1 – stress/strain

Fault geometry and distribution: filling some gaps

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1 – stress/strain
Terminology and definitions: three different categories
Rheology
Relations between
applied stresses and
obtained strain
Elasto-plastic
Flow-law independent
from strain-rate, grain
size and temperature.
Strong dependency on
pressure
Viscous
Flow-laws strongly
dependent on gain-size,
strain rate and
temperature. Little
dependence on
confining pressure
Deformation geometry
mechanisms Distribution of
The way deformation is deformation inside the
accommodated inside body
the rock discrete
cataclasis Shear zones are
Grains slide against present separating
each other or are domains with little
broken. The rock looses deformation
continuity Distributed = ductile
Creep Most of the body is
Various mechanisms deformed
falling under then (some people call this
name dynamic plasticity – not so
recrystallization. good)
Deformation is mainly
within grains and the
rock does not loose
continuity
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1 – stress/strain

- From experiments
- Using the Mohr-Coulomb (searching for a way to quantify changes)

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1 – stress/strain Fracture geometry (and mode): the experiments
In tensional experiments:
Pure opening (extensional) fractures, perpendicular to the smallest principal stress)

In compressional experiments with Pconfining=0 or slightly positive:

Pure opening (extensional) fractures, perpendicular to the smallest principal stress)

These are mode I fractures: they open perpendicular to the minimum stress
and only remain open as long as the maximum stress is active

When confining pressure increases, shear fractures develop

These are mode II fractures

How open they are depends on the asperities on the fracture
surface
They remain open for ”ever”

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1 – stress/strain Fracture geometry (and mode): the Mohr-Coulomb diagram

The Mohr diagram predicts:

• fractures // to σ1 at very low tensile
stresses
• normal geometries for “normal”
positive values of σ
•larger inter-fault angle (to 45º) at very
high confining pressures

Fig. 9.9 di T&M

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1 – stress/strain Fracture geometry (and mode): the Mohr-Coulomb diagram

MC provides a good description of strength and geometries

(mode II) at significant compressional stresses but:
- Incompatibility between MC and experiments
Fig 2.3 P&C - Mode I fractures should occur only in the presence of
tension and tension is extremely rare in the Earth
(especially in the subsurface

The 2nd problem was spotted >40 years ago

and solved with the “trick” of fluid pressure

𝒑𝒑∗ = 𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 − 𝒑𝒑𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇𝒇

increasing Pf above hydrostatic values, the Mohr circle

goes moves to the left bringing σ3 in the tensional domain
Secor 1965

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1 – stress/strain

Because the empirical verification of transitional±tensile

fracturing depends on this single suite of experiments of Brace
(1964) …
The score card on validating transitional±tensile fracture
propagation in an isotropic, homogeneous rock is
discouraging.
Engelder, 1994

The most comprehensive experimental study of brittle failure under mixed stress states is that of Brace 1964
Ramsey and Chester, 2004

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1 – stress/strain Why do mode II fractures develop at 30⁰ to the maximum compressional
stress σ1 (≠ surface of max τ)?

Two competing trends

• Friction would like to move on a plane with the smallest normal stress
• The maximum shear stress in found on a plane at 45º to the max
σ principal stress
A compromise is found and fractures develop along planes at ca. 30
from the maximum principal stress
Τ*A di T & M
Figura 9.6
magnitude

un po’ rimpicciolita

τ In the absence of friction, 45º is the preferred orientation = if shear

zones have an angle of 45º, the friction should be zero

Caution: these results are valid for anisotropic bodies

angle θ

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1 – stress/strain
Behaviour after brittle failure

What are the stresses needed to activate a pre-existing fracture ?

Experiments provide answers

Figura 2-5 di Scholz

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1 – stress/strain Byerlee’s law: the law of reactivation

• lithology is not very important (clays are

exceptions)
• there is a linear dependency between critical
shear stress and confining pressure (=depth)
• strain rate is not very important (not from this
diagram) Fig 2.32 al&al

The best fit curve is composed of two slightly different branches.

At low confining pressures fractured bodies have little cohesion (strength)
τ = 0.85 σμ
At higher confining pressures the relation is τ = 0.5 + 0.6 σμ

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1 – stress/strain

What happens once behaviour is initiated?

Various rheologies are possible.

a material which deforms permanently and has a

zero-slope stress-strain curve is said to be plastic

stress
Plastic is a rheological definition: behaviour
represented by a sliding block:
strain

stress
Combining this with the elastic field one has an
elasto-plastic rheology
strain

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1 – stress/strain The localization of deformation: create new faults or use old ones?

Two different curves describe the strength of intact (Coulomb) and

faulted rocks (Byerlee).
They have different slope and intersection with the vertical axis (τ value
at σ=0)
Fig. 1.12 di Scholz

Strength of Westerly granite as a function of confining

pressure. For reference its frictional strength for sliding on
an ideally oriented plane
τ

Fig 9.11 di T & M

An intersection point separates areas where it is
efficient to use old fractures from those where the
system will open new ones

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1 – stress/strain In “deformation” terms these results say that increasing confining pressure (i.e. depth) the degree
of localization decreases.

In the laboratory this is called ……

brittle - ductile transition.

Fig. 9.10 di T&M

By not localizing , samples at high pressure can accommodate

Figs. 10-9 e 10-10b di
Marshak e Mitra

more deformation and do not loose continuity

The sample approaches a plastic behaviour
all runs at 25º
Deformation is always brittle

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1 – stress/strain

Back to the Mohr diagram

The Mohr diagram predicts:

• fractures // to σ1 at very low tensile
stresses
• normal geometries for “normal”
positive values of σ
•larger inter-fault angle (to 45º) at very
high confining pressures

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