

2.2 BEHAVIOR DURING SHEARING

2.2 BEHAVIOR DURING SHEARING

 4/30/2020

2.3 YIELD SURFACE (OR YIELD CURVE)

“The locus of the stresses at which a soil
yields is called a yield surface. stresses
below the yield stress cause the soil to
respond elastically; stresses beyond the
yield stress cause the soil to respond
elasto‐plastically“

The hypothesis used in soil mechanics to

use the linear‐elastic model is:

For small strains, the soil behavior is elastic,

and after that is elastic‐plastic

Taken from M.BUDHU (2007)

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
To find the increase of stresses within the soils mass, resulting from a load
applied, first we must understand that this new condition (produced by the load)
must satisfy the static equilibrium conditions.

EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS – REVIEW

3 Equations of Equilibrium of stresses

6 unknown stresses
 4/30/2020

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
On the other hand, it is known that from the definitions about strains in terms of
displacements experienced by the medium…

STRAIN – DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS ‐ REVIEW

U x U y U x
x   xy  
x x y 6 Unknown strains and 3 
U y U z U y displacements
y   yz  
y y z
U z U x U z
z   zx  
z z x

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONSHIPS
Also, it is necessary to know that there are relationships between the normal and shear strains
which are suffered by the medium when is loaded.

STRAINS COMPABILITY

6 unknowns from 
strains compatibility
 4/30/2020

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
In summary:

15 UNKNOWNS: 9 EQUATIONS:
‐ 6 STRAINS ‐ 3 from Equilibrium of Stresses
‐ 6 STRESSES  ‐ 6 from Strains Compatibility
‐ 3 DISPLACEMENTS

6 equations are necessary which relate to each other the stresses and strains in the medium.

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

x    z
E

1
x   x
E


x    y
E

1  
x   x  y  z
E E E
 4/30/2020

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

γ𝑦𝑧 𝐺Δτ

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
  x   1 E  E  E 0 0 0    x 
     E 1 E   E 0 0 0    y 
 y 
  z    E   E 1 E 0 0 0    z 
   
 xy   0 0 0 1G 0 0   xy 
 yz   0 0 0 0 1 G 0   yz 
    
 zx   0 0 0 0 0 1 G   zx 
Where:
E = Young modulus
E
G=Shear modulus G
n=Poisson’s ratio  2(1   )

Compressibility 
Matrix
   C  '
 4/30/2020

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS
  x    2G   0 0 0   x 
       2G  0 0 0    y 
 y 
  z       2G 0 0 0    z 
   
 xy   0 0 0 G 0 0   xy 
 yz   0 0 0 0 G 0   yz 
    
 zx   0 0 0 0 0 G   zx 
Where:
λ = Lame´s modulus E

G=Shear Modulus (1   )(1  2 )

 '  K  

Rigidity Matrix
K   C 1

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

 v  1 / K ' 0   p 
     
 s   0 1 /(3G ) q 
E
Where K’ is the Bulk Modulus
K'
or Volumetric Strain Modulus
31  2 
 v   x   y   z  1   2   3
2
s  ( 1   2 ) 2  ( 2   3 ) 2  ( 3   1 ) 2
3
 1   2   3  x   y   z
p  
3 3
1
q   1   2    2   3 2   1   2 2
2

2
 4/30/2020

3. CONSTITUTIVE EQUATIONS

15 UNKNOWNS:
‐ 6 STRAINS
‐ 6 STRESSES 

‐ 3 DISPLACEMENTS

15 EQUATIONS:
‐ 3 from Equilibrium of Stresses
‐ 6 from Strains Compatibility
‐ 6 from Constitutive Relationships

4.1 PLANE STRAIN CONDITION

In this condition, the strains in one of the directions (generally the y‐direction) are 
zero (εy=0; γxy=0; γzy=0), Therefore, the shear stresses in this plane or in this direction 
also are zero (τzy=0; τxy=0).

The plane strain condition can be applied to a lot of problems of soil mechanics, for 
example: Retaining walls of huge length, long foundations and tunnels, etc.
 4/30/2020

4.1 PLANE STRAIN CONDITION

For this condition, it is supposed that in the Y direction, there is no strain, therefore:

4.2 PLANE STRESS CONDITION

I. Find the elastic matrix compressibility and the elastic matrix rigidity for 
the following conditions:

Plane Stresses
One dimensional strains

II. Give some practical examples where you can associate those two 
conditions.

III. Review about plane strain condition and give some examples where 
this hypothesis can be applied.

THIS WORKSHOP MUST BE DELIVERED ON THE 7TH OF MAY 2020
 4/30/2020

5. INCREASE OF STRESSES
figurae1. Vertical distribution of stresses The distribution of stresses in the soil depends on:

Z Z
‐ Type of soil
‐ Its structure
‐ Homogeneity or heterogeneity of the soil 
‐ Thickness
‐ Shape and dimensions of the load
Z ‐ stress ‐ strain properties

In general, the stress – strain behavior of soil does not follow a linear elastic law (see figure 2), we must try to
estimate the stress distribution applying the elastic theory which is an idealized behavior of soil, (see figure 3) the
soil behavior is not represented exactly.

figure 2. figure 3. Elastic – Linear 

Behavior of a real soil. Behavior.

5. INCREASE OF STRESSES

Restrictions or limitations of the Elastic Theory:

I. The stresses transferred to the soil must stay in the elastic range.

II. The layers must be approached to a horizontal stratification.

III. Due to the fact that in the Elastic Theory, stresses and strains depend of the
elastic modulus (E) and Poisson ratio (v), in soils with very variable elastic
parameters, the determination of settlements is not reliable.
 4/30/2020

5. INCREASE OF STRESSES

In the case of a homogeneous deposit of saturated clay, it is reasonable to assume that E is constant
through the deposit, generating the settlements distribution shown in the figure 5.13 a), which
complies with the elasticity criteria. However, in the case of sands, where E varies with the
confinement; it increases with the depth and increases as we move away from center of the loaded
area (in horizontal direction). For this deposit, the settlements distribution is the one shown in the
figure 5.13 b), which does not comply with elasticity criteria. For this reason, in granular soils, the
Elastic Model is not applicable to predict settlements.

5. INCREASE OF STRESSES
The types of load, which are going to be 
studied, are: 
1. Point Load.
2. Linear Load of infinite length.
3. Uniformly distributed load over an infinite 
area.
4. Load with triangular distribution over an 
infinite area.
5. Uniformly distributed load over a 
rectangular area.

  ij  I ij   nc
Increase of  Net stress on 
stress stress Influencer  foundation
factor
 4/30/2020

5.1 POINT LOAD

3Qz 3
 z  Figure 1:
2R 5 Point vertical load 
over the surface. 
Q  3 zr 2 1  2v 
 r    Cylindrical coordinate 
2  R 5
R ( R  z )  system.

  
Q
1  2v  1  z3 
2  RR  z  R 
3Qrz 2
 rz 
2R 3
Figure 2:
Where Stress distribution 
due to point load.
r  x2  y2 ; R  r 2  z2
The increase of vertical stress can be expressed 
in terms of I.
 5
 
3   r  
2 2
Q
 z  I  Ip  1    
z 2 p
2   z  

5.2 LINEAR LOAD

Increase of stresses in the point X due to a linear

load Q (Load per unit of length)

2Q z3
 z 
 x 2  z 2 2
2Q x2 z
 x 
 x 2  z 2 2
2Q z2x
 xz 
 x 2  z 2 2 Figure 1:
Increase of stresses in the point A due to linear load Q (Load 
per unit of length).
 4/30/2020

5.2 LINEAR LOAD

The increase of horizontal stresses (direction X) can be used to estimate the lateral
pressure over a containment structure due to a linear load over the surface.

2Q x2 z
 x 
 x 2  z 2 2
Also, it can be written as:
2Q m 2 n
 x 

h m 2  n 2 2

The lateral pressure over wall is given by:

4Q m 2 n
px 

h m 2  n 2  2

The total thrust over the structure is: Figure 1:

Lateral pressure due to linear load
1
2Q 1
Px   p x h  dn 
0
 m 2  12

5.3 LOAD OVER INFINITE FRINGE

q
 z    sin  cos  2 

q
 x    sin  cos  2 

q
 xz  sin  sin   2 

In terms of increase of principal stresses 
and  increase of maximum shear stress:

q
 1    sin  

q
 3    sin  
 Figure 1: Increase of stresses in the point X due to 
a  uniformly distributed load. 
q
 max  sin  

 4/30/2020

5.3 LOAD OVER INFINITE AREA

Figure 1: Isobar of principal stresses 
under a rectangular load of vertical 
infinite length (∆σ1 , ∆σ3)

5.4 TRIANGULAR LOAD OVER INFINITE AREA

q x 1 
 z     sin 2 
 B 2 
q x z R12 1 
 x     ln 2  sin 2  
 B B R2 2 
q  2z 
 xz  1  cos2    
2  B 
Where

R1  x 2  z 2 ; R2  ( x  B) 2  z 2
Figure 1: Increase of stresses in the pOint X due 
z to triangular load
cos(  ) 
R2
x
tan(   ) 
z
 4/30/2020

5.4 TRIANGULAR LOAD OVER INFINITE FRINGE

5.4 INCREASE UNDER THE CORNER OF A LOADED AREA

 4/30/2020

5.4 INCREASE UNDER THE CORNER OF A LOADED AREA

The solution can be obtained

graphically by influence factors.

5.5 SUPERPOSITION METHOD

I  I1  I 2  I 3  I 4
 4/30/2020

6. ELASTIC SETTLEMENTS
From elasticity

Vertical strains or settlement is expressed as:
H H
    z dz  
1
E
 
 z  v( y   x ) dx
0 0
n n
    i    i z di
i 1 i 1

In plane strains conditions:

(1  v)
z  (1  v) z  v x 
E

REVIEW
1. The strains suffered by an element can be formed by a mixture of elastic, plastic or
viscous strains, or only by one of those three types. It all depends on the constitutive
model used to represent the mechanic behaviour of soil.

2. In the Linear – Elastic model, the elasticity parameters (Young modulus E and Poisson
Ratio v) are constants and independent of the initial stress state.

3. Combination of the basic models (elastic, plastic, perfect plastic and viscous), may
produce a model to better represent the system.

4. The constitutive equations of a model represent the relationship that exists between the
increase of stresses and the strains experienced by the material.
 4/30/2020

REVIEW

5. When the strains are expressed as a function of stress increments, the

proportionality parameter (in this case a matrix) is called Compressibility. When it is
in the other way, the stresses expressed in terms of strains, the parameter is called
Rigidity.

6. From the Elastic Theory, it is possible to estimate the increase of stresses in the soil,
due to the load applied, and its distribution in the space, taken into account the
limitations of the model.

7. From Elastic Theory, it is possible to estimate elastic settlements, however, due to

the fact that in elastic theory the strains depend on the Young modulus (E) and
Poisson Ratio (v), in soils with high variability of the elastic parameters
determination of settlements is not reliable.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Craig, R. F. (1997) Soil Mechanics. 6th Edition. Chapman & Hall.
Das, B.M. (1997). Advanced Soil Mechanics, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis.
Poulos, H.G. & Davis, E.H. (1974). Elastic Solutions for Soils and Rocks Mechanics. John
Wiley & Sons. Inc.
Das, B.M (1999) Foundation Engineering Principles. Fourth Edition. International
Thomson Editors.
University of Cantabria, Spain. Virtual Course of Soil Mechanics.
University of Los Andes ‐ Venezuela. Faculty of Engineering. Virtual Course. Roads and
Foundations Department.