Applying Preventive and Predictive Maintenance Best Practice On Plant Maintenance PDF

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APPLYING PREVENTIVE AND PREDICTIVE MAINTENANCE BEST PRACTICE
ON PLANT MAINTENANCE
A Minor Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Degree of
MAGISTER INGENERIAE
in
ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
at the
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT
of the
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
by
Fulufhelo Tshabuse
November 2015
Supervisor: Prof JHC Pretorius

Abstract
Quite often in the industrial environment engineers are required to justify the addition or
change of equipment when companies venture into investing in capital to increase production
capacity or improve efficiency. Aged and outdated machinery and equipment are at times not
economical to re-fabricate due to the improvement in manufacturing methods and
obsolescence of old technology. Maintenance of machinery is often not done as it should be
to achieve optimum availability where policies don’t exist. Technological improvement has
resulted in less robust, advanced and often more complex designs where modern technology
replaces older designs making the old designs more expensive to produce in some cases. As a
consequence the re-fabrication of old equipment becomes difficult to justify with the high
cost. The maintenance cost of previous equipment also does not compare to modern
equipment and negatively affects the competitiveness of organisations against their peers that
utilize modern methods. The solution to staying competitive is to re-design, upgrade
equipment, change maintenance policy or introduce technology.
This research will highlight methods that can be utilized to ensure that the reliability and
availability of equipment remains at an acceptable level and also show evidence of
improvement in reliability of equipment due to re-design and through continuous
improvement initiatives at Everite Building Products a manufacturer of fibre cement
products.
i
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people who made this dissertation possible
 My supervisor Prof JHC Pretorius for the guidance and assistance throughout the
period of research
 My fiancé Dr Vuyo Sineke for the support
 My former colleagues for their contribution and time in getting the content required to
make my research practical
 My manager Louis van Wyk for understanding the need to complete the research and
for driving me to complete it
 My mentor Cedomir Djordjevic for driving me to achieve more
ii
Table of Contents
Abstract .................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. ii
List of Figures ......................................................................................................................................... v
List of Tables ......................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Acronyms / Symbols ................................................................................................................. vii
Declaration ............................................................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Aim or objective ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Research Approach ................................................................................................................. 4
1.5 Chapter Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................ 6
2.1 Predictive Maintenance ................................................................................................................. 6
2.2 Preventive Maintenance ................................................................................................................ 7
2.3 What is PPM and what can it achieve? ......................................................................................... 8
2.4 Reliability based predictive and preventive maintenance ............................................................. 8
2.5 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 3: MAINTENANCE MEASURES .................................................................................... 13
3.1 Introduction to maintenance policies and measures................................................................... 13
3.2 Economic and cost implications of maintenance on deteriorating equipment ............................ 14
3.3 Overall Equipment Effectiveness................................................................................................ 16
3.4 Total Productive Maintenance .................................................................................................... 17
3.5 Reliability Centred Maintenance ................................................................................................ 18
3.6 Maintenance data from software tools ........................................................................................ 19
3.7 Reliability Availability and Maintainability (RAM)................................................................... 21
CHAPTER 4: MAINTENANCE APPLICATION AREAS ................................................................. 23
4.1 Operations and maintenance management .................................................................................. 23
4.2 Equipment choice and selection.................................................................................................. 25
4.3 Maintenance planning ................................................................................................................. 26
4.4 Lean Manufacturing, Inventory and Waste reduction................................................................. 28
iii
4.5 Design for maintenance .............................................................................................................. 30
4.6 Continuous improvement ............................................................................................................ 31
4.7 Failure prevention ....................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER 5: PLANT BASED RESEARCH ...................................................................................... 34
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 34
5.2 Background and context.............................................................................................................. 34
5.2.1 Case Study ........................................................................................................................... 36
5.3 Maintenance Philosophy ............................................................................................................. 37
5.4 Methods for reviewing failures ................................................................................................... 38
5.4.1 Failure Reporting and Corrective Action Systems............................................................... 38
5.4.2 Analysis of Original Designs ............................................................................................... 39
5.4.3 Root Cause Failure Analysis ................................................................................................ 40
5.5 Plant Maintenance data and interpretation (old QC)................................................................... 42
5.5.1 Data Analysis – Old machine............................................................................................... 42
5.5.2 Findings – Old Machine....................................................................................................... 43
5.5.3 Actions- Redesign and Replacement ................................................................................... 45
5.6 Plant Maintenance data and interpretation (new QC) ................................................................. 48
5.7 Results and Interpretation ........................................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION.............................................................................................................. 52
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 52
6.2 Research conclusions .................................................................................................................. 52
6.3 Case study conclusions ............................................................................................................... 53
6.4 Recommendations and suggestions for future research .............................................................. 54
REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 55
APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................... 60
Appendix 1: Raw old QC data .......................................................................................................... 60
Appendix 2: Raw new QC data ........................................................................................................ 60
iv
List of Figures
Figure 1: Definition of maintenance .......................................................................................... 6

Figure 2: Cost, reliability, maintenance activity over the life cycle of equipment. ................... 9
Figure 3: Typical graphical display of cost of deteriorating plant ........................................... 15
Figure 4: Schematic representation of typical RCM Steps. ..................................................... 19
Figure 5: Maintenance decision system overview ................................................................... 21
Figure 6: Maintenance, production & quality Interaction Model ............................................ 25
Figure 7: Theoretical model framework for problem solving ................................................. 30
Figure 8: Closed loop maintenance system. ............................................................................ 35
Figure 9: Conventional maintenance sequence........................................................................ 35
Figure 10: Quality Control Packing Station for fibreglass flat sheets. .................................... 37
Figure 11: Fracas loop (http://www.mtain.com)...................................................................... 38
Figure 12: Pie chart representing data collected for old QC machine. .................................... 45
Figure 13: Design recommendation for lift-box. ..................................................................... 46
Figure 14: Old lift-box mechanism. ......................................................................................... 47
Figure 15: Approved vacuum lifting device in operation at EBP. ........................................... 47
Figure 16: Pie chart representing data collected for old QC machine. .................................... 49
v
List of Tables
Table 1 Summary of major empirical findings in eight field studies ...................................... 14

Table 2: Waste types and maintenance effect .......................................................................... 29
Table 3: QC Station - original design drawing analysis. ......................................................... 40
Table 4: Component and parts failure analysis. ....................................................................... 41
Table 5: Partial data on quality control station from ERP system. .......................................... 42
Table 6: Failure data of old QC machine. ................................................................................ 44
Table 7: Failure data of new QC machine. .............................................................................. 48
Table 8: Monthly average comparison of breakdown data. ..................................................... 50
vi
List of Acronyms / Symbols
EBP Everite Building Products
RCM Reliability Centred Maintenance
TPM Total Productive Maintenance
PPM Predictive and Preventive Maintenance
MTBF Mean Time Between Failures
MTTF Mean Time To Failure
FMECA Failure Mode Effects and Critical Analysis
CLD Causal Loop Diagram
RCFA Root Cause Failure Analysis
BM Breakdown Maintenance
PM Preventive Maintenance
RAM Reliability, Availability and Maintainability
RUL Remaining Useful Life
PdM Predictive maintenance
PMPs Predictive Maintenance Programs
CM Corrective Maintenance
PM Preventive Maintenance
PPM Predictive and Preventive Maintenance
AGAN As Good As New
AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process
ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable
vii
ROI Return on Investment
OEE Overall Equipment Effectiveness
FMCG Fast Moving Consumer Goods
OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer
ERP Enterprise Resource Planning
TOPSIS Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution
QC Quality Control
OM Opportunistic Maintenance
FRACAS Failure Reporting And Corrective Action Systems
MTTR Mean Time To Repair
viii
Declaration
I declare that this research/minor dissertation is my own work. It is submitted in partial

fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters in Engineering Management at the
University of Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination
in any other University. I further declare that I have the necessary authorisation and consent
to carry out this research.
________________________________ _________________________
Fulufhelo Tshabuse Date
ix
CHAPTER 1
1.1 Background
Everite Building Products (EBP), manufacturer of fibre cement building products aims to
minimize the rising cost of products it sells to the market. An increase in the cost of raw
materials, labour and electricity and water all of which are significant contributors to the unit
production cost of goods EBP produces lead to an increased sales price to the consumer. The
rate at which this selling price increases annually should be relatively equivalent to
competitors’ price increases of equivalent or similar alternative products for the business to
remain competitive. It is becoming is becoming increasingly difficult for modern day
industries to survive (Kodali, 2001).
Unlike the increase of costs such as that of raw materials, there is the controllable cost of
maintenance that can be reduced, maintained a level or controlled to increase at a rate less
than that of an inefficiently managed maintenance system. Maintenance, service and support
are necessary for aging and productive assets (Mgobhozi, 2012; Kodali, 2001). This research
will present the process of maintenance at EBP and measurement of maintenance activities
and relate them to best practice methods and procedures.
1.2 Introduction
Maintenance is the function of retaining an item in or, restoring it to its original or, acceptable
standard for use or “to meet its functional standard” (Gustavsson, 2014). Maintenance is
generally accepted as a time consuming and costly activity (Narayan, 2012) that may render
equipment unavailable if not effectively practiced. This may result in loss of production
output and machine availability which are key business objectives for the purpose of
generating revenue of many manufacturing plants. Availability is the measure of time an item
is ready for use to execute the work for which it is intended and is expressed in percentage
whether that item is in use or not. The goal of maintenance management is to maximize
machine availability while minimizing operating cost (Loftsen, 2000; Colledani, 2014)
thereby increasing business performance (Mateko, 2010). Business (Loftsen, 2000) and
production (Colledani, 2014) sustainability in the manufacturing industry require the
maintenance of resources.
1
Maintenance can be viewed as a means of management of risks of disruptions to production
with the aim of “minimizing this risk” (Narayan, 2012).
Various maintenance methods can be utilized, each bringing about varying results. The
selection and management of maintenance methods thus becomes an important function that
influences machine efficiencies, availability and production output respectively. This
maintenance method decision-making relies on supervisor’s or management’s experience and
knowledge in maintenance, risk appetite, production targets, maintenance budgets,
maintenance management plans, available reliability engineering theory and procedures, and
various aspects relating to activities occurring at that time.
Capital equipment needs to be kept at optimum operating levels and this can be done through
periodic maintenance to sustain productive capacity of machinery and equipment and to
extend periods of degradation (Camci, 2015). Machine availability can be directly affected by
maintenance activities but so too can the safe working condition of equipment. Maintenance
should prioritize on ensuring that equipment is safe to use where there are safety hazards with
the use of equipment (Narayan, 2013; Chinniah, 2015) as legislated, regulated or prescribed
by manufacturers, importers or sellers (OHSA,1993). A goal of maintenance is to increase or
maintain machine availability with use which in-turn affects “profitability” (Narayan, 2013).
Failure prevention through Root Cause Analysis of failures as well as the use of world class
strategies of Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM) and Total Productive Maintenance
(TPM) (Mateko, 2010) can aid in the prediction, prevention and also prompt maintenance
activities.
Preventive and predictive maintenance (PPM) best practice techniques use modern methods,
tools and models to achieve effective and efficient maintenance. The focus of best practice
techniques centres around undertaking the right maintenance at the right time through
analysis (Camci, 2015) and understanding past and possible failures and the manner in which
they are managed. The use of PPM has the aim of reducing equipment and system failure
(Tang, 2015) thereby reducing operating and maintenance costs (Aghezaff, 2015).
2
PPM techniques require the understanding of the following key subject areas
Failure Modes , Effects and critical Analysis (FMECA)

Root Cause Failure Analysis (RCFA)
The development of equipment maintenance plans
Breakdown maintenance (BM)
Preventive maintenance (PM)
Predictive maintenance analysis
Reliability Centred Maintenance (RCM)
Equipment design modification
System performance monitoring
The introduction of a maintenance plan through findings from analysis of the

abovementioned areas needs to be practiced and reviewed so as not to lose its effectiveness
over time.
1.3 Aim or objective
The aim of this study is to highlight the importance of doing the right maintenance at the
right time through analysis of failures and potential failures and devising appropriate action
(Camci, 2015).
Maintenance plans currently in use at EBP are evaluated and compared to research developed
maintenance plans using studied literature, articles, case studies and consultations with
management personnel responsible for maintenance as well as preventive maintenance best
practice methods.
With the view that correctly maintained equipment results in higher production rates of
quality products, this study seeks to identify, introduce and improve predictive and preventive
maintenance specific to manufacturing at EBP with the aim of realizing potential profitable
benefits and “maximize its maintenance productivity in economic terms” (Lofsten, 2000).
Innovative and improving technology and the introduction of new more efficient equipment
and machinery as well as continuous improvement initiatives that can improve reliability,
availability and maintainability (RAM) in the maintenance environment will be identified in a
case study focused on a section of the EBP production process. Recommendations on the
impact and necessity of maintenance activities will be made.
3
1.4 Research Approach
Two approaches were used in the research namely, practical and theoretical research. The
practical approach will focused on EBP’s factory maintenance and the effects to productivity.
Historical records of corrective and preventive maintenance are analysed to determine
maintenance needs based on records. This formed the basis for the practical research. The
methodology used in maintaining the production factory and the approach taken to rectifying
frequent failures is compared to recommended methods of problem identification and root
cause analysis (http://www.alionscience.com/, 2013). The collating of data for corrective
action which is a closed loop process should give an indication of the frequent failures that
need attention as well as highlight the need for problem solving through engineering,
reliability practices or failure analysis techniques to identify and resolve problems through
“radical” or “incremental” improvements (Choo, 2015).
Maintenance tasks will be analysed with the objective of identifying the maintenance work
that will achieve benefits and reduce the routine repetitive tasks that can be eradicated by
innovative design, parts replacement or process improvement. A comprehensive maintenance
plan will be recommended and discussed in line with best practice techniques and methods.
The data from EBP’s maintenance resource management system will be presented. While it is
beneficial to have such a system, the effective management of resources by individuals is
necessary for maintenance activity to be efficiently conducted. Resources in the form of
manpower, equipment, spares and the maintenance budget need to be measured and managed
and compared to what they should be according to statistical plant maintenance needs
(Bhadury, 2013). Time and performance based preventive maintenance will be examined as
well as the introduction of inspection rounds and how this can be monitored (Liebstuckel,
2012).
Information from literature and seminars will be used to get a greater understanding and
general industry perception in the field of preventive maintenance and will be supplemented
by documentary evidence in the form of data used in the maintenance environment. Verbal
evidence from a “knowledgeable informant” (Remenyi, 2011) will be included in the
research giving insight into the production factory being studied.
4
1.5 Chapter Conclusion
This chapter introduced the reader to the maintenance challenge faced by a company having
to modernise maintenance methods which are essential in increasing machine availability and
doing so in a cost effective manner while operating in highly competitive market. The chapter
further stresses that using predictive and preventive maintenance best practice can serve as a
guide to achieving the set objectives in a manufacturing environment through the use of
various techniques to be outlined in chapters that follow.
Chapter 2 will define Predictive and Preventive Maintenance and will highlight its aims and
benefits.
5
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Predictive Maintenance
Predictive according to the Oxford dictionary is defined as “having the effect of predicting an
event or result”. Maintenance consists of corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance and
continuous improvement. The broad definition of maintenance includes but is not limited to
aspects shown in the diagram below (figure 1) that shows an extension of this definition.
Figure 1: Definition of maintenance (http://www.idcon.com, 2013).
Predictive maintenance (PdM) is a program that considers the condition of the maintained
item and applies preventive measures to schedule maintenance activities to avoid failure
(Mobley, 2012 ; Gustavsson, 2014). Figure 1 therefore correctly has the conditional
monitoring under the field of preventive maintenance as it is a predictive measure that is used
to prevent failure. PdM relies on the ability to recognize a significant change out of the
normal or requisite operating conditions to signal a characteristic that needs to be corrected
(Kodali, 2001). Predictive Maintenance Programs (PMPs) use cost effective tools to monitor
characteristics that can indicate fault or imminent failure (Bana e Costa, 2011). Signals, alerts
or monitoring that may use technology to monitor key operational characteristics of
equipment, processes or machinery provide live or up to date information that drive
predictive maintenance. The resulting maintenance is thus done only when it is needed in the
6
shortest possible time at the lowest possible cost and as a form of corrective maintenance
(CM) before any failure occurs (Okogbaa, 1992; Kodali, 2001). Planning can still occur
provided that the alert limits allow enough time for resources to be made available well in
advance of any imminent failure (Camci, 2015).
Where technology can be used to assess the condition of equipment or machinery (PdM),
periodic preventive checks (PM) can be eradicated or reduced. The cost of replacing
equipment or machinery due to breakdown, catastrophic failures and overall cost of
maintenance makes condition monitoring tools imperative (Tang, 2015) as they can detect
imminent failure or change in operating conditions of critical parts.
2.2 Preventive Maintenance
Preventive maintenance (PM) is the periodic result of planned interventions or actions that
aims to reduce the probability of breakdown that is a cause of loss of production (Loftsen,
2000). In order for preventive maintenance to apply, knowledge of the operation, process,
equipment or machinery needs to be in place (Kodali, 2001). PM is time based and can be a
legal requirement governed by regulations and standards for equipment and machinery that if
not maintained, can have adverse health effects or injure individuals at work (OHSA, 85 of
1993). Employers remain legally responsible to ensure safety of employees throughout the
life cycle of machinery and equipment at the workplace and need to manage the risk
associated with their use (Chinniah, 2015). PM is a traditional policy that is utilized
throughout the manufacturing process and has been applied on individual components (Liu,
2014). Modern policies which have more complex systems have resulted in the study of
multi-components systems with continually degrading components focusing on Condition
Based Monitoring (CBM) (Tang, 2015).
PM can be data driven where the resulting maintenance actions are a result of collated
information that serve as a basis for periodic maintenance cycles. This “age-based” or
“length-of-usage-based” policy can be disadvantageous in some instances as it does not
consider the state of the item being maintained but prevents potential failure through
maintenance actions (Tang, 2015). Coupled with CBM, this method can prove effective.
A possible consequence of this planned maintenance is the disturbance to a production

process and can prove costly. Conversely neglecting the planned maintenance can result in
failure of equipment that is beyond economic repair and has possible safety implications
7
where persons can be injured (Tang, 2015). The effect to failed equipment would be CM
which is less popular to industry and research than PM (Loftsen, 2000).
A cost-benefit analysis for PM needs to be conducted to prove the worthiness of interruption

to revenue generating production. Successful PM programs generate measureable benefits
(Mobley, 2000).
2.3 What is PPM and what can it achieve?
PM consists of periodic checks and corrections to equipment that prevent potential failure
and PdM (Predictive Maintenance) entails continuous maintenance activities performed at
predetermined intervals to monitor the state of equipment (Bana e Costa, 2011). The
monitoring of characteristics of equipment that can be used to predict imminent failure
“requires high quality predictive monitoring methods” (Bloch, 2012) which can be costly.
The combination and use of these two facets of maintenance is Predictive and Preventive
Maintenance (PPM). PPM requires preparation where maintenance intervals for PM need to
be determined using historical data or problems that experienced personnel can detect such as
build up, smell, abnormal noises and leaks (Okogbaa, 1992; Kodali). The prediction of next
possible failure through PdM can be done by technological means such as vibration sensors
to measure excessive vibration or temperature sensors for high temperature on moving parts,
heated or heat affected zones or electrical equipment. Therefore if PM is not utilized PdM
will need to be used to ensure that maintenance is performed before failure. If PdM is also not
used CM will be needed after failure has occurred.
Using PPM can be very effective as it has the potential to reduce maintenance work and
costs, product quality, equipment availability and productivity (Carlos, 2011; Carnero, 2005).
2.4 Reliability based predictive and preventive maintenance
In order for equipment or machinery to be measured for its reliability it has to be in use and
perform its function. If machinery or equipment has performed its function without failure for
a measured period of time, that machinery or equipment’s availability is 100%. Its reliability
however is the prediction that is will remain functional over a set period of time and this is
quantifiable by statistical measures such as the Mean Time Between Failure (MTBF) or the
Mean To Time To Failure (MTTF) (O’Connor, 2012; Lofsten, 2000 ). After a breakdown,
failure or maintenance event its’ availability will be reduced. The performance of a system,
8
product or process can be measured by assessing its reliability (Doorstparast,2014) taking
into consideration the system configuration, component reliability, safety factors and
component age or deterioration (Chang, 2014) which are all possible causal elements or
factors affecting reliability. This relationship can be characterized by the chart below that
surmises the generally accepted relationship for the reliability cited by (Doostparast, 2014)
where-in the choice of maintenance action is justified by relationship between the cost of
repair and the reliability of the item under observation.
Figure 2: Cost, reliability, maintenance activity over the life cycle of equipment
(Mobley, 2002)
Figure 2 shows preventive maintenance actions performed on a system, process, machinery
or component in operation with the aim of prolonging the life of such system, process,
machine or component during the respective life cycle. These actions occur at predetermined
points as part of PPM to keep the reliability at desired levels. The replacement of
deteriorating components should occur where the minimum performance requirements of
such components has been reached to prevent system performance losses due to wear (Tang,
2015) that could lead to system failures. This on figure 2 would occur at the end of the
reliability curve as it slopes downward toward the end of the section where low level repair is
required. The relationship between aging or deteriorating equipment or components displayed
in figure 2 is such that the cost of repair or replacement of equipment or components
increases with time (Chang, 2014) and conversely the reliability decreases.
9
Maintenance actions which traditionally have activities motivated by system breakdowns
(Doorstparast,2014) are termed corrective actions and higher cost implications due to their
disruption to the continuity of revenue generating works and resources required to facilitate
the CM at unplanned times. The occurrence and frequency of random failures can be reduced
by applying PPM as it may result in positively affecting the reliability of components. The
type and frequency of PPM requires reasonable selection and effective scheduling for
optimization of reliability as well as it can reduce production downtime and maintenance
requirements (Camci, 2015).
Systems with multiple components with differing reliabilities and prescribed maintenance
intervals and schedules can bring about a “combinatorial explosion” (Doorstparast, 2014)
when their maintenance requirements appear continuous due to their independent potential
failures. Modern analysis techniques that use common algorithms such as genetic algorithms
and simulated annealing for complex systems are tools to predict the time and frequency of
the maintenance activities for optimisation. Preventive maintenance policies for multi
component systems are grouped into two classes namely;
 Functional/ Failed: where there are predetermined levels that determine each
definition or state
And
 Policies based on the discrete-state Markov chains where components are in a

state where
i. They are As good as new (AGAN)
ii. Preventive maintenance is due
iii. Components have failed
The second policy takes preventive maintenance into consideration but considers failures at
discrete states which are not always true (Liu, 2013).
10
Effective scheduling referred to by (Doostparast, 2014) shows the approach by (Tsai, 2003)
below (1) that works with multiple maintenance intervals of various components with
differing reliabilities in a system.
Ri,0,n = Ri,f,n-1 + m2(1-Ri,f,n-1), (1)
and
Ri,n(t) = Ri,0,nExp (-[ ]β), (n-1)tp ≤ t ≤ ntp (2)
Where Ri and Rf denote the initial and final reliabilities, m the improvement factor of the
restored items (ranging between 0 and 1), t time, and β the scale and shape parameters and
tp the PM ( Preventive Maintenance) interval of reliability,
It however does not address the complexity of the effects components’ reliabilities have on
each other and as a whole on the entire system as it focuses on the best PM action for each
component. Coherent systems however are those that contain components that without their
presence or functionality would render the system in-operable but were they to be replaced
would not decrease the systems performance. Components without these characteristics are
irrelevant (Doorstparast, 2004) and therefore optimal systems are coherent in their design. All
studies of systems in this research are assumed to be coherent and are identified otherwise if
they are not.
Generalized mathematical formulae can be adopted for a coherent system, studied over a time
period and analysed by its components to assess the downtime impact of components and
thereby display PM action or frequency, planning or PM scheduling. A case study of a
production process at EBP will show the impact of component failure to overall production.
This system is assumed to be coherent.
This chapter introduced Predictive and Preventive Maintenance and its intended purpose and
resulting effect on the cost of maintenance and reliability of equipment and machinery
throughout the respective life cycle. These two factors that formed the basis of the problem
statement will remain the focus of the literature that follows.
11
The various techniques that can be utilized for best practice implementation of Predictive and
Preventive Maintenance are presented in the next chapter.
12
CHAPTER 3: MAINTENANCE MEASURES
3.1 Introduction to maintenance policies and measures
Maintenance policies are “traditionally centred” around resources and cost

(Carnero, 2005; Bakri, 2002) with no long term objective. There are several processes and
methods that are used in selecting maintenance policies such as the Analytical Hierarchy
Process (AHP) which establishes an index designed to group machines in areas of focus
before selecting the best maintenance strategy (Kodali, 2001). AHP is a decision making tool
that is used for calculating weights of measureable criteria (Rodrigues, 2012). (Lofsten, 2000)
points out the following requirements for successful implementation of maintenance policies
 Measures should be accepted by all persons

 All persons should acquaint themselves with maintenance measures
 Measures should have a benefit
 Measures should be goal oriented
Traditional policies in use in the maintenance environment are PdM and CM. PdM policy is a
policy that requires monitoring of physical characteristics associated with equipment and
initiates action based on the results (Heinz, 2012). CM is a traditional policy aimed at
resolving failures (Loftsen, 2000). Comparatively CM’s as low as reasonably practicable
level (ALARP) is lower than other policies as it requires failure for it to be initiated. In
essence it does not have an ALARP level. Conversely PM has the highest levels as it ensures
continuity followed by PdM that signals a change in operating conditions.
The lack of some form of maintenance measure is unusual as displayed in table 1 from a
study by (Lofsten, 2000) that shows differing policies even for organisations in the same
industry category (energy, manufacturing and chemical). All but one of these organizations
does not measure the state of its operations. Ringhals which is a nuclear power plant
constantly measures the in-plant state due to the safety concerns around nuclear power
generation and the industry standards. All industries measure the availability of their plants
mostly in maintenance per unit cost of production which directly links the cost of production
to the maintenance required to keep the plant operational.
13
Table 1 Summary of major empirical findings in eight field studies (Lofsten, 2000).
The selection of maintenance strategy in Table 1 is a reflection of the companies’ corporate

vision that aims to place them at an advantage over competitors (Mgobhozi, 2012;
Nevushoma, 2010). Availability is the common goal of all operations in table 1 across
differing policies. RCM can be used in selecting a suitable maintenance policy for an
organization (Carnero, 2015).
3.2 Economic and cost implications of maintenance on deteriorating equipment
Very rarely is the engineer expected to produce data proving that a new installed machine
works in the manner in which was projected in the application for funding to finance its
purchase for the reason that there is a lack of objectivity (Mobley, 2002; Lofsten, 2000). Not
a great deal of research has been done post implementation of improvement initiatives
displaying the effects of improvements following problem solving that is approved by
executives in manufacturing (Choo, 2015). These investments and associated costs are
however evaluated with the view that they will have a Return on Investment (ROI) (Mitchel,
2002). There is limited research on the short or long term effects of investment (Choo, 2015).
14
If ROI is not monitored, capital investments can fail to achieve their desired output after
installation and will not be maintained to operate at projected optimum these levels though
their maintenance budget will be in line with initial projections.
A possible consequence of insufficiently maintained assets is reduced availability and an

increase in losses a potential increase of CM and thus reduced sales or supply to the market
(Mgobhozi, 2012). The reduction in production output and the resulting overspend on
recommended maintenance including spares and support lengthens the payback period and
reduces ROI. On average maintenance costs range from 15-40% of production cost and
require vigilance from maintenance managers (Lofsten, 2000).
PPM fails when it is exercised on outdated, unproductive and inefficient systems, equipment,
processes or machinery. The failure to re-invest, modernise or continuously improve
operations can result in increased maintenance budgets and shorten the life cycle of such
systems, equipment, processes or machinery (Levitt, 2011) as shown in figure 3 where the
cost of operating and maintaining is shown to increase with time or usage.
Figure 3: Typical graphical display of cost of deteriorating plant (Mobley, 2002).

The need of use of maintenance spares and repairs increases with time of use of machinery or
equipment for which the spares are required. This risk cannot be obviated though it can be
reduced to practicable ALARP levels (Narayan, 2012) by investing in continuous
improvement. The principles of asset optimization require searching for the improvement
opportunities for equipment or processes that can add value to operations and recover the cost
of executing requirements to meet those opportunities (Mitchell, 2002). Improvements are
defined as such due to them causing an identified problem from reoccurring (Kodali, 2001).
15
Performing Root Cause Failure Analysis (RCFA) can identify justifiable opportunities for
improvement by ROI (Mobley, 2002) proving that change in equipment can be of financial
and production benefit and also prolong the life of equipment as long as the recovery or
payback period is in line with the organizations investment capabilities and protocols.
3.3 Overall Equipment Effectiveness
The measure of equipment efficiency and effectiveness is its availability, ability to meet its
design parameters and the quality of output (Mobley, 2002).
The Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is thus
OEE %= A (availability) x PE (performance efficiency) x Q (quality)
where
(3)
(4)
(5)
High OEE works well in the fast moving consumer goods (FMCG) environment in that it
promotes low breakdowns, stoppages, idling and quality related losses (Mobley, 2002). The
availability and performance of machinery as well as the quality of goods produced which are
the three elements of OEE are a measure of success of operations. OEE is also seen to be
used in the automotive sector as displayed in table 1. Care needs to be taken when running
machinery at full capacity as this may affect availability if not monitored. OEE utilizes
historic performance on availability, performance and quality data, and drives continuous
improvement where preventive measures can be taken to increase availability to a specified
minimum requirement so as not affect the quality of product produced as well as anticipated
performance requirements.
16
Higher OEE can cause organisations to be more competitiveness as it translates to reduced
maintenance costs and machine downtime with an increase in production or quality over a
studied time period.
Industries that reveal production figures can help other organisations benchmark against
competitors. The figures, although they may differ in how they are achieved in terms of
processes, can serve as industry performance indicators and measures of OEE (Mobley,
2002). OEE is not a valid corporate measure against competitors as it should measure the
assets performance against itself and argues that it should compare like equipment and the
resulting production output.
OEE can however be measured against budgeted equipment estimates or past performance
data and motivate change when these targets are not reached.
3.4 Total Productive Maintenance
TPM is a strategic approach for considering maintenance actions into organizational activities
in order to achieve goals. It involves collective effort to ensure quality goods, low cost of
production and delivery in time to satisfy the customer or to improve all quality, cost and
delivery. TPM is closely related to OEE in that it aims to increase the overall effectiveness of
equipment and machinery as was originally intended when it was introduced (Kodali, 2001)
TPM aims to have the following in production environments
 No breakdowns
 No accidents
 No defects
 No waste
These drive an increase in quality and production at reduced cost and improved productivity.
This in turn increases equipment availability thus increasing OEE. TPM is however a
companywide concept and requires participation at all levels and can be measured by
assessing overall effectiveness of production equipment (Charkraborty, 2007). Decisions and
actions emanating from employee involvement have a positive effect as they involve
employees in collaborative solutions that can have positive effects on productivity, quality
and contribute to TPM (Choo, 2015; Kodali, 2001). This would need all departments in an
17
organization to work together toward a common goal. TPM has evolved to being more
focused on the complete life cycle of equipment and machinery than having the being
available. TPM’s goals are to:
 maximize OEE
 develop a productive maintenance system using all stakeholders
 involve all employees
 promote TPM through improvement initiatives
Implementation of TPM is usually done separately in departments at a high cost. The

introduction of processes need to complement each other and introduced simultaneously.
Applying TPM converts non-productive organizations to lean organizations.
Potential benefits of TPM at EBP would be
 increased staff moral sue to participation and inclusivity

 higher competitiveness
 reduction of cost
 increased quality
 increase in production
 optimized use of machinery and equipment
3.5 Reliability Centred Maintenance
RCM is a maintenance policy that allocates PM measures in order to circumvent incipient

failure that would otherwise develop were no action to be taken (Carnero, 2005) and give rise
to scientifically based maintenance programs that were PM in their nature (Coetzee, 2006). A
component or machines reliability is generally increased after a maintenance event (Choo,
2015). RCM methods were introduced for equipment and systems with rigorous
specifications in the military that required functionality testing but has since been applied for
industrial applications where products are designed and sold for industrial purposes (Coetzee,
2006). This has lead to the development of specialist suppliers who guarantee the
performance of products sold to industry and offer a variety of component choices for their
consumers. RCM is a decision making tool that considers the risk of in-action (Carnero,
2005) that can be quantified by data made available by equipment suppliers. It can thus be
said that RCM keeps equipment available and also reduces maintenance cost by lowering risk
18
of CM (Carnero, 2005). (Coetzee, 2006) cites RCM as having the steps in figure 4 as part of
its definition
System breakdown
Identification of Maintenance
Significant Items (MSI's)
Identification of Functional
Failures per Function
Identification of Failure Modes

per Functional Failure
Evaluation of Failure
Consequence per Failure Mode
Task Evaluation and Selection
Figure 4: Schematic representation of typical RCM Steps.

The steps in the figure 4 are an important sequence to follow when working on continuous
improvement initiatives as will be displayed in the case study. The steps promote critical
thinking about the reasons behind that failure and the action required. Although the sequence
of steps does not have the closed loop and is more of a conventional sequence, the contents of
the evaluation of the failure can be used in continuous improvement projects that will have
the closed loop feedback after implementation of improvement actions.
3.6 Maintenance data from software tools
A quantitative approach to maintenance planning and scheduling creates a maintenance

philosophy that can be audited and verifies the effectiveness of decisions that leaders in
organizations take (Lofsten, 2006). Vital data pertaining to maintenance that is not shared can
harm operations in as much as neglecting the value of input the Original Equipment
Manufacturer (OEM) of equipment can make to assist an organization should it experience
failures not in line with the expected performance of equipment (Arnaiz, 2003).
A predictive and preventive maintenance system in the form of an ERP (Enterprise Resource
Planning) system can be utilized to better plan maintenance, the resources required, manage
19
stock holding and measure the effectiveness or benchmark maintenance activities. This
automated system should be able to increase the effectiveness of maintenance planning by:
 notify what maintenance action should take place if maintenance action is required
 give the optimum completion time of the maintenance event
 allocate appropriate skills
 list the spares required
 measure how long it takes to complete the task and rate the duration against
historical information
All this can be done with the aim of optimizing the maintenance function and managing the
resources which in turn can reduce waste (Okogbaa, 1992). The system should be able to
enhance the predictive and preventive maintenance actions rather than be a reactive data
recorder to store information that is hardly used after it is captured as in the case at EBP.
Figure 5 shows the decision system that drives a maintenance program. This system contains
in addition to the above-mentioned capabilities,
 equipment data and specifications to manage and maintain equipment in line with
OEM supplied recommended maintenance data
 cost data that can be utilized to quantify the cost of all resources used in maintenance
 reporting capabilities that will allow the system to be a useful management tool to
generate information needed on maintenance without delay.
20
Figure 5: Maintenance decision system overview
The costing to other departments can be done objectively based on past historical facts and
the decline in efficiency can be easily noted. A system such as that in figure 5 can be utilized
to keep data up to date in line with continuous improvement additions or changes in costs and
resources which can also be used to measure their effectiveness.
3.7 Reliability Availability and Maintainability (RAM)
Maintenance operation and continuous improvement levels are measured by availability and
reliability of equipment (Arnaiz, 2013). Taking into consideration the operating environment
and the period of assessment, reliability is the probability of failure occurring in that period.
An improvement in RAM would require a reduction in maintenance cost while preserving or
increasing quality of goods produced, safety levels, production quantities or equipment
output (Arnaiz, 2013). A study by (Liu, 2013) concludes that simultaneous maintenance of
components increases the reliability of the system more than replacing only those that have
reached the end of their useful life and reveal the Remaining Useful Life (RUL) which can
21
aid in maintenance planning (Camci, 2015) . Careful consideration of a system consisting of
several components such as those at EBP can yield similar conclusions where maintenance
activities on all components are performed all at once with the aim of increasing their RAM.
The reliability of a manufacturing operations equipment and machinery, both of which are
measurable can be used as performance indicators that can motivate a change in maintenance
frequency or policy changes.
This chapter presented literature on measures that can be used in gauging the effectiveness of
maintenance in an organisation. Chapter 3.1 highlighted measures in use in various unrelated
industries and the fundamental similarity of measuring availability. Some of these measures
of these measures were further elaborated on in subsequent sections to give a clearer
understanding of their significance.
The areas of an organisation where Predictive and Preventive Maintenance can be used are
presented in the next chapter. Processes and actions that also improve Predictive and
Preventive Maintenance are introduced.
22
CHAPTER 4: MAINTENANCE APPLICATION AREAS
4.1 Operations and maintenance management
It is common to find in manufacturing operations support personnel such as electrical and

mechanical maintenance teams working in isolation or “silos” and to have these separate
disciplines engage in workplace conflict when they work together or when machine
breakdowns occur (Lofsten, 2000). Planning of production and maintenance activities is also
usually done separately in practice (Aghezzaf, 2015). The “silos” bring about Symptomatic
Problem Solving (SPS) which could result in “severe and systemic errors” (Choo, 2015). A
possible solution to this non-productive behaviour is creating production and maintenance
teams that are multi-disciplinary or have a high level of skills to perform maintenance
functions on frequently occurring failures and who can diagnose the problem within the team
there-by calling upon the correct support to get machines and equipment to normal operating
conditions. This can be done by analysis of frequently occurring breakdowns to justify the
change and by training and up-skilling staff to be capable of handling a wide range of
disruptions and who can contribute to the improvement of operations through the increased
knowledge and experience. This greater awareness can increase safety, improve employee
interest in work and give rise to improved availability which in turn promotes TPM (Kodali,
2001). This results in an organisation’s Internal Knowledge Stock (IKS) increasing its
problem solving ability by means of Generative Problem Solving (GPS) at various employee
levels (Choo, 2015).
Increasing the skills level of operations personnel can result in fewer maintenance requests to
separately skilled support teams there-by
 reducing the total “head-count” if these relatively manageable tasks occur frequently
 reduce the time to repair for the reason that personnel to repair are immediately
available
 reduce potential conflict that may arise
 reducing mysterious and uncontested repairs by support personnel that temporarily
keep production online
23
Information from production personnel can aid in improving machine operating efficiency or
maintenance where-by information as to how components fail can be used to correct errors in
design or to refine maintenance action or frequency.
This will result in knowledge transfer and education of personnel who share a common goal
and also the act of doing the right maintenance at the right time (Camci, 2015; Choo, 2015)
using the right resources where
 the appropriate action is taken into account where Failure Mode Effects and Critical
Analysis (FMECA) can be utilized
 maintenance is not performed too early where production performance can be affected
or too late where deterioration may result (Camci, 2015)
 there is appropriate use of skills, equipment and materials to perform maintenance
functions all in line with the organisations objectives (Choo, 2015)
At EBP production personnel are not usually involved in maintenance of critical components
and their involvement is limited to cleaning of machinery and making equipment accessible
and available to maintenance personnel. The increase in production efficiency coupled with
machine availability and reliability through effective use and organization of personnel can
be achieved with stability in operational management capable of recognising these
opportunities for growth, the retention of personnel and the storage and archiving of
information that can be available when needed or utilized to justify process changes. This can
result in continuous improvement of equipment and maintenance processes there-by
increasing the OEE through “setting improvement priorities” (http://www.swspitcrew.com,
2013) to balance the effectiveness of identified ineffective equipment to perform as well or
better than other equipment in a process while maintaining or increasing the level of quality.
The interaction of quality, production and maintenance, all of which need to be balanced for
an operation to remain profitable is important. Causal Loop Diagrams (CLDs) are normally
used for operations management and drafting of policy. The diagram in figure 6 shows all
possible interactions between quality, maintenance and production that are possible through
decisions and actions. These can also highlight the changes or lack of interaction following
the introduction of continuous improvement initiatives.
24
Figure 6: Maintenance, production & quality Interaction Model (Colledani, 2014)
From the diagram it can be seen that the increase in quality observation increases the chance
of detection which will increase the requirement to correct the defect which in turn reduces
the total throughput or output. This relationship applies to the case study to follow conducted
at EBP on its quality control packing station.
Important conclusions can be drawn from the use of CLDs as they allow for critical thinking
prior to trial of a new concept or process.
4.2 Equipment choice and selection
The choice of assembled machines, components and equipment can be motivated by bias,
supplier reputation or even selection based on the performance and reliability data. This
equipment data presented by OEM’s is attained through stress testing or by analysis of
simulation models and testing such as in the research by (Bansal, 2007) where a neural
network approach was used for assessment and reliability assessments. Selected components
need to be reliable and where this is not realized they need to be reselected or redesigned.
(Rodriguez, 2012) studies the selection of customized equipment using fuzzy AHP and
Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) and evaluates
three parameters namely numerical parameters, binary parameters and linguistic parameters.
25
The reliability and performance of assembled machines or equipment in the opinion of the
author should take precedence as all machinery is required by law to be safe and maintained
so as to ensure safety of persons operating them.
Machine component capability in terms of functionality needs to be well-known so as not be

over-maintained and result in disturbance of manufacturing operations and compromised
performance. OEM’s conduct various tests on their manufactured components and conduct
quality assessments on parts that certify their functionality. This information as well as data
on equipment specification, performance capabilities, operational thresholds and
recommended maintenance intervals needs to be an integral part of maintenance plans.
Failure due to manufacturing defects of OEM supplied products can also be known if the
specifications and performance requirements of products purchased are known (Tang, 2015).
However, an interview conducted with a knowledgeable informant from EBP made it known
that the impact of the severity and frequency of the breakdown of a component on a machine
or process is also a determining factor on whether a disturbance to the machinery or process
for maintenance is necessary. Managers make an economic decision with regard to
maintenance and some components are thus run to failure and then replaced (Mghobozi,
2012). Safety is an important consideration when making decisions to run equipment to
failure.
4.3 Maintenance planning
Maintenance planning should come from analysis of data and studied events from operation.
This should be reviewed and assessed for change after the introduction of every continuous
improvement initiative so as to re-allocate maintenance resources such as labour and re-align
budgets and inventory after the change (Choo, 2015). Technology has the advantage of
reducing labour intensive effort and if this is not realized, maintenance will likely have
under-utilized personnel. Data of time spent doing maintenance work before and after
changes to operations and equipment or even maintenance strategies is a good measure of
personnel requirements in maintenance and the effectiveness or failure continuous
improvement initiatives. Data can also be used in models with the aim of finding optimum
maintenance policies to use. Models are however rarely used to influence maintenance
decisions even though data may be available (Lofsten, 2000).
26
Advancement in technology changes the way manufacturing is being done. Non-conforming
goods produced that do not meet their quality requirements are of such unacceptable quality
as a result of machinery entering the out-of-control state and this can be attributed to
deterioration, aging or process failures from out-of-control state of machine parts
(Adnan, 2012;Tang, 2015). If there is no inspection or repair, aging and deterioration will
continue and failure will likely be the result. The success of a manufacturing concern can be
measured by the product quality and the reliability of the delivery of products produced
(Colledani, 2014).
(Chakraborty, 2007) considers random corrective maintenance, preventive maintenance,

machine deterioration, machine breakdown and repairs and formulates an economic
manufacturing quality model for a system that is not completely reliable. For this, inspection
is not considered in the production process and maintenance is only carried out if there is a
breakdown where corrective maintenance is undertaken or preventive maintenance conducted
to increase machine reliability. For an environment where production lot sizing is an option,
this model would be beneficial and some of EBP’s processes including a quality control
station highlighted in the case study can utilize similar models for analysis.
Shorter production runs or periods have been shown to result in the production of more
conforming goods where fewer defects occur due to the reduced exposure to the out-of-
control state (Chakraborty, 2007).
This however needs to be in line with the companies production scheduling. Production lots
cannot be used as a maintenance measure due to the loss in revenue when goods are not
produced or when equipment is not available.
Various scenarios have been studied and modelled with production lot sizing and each bring
about differing results as each has its own assumptions and input parameters. Where there is
no breakdown during a production run, preventive maintenance must take place. Lot sizing in
this regard can ensure quality goods being produced more often and also maintain the system
to an AGAN condition.
Due to modelling anomalies, the modelling is done considering a general breakdown and
fixed repair time which is not realistic. Maintenance planning and scheduling should be done
considering only reliability data and not the projected production capacities. The limits to
27
production quantities need to be within machine reliability limits for a cost effective
operation (Aghezzaf, 2015).
Maintenance planning at EBP is done as a continued tradition. Routine preventive

maintenance is carried out at set intervals and opportunistic maintenance where possible.
Feedback from processed work is not utilized fully unless to justify radical changes that
require approval and purchase of machinery.
4.4 Lean Manufacturing, Inventory and Waste reduction
Lean production aims to reduce waste thereby increasing productivity and quality. It focuses
on eliminating waiting, movement, stock levels, over-production and cuts down on all forms
of waste (Chakraborty, 2007).
Lean manufacturing involves reduction or removal of waste wherever possible that ultimately
equates to revenue generation by means of eliminating wasteful expenditure that does not add
value. Waste areas in the maintenance environment need to be identified and this can be done
through data collected on maintenance activities or benchmarking with similar operations to
measure the effectiveness of the current maintenance process. The goal of maintenance needs
to be to keep availability of machinery as high as possible to ensure productivity. EBP
measures the availability of machinery daily and has a predetermined percentage of
availability which is deemed acceptable for profitable operation.
Stores inventory needs to be ready for operation, available and kept at quantities that do not
render them redundant or have the potential of affecting operations due to shortages.
It must be noted however that critical spares that do not often get used need to be available
should a breakdown occur that stops operations. This stock can remain without use in the
stores as it reduces the risk of lengthy shut down in operations that would otherwise have cost
implications greater than the value of the stock considering the cost of operations and
production losses. The stores inventory requirements and minimum stock levels can be
refined considering the history of operation and frequency of need of replacement parts or
equipment. A continuously improving production environment needs to re-assess its
inventory requirements as these change to suit improvements. Waste in inventory can thus be
avoided.
28
(Blanchard, 2010) identifies eight areas of waste in maintenance and states that waste falls in
one of the eight categories. The maintenance effect of these waste types appear in the
following table.
Table 2: Waste types and maintenance effect (Blanchard, 2010).
Waste Types Effect on Maintenance

Overproduction Over-maintenance
Waiting (Queuing) Difficulty in maintenance scheduling
Transport Difficulty in maintenance scheduling
Extra Processing/Non-Value-Added processing Decreased availability
Inventory Overstocking or Underutilization increase
or decrease maintenance budgets
Motion Decreased in reliability
Defects Decrease in reliability
Underutilizing people Loss of value add to production process
From table 2 EBP avoids overproduction by determining production lot sizes in line with
demand and uses resources when necessary in certain sections to avoid waste. Waiting and
queuing cannot be avoided as the process from raw material stage is largely continuous and
should it stop the processes that follow wait. The cost implication of this is substantial and
needs maintenance teams to react and diagnose and fix the problem speedily. Improvement
and modifications can reduce the amount of stockholding as most items that are available on
the market off-the-shelf are still being custom made. This will be elaborated further in the
case study. Motion is part of the process with all the machinery in use and is the primary
cause of defects on machines and this can be reduced through design modifications. Up
skilling people will add more value to the operations as will be examined in the next chapter.
Waste generated by machinery reduces its availability. Therefore, reducing wastage or

production of waste can increase machine availability for quality goods. TPM can be a
strategic tool that supports lean production. High competitiveness and pressures to compete at
low cost require organisations to look into waste reduction throughout their entire value chain
to stay relevant. Maintenance as shown in the table is an operation that above goes beyond
individuals and tools that aid in performing its functions (Camci, 2015).
29
4.5 Design for maintenance
A well documented hindrance to process improvement is management acceptance where

implementation has been difficult to initiate (Choo, 2015). Another key factor is the approach
to problem solving that determines the effectiveness of the solution. Solutions need to be
sustainable and centred around knowledge both internally through IKS and externally
through EKS to as highlighted in figure 7 to ensure continued growth.
Figure 7: Theoretical model framework for problem solving (Choo, 2015).
The decision making process in figure 7 displays the effects to the IKS and EKS that an
organisation needs to sustain itself. Solving by SPS would usually entail returning a failure to
its original state where as GPS would require learning, knowledge and understanding.
Design can be used as a form of advanced failure prevention by
 increasing the resistance to failure

 decreasing the stress applied to parts of equipment or machinery
 decreasing the effects of exposure to stress by means of intervention (lubrication,
refurbishment etc.)
 using external knowledge stock (EKS) or internal knowledge stock (IKS) to “enhance
and develop knowledge” of intellectual capital of the organization that in turn can be
utilized in improvement initiatives (Choo, 2015)
 taking into consideration the risks associated with changes or introduction of
equipment and ensuring safe operation (Chinniah, 2015)
30
The effect of design and modifications can affect most individuals in the operations. Machine
operators need to be trained on using equipment, maintenance needs to have a plan for
maintenance , the stores needs to have adequate spares, the new assets will be registered as
depreciating assets and the support of the machines from EKS’s will need to be utilized. All
these influences need to be carefully considered when continuous improvement initiatives are
proposed.
4.6 Continuous improvement
Maintenance has become an area of financial focus in the modern profit driven industrial
environment as companies seek to increase profits by using it effectively. This has elevated
the need and consideration of
1) New technology
2) Greater utility of equipment
3) Maintenance cost reduction
These areas of focus increase the importance of preventive and predictive maintenance and
also the need for predictive technology (Arnaiz, 2013).
In relation to productivity, an improvement increases output for the same number of inputs,
or increases outputs with fewer inputs or with a lesser amount of increase in inputs or
maintains outputs with less inputs(Lofsten, 2000). Companies introduce new strategies or
technologies with the aim of maximizing on the service level of equipment and to reduce
maintenance costs (Arnaiz, 2013).
When attempting to introduce change, consideration is needed where
1) the organizations maturity on adopting the technology has to be considered

2) operations and culture of the organization need to be considered
3) management of information from the technologies needs to be done by individuals
qualified, capable, trained or experienced to manage it
An organizations “internal human capital” can positively affect continuous improvement

through innovation stemming from incremental or major improvement initiatives that can
come about from knowledge of operations (Choo, 2015).
There is a need to guard against factors inhibiting full utility of technologies namely;
31
1) lack of understanding of technology
2) lack of transfer of information to OEM for recommendations and advice
Successful introduction of new technology can be measured by the resulting availability and
reliability as will be displayed in the case study conducted at EBP. Use of predictive
techniques can maximize value of equipment and prolong the by predicting imminent failure
allowing earlier intervention.
4.7 Failure prevention
Functional failure of an item entails a failure that results in the inability of an item to meet its
intended performance requirement.
The manner in which this failure is solved is through SPS which has a negative effect on IKS
and External Knowledge Stock (EKS) as it is an already established method to solve
problems as displayed in figure 7. This item may still be able to perform but not well enough
to be considered of use. A gradual decline in performance can be detected if there is a means
of detecting factors that indicate reduction in performance or imminent failure detection
measures can be the result of FMECA.
Time related failure patterns of equipment and machinery are often given to users of
equipment by OEM’s to demonstrate the life of the goods purchased. These patterns can be
used in constructing the equipment’s maintenance schedule and determining the quantity of
spares required to bring equipment or machinery back to a useful state (Aghezzaf, 2015) and
age related failure probability increases with equipment use and is a measurable concept.
Organizations can choose to operate equipment beyond its useful life depending on the
severity of the loss incurred when breakdown occurs such as in the case of EBP. Of interest
to an organization such as EBP which uses a great number of mechanical moving parts, is the
citation by (Arnaiz, 2013) that shows that lubrication is a key factor contributing about 70%
of all failures. Inadequately trained personnel are also highlighted as key contributors to
possible equipment failures.
Knowledge of equipment in use in essential as it assists in formulating PM measures to be

applied as the statistical prediction can be used to justify maintenance actions as well as
resources required. Throughout the RUL of equipment PM can be applied and procedures
32
followed that are created for optimal process operation. Most other imminent failures can be
detected by predictive means through application of PdM (Camci, 2015).
Complex systems with multiple components with different failure patterns and maintenance
intervals need a well-structured maintenance plan. EBP conducts its periodic maintenance on
a weekly basis and this is interrupted by CM as a result of breakdowns or equipment
functionality as well as OM when there is a production stop unrelated to maintenance. These
have been found to be the most effective failure prevention methods with the use of aged
equipment. Predictive technology and enhancements to equipment can increase the
availability at EBP.
Chapter 4 focused on the working environment and areas of implementation of measures and
policies highlighted in chapter 3. Although the measures are not specific to an organisation
and may not be relevant to the range of industries shown in chapter 3.1, they present
opportunities in potential areas identified where improvement can take place.
The following chapter focuses on the practical implementation of measures and techniques at
Everite Building Products and the findings after their implementation.
33
CHAPTER 5: PLANT BASED RESEARCH
5.1 Introduction
The purpose of the following plant based research is to display solutions and
recommendations for maintenance through quantitative analysis of facts (Lofsten, 2000) and
data at EBP. The case study allows us to determine whether the current approach to
maintenance of a particular process meets the requirements fit for its operation. The aim of
the study is to determine the effect design changes and upgrades have on breakdown
maintenance and machine availability. The main problems that have been identified as
frequently occurring on a Quality Control Packing station commonly known as QC form the
basis of the re-design and are analysed after the re-design or to assess the improvement
effectiveness.
This case study will highlight methods that can be utilized to ensure that the reliability of
equipment remains at an acceptable level and also show evidence of improvement in
reliability of equipment due to re-design and through continuous improvement initiatives.
“Incremental” or perceived minor improvements also contribute to more efficient production
environments and these form part of the case study (Camci, 2015).
5.2 Background and context
The sustained reliability of equipment depends on the efforts by the user to keep equipment
reliable. Where reliability levels are not acceptable, an effort to reduce the breakdown
maintenance effect of poorly maintained equipment is needed. This can be done by assessing
the failed products or equipment, assessing the damage and finding ways to mitigate this for
the equipment that will be installed again. This results in the need for a closed loop
maintenance system where upgrades or add-ons are needed to maintain or improve the
reliability of equipment as displayed in the figure 8.
34
Add-Ons Maintenance
Upgrades /
Improvements
Figure 8: Closed loop maintenance system.

The conventional way of maintaining equipment and returning it back into operation as
displayed in figure 9 should be replaced by the closed loop system. The conventional way of
maintaining equipment is a repetitive action that only becomes necessary when there are
problems to be addressed through maintenance action. Fewer savings and improvements can
be realised from this sequence as compared to the closed loop system.
Equipment for Equipment ready

Repair Process
repair for operations
Figure 9: Conventional maintenance sequence.
The closed loop maintenance strategy includes,
 inputs of design where the complete or partial replacement of equipment or

components is required
 continuous improvement where the upgrades to components or equipment are done to
enhance performance or reliability
 enhancements to preventive maintenance actions
 introductions of predictive technology to assist in managing maintenance
35
In support, monitoring by PdM with the use of technology or maintenance control
measures to ensure constant or periodic monitoring of equipment that ensures that
components or equipment are available for longer periods (Camci, 2015).
An attempt to close the loop by utilizing historical maintenance data is made in the case
study to follow as most of EBPs maintenance follows the sequence of figure 9.
5.2.1 Case Study
The case study for the re-design and continuous improvement was conducted on a multi-
component QC packing station (figure 10) that needed to be simplified in order to further
enhance justification of its investment.
EBP undertook to increase its production capacity and required an additional packing station
to match the increase in production of other areas of the plant. The value of components on
the new station needed to be realised especially because the old station used parts that were
outdated and overdesigned. This would also require vendors or suppliers to be accountable
for parts failing earlier than anticipated. The old station served as a basis for the new station’s
redesign or improvement by having modern design modifications and components that would
reduce the failures through these interventions. Without verification from maintenance data,
the notable areas of concern from operations are noted in figure 10. These are areas of high
inefficiency, high stock usage, pose a safety risk and are frequently failing. All these have
parts in motion.
The old machine although still in use had old parts and technology that included
sprockets/chain assemblies, suction cups and custom design parts that could be replaced by
modern timing pulleys and chains, vacuum systems and off the shelf standard components
respectively for instance.
The reduction of failures through design had to be realised by using FMECA processes as
well as RCFA on worn or failed components. The failure modes had to be understood after
parts had failed and designed out so as to reduce the rate of wear, erosion, fatigue and other
causes (Tang, 2015).
36
Notable areas of concern:
Vertical lift assembly
Cross travel
Lift-box
Rack & pinion driven trolleys
High pressure low volume

centrifugal fan
Figure 10: Quality Control Packing Station for fibreglass flat sheets.
5.3 Maintenance Philosophy
EBP’s Operations Manager made it known that the organization uses breakdown
maintenance and production lot sizing mostly as its maintenance philosophy. The reason for
this is that the severity of the disruption in conducting traditional PM is too time consuming
and would result in not meeting production targets. It is believed that the benefit of
conducting breakdown maintenance far outweighs the cost of disruptions. Conversely, the
advantage cited by (Colledani, 2014) would be the increase in component quality at the
expense of production time. (Colledani, 2014) states however that the frequency of the
maintenance can affect overall production.
At EBP PM is applied through production lot sizing where a halt in production on a weekly
basis where necessary cleaning takes place allows for maintenance teams to conduct
maintenance on moving parts and to replace worn out components or components close to the
end of their life cycle. This opportunistic maintenance (OM) takes advantage of a routine
necessary stop and utilizes maintenance teams that would otherwise be idle to perform tasks
that prevent and safeguard the operations from failure once they resume (Okogbaa, 1992).
37
This combination of production and maintenance needs an operations management style of
leadership that is not biased to maintenance or production activities but views the
contribution of both disciplines as equally important to achieve success. History of failures
and experience play an important role in the choice of equipment to replace at EBP and this
has been improved with time giving rise to unmeasured continuous improvement in
maintenance although the reduction in breakdown frequency shows improvement even with
the direct source of improvement and quantification there-of does not exist and is not
measured.
5.4 Methods for reviewing failures
5.4.1 Failure Reporting and Corrective Action Systems
Failure reporting and corrective action systems (FRACAS) can be used in recommending
corrective actions on failures that have occurred. Contributions in the industrial environment
from engineering, quality and production departments as well as from and vendors supplying
goods can be used in the FRACAS process to justify actions to improve the reliability of
failed equipment or components. The multi-linked FRACAS loop in figure 11 ensures a
systematic approach to corrective actions where data from various sources is collated in order
to carry out corrective actions.
Figure 11: Fracas loop (http://www.mtain.com).

The collection of repair and maintenance data illustrates maintenance issues, mean time
between failures (MTBF), RCFA and mean time to repair (MTTR). Quantitative analysis
38
allows for failure reports to be drawn up that can give insightful information that can bring
about some form of change to maintenance strategy, maintenance action or continuous
improvement.
Qualitative approaches can also be used to determine reliability where the reliability of the
individual components is calculated and introduced to models or equations that represent a
combination of reliabilities for multi-component systems. For the purpose of the case study
and application in the industrial environment, the FRACAS approach is easier as most of the
data can be collected from relevant sources in the workplace and therefore is used. The loop
in figure 11 can be the basis of maintenance policy and it needs quality input from work done
in order to function as intended.
5.4.2 Analysis of Original Designs
To determine a basis for the reliability of components the original design needed to be
studied and each original component identified. Table 3 shows the identification of parts and
materials as designed initially. The machine being analysed in its then working state needed
to be compared to the original designs to analyse the evolution from its original state and
whether additions were necessary.
39
Table 3: QC Station - original design drawing analysis.
Component description
and material list of
parts
Labelled Identification
of parts from original
design drawings
Modernization of the original designs and replacement of old parts could only take place
through the process of working from original designs and the assessment of component
reliabilities through historical maintenance data. The process of improving the identified parts
needs to take safety into account by verifying the strengths and ease of use. Newer
technology could be introduced where possible by firstly using off the shelf alternatives as
these are better supported, more affordable and can reduce the stock-holding. Custom made
product trolley wheels could be replaced by cheaper off the shelf alternatives for instance.
5.4.3 Root Cause Failure Analysis
RCFA could be performed from the existing old machine where the wear rate, failures and
frequently failing parts are identified. Table 4 shows the identification of frequently failed
parts prior to performing RCFA. Using GPS, new ideas to improve on old designs were
utilized through working with knowledgeable individuals internally (IKS) and externally
(EKS) (Choo, 2015). Introduction of technology also increased the skills level of employees
that would maintain and utilize the technology.
40
Table 4: Component and parts failure analysis.
Area of concern identified

by numbering on
photographs
Description of
component of
concern and material,
equipment or parts
used it comprises of
With the knowledge that 30-40% of accidents involved individuals with 1 – 5 years
experience, modifications and improvements need to be coupled with processes and
procedures as well as extensive training (Chinniah, 2015). The root cause analysis would also
be an opportunity to increase the safety and reduce the risk of injury as part of the
improvement initiative (Chinniah, 2015).
RCFA allows engineers to justify any change and effects there-of. In the case of an
improvement such as that in the case study, the safety factors and financial impact played an
important role in getting approval to proceed with the proposed changes.
41
5.5 Plant Maintenance data and interpretation (old QC)
5.5.1 Data Analysis – Old machine
The analysis of maintenance data for the old QC station collected from the EBP’s ERP
system is shown in table 5 which is an extract of all the maintenance action on the machine. It
details the failure type, action performed, duration and personnel involved.
Table 5: Partial data on quality control station from ERP system.
Work order / Job card

number
Description of
maintenance action
required
Description of
machine/area to be worked
on
Foreman requested to
respond to
maintenance action
Responsible person
assigned to respond to
maintenance request
Manually calculated
hours from job card
issued back after
completion of work
The data collected over 8 months (available in appendix 1) is categorized into 29 failed
components, failure types or machine areas in Table 6. This of data was discussed with
experienced personnel who know the nature of failures as they have worked with the
machines on a daily basis and are credible sources.
The areas of focus derived from the collected data concluded that
 original designs needed verification
 changes to the machine from its original state needed to be understood
 training needs for maintenance were identified
42
o maintenance needs to be done right at the right time
 failure reporting needed review – communication of failures needed to be more

detailed
 scheduled maintenance needed improvement
o the focus on maintenance needed to prioritize on frequently failing parts
 there was low value from the ERP data collection (table 8)
o not easy to collate and quantify
o not user friendly
o required further work to extract value
o needed time consuming input into spreadsheets to extract value
o ERP system was not a planning tool
A revamp of the ERP system is necessary to achieve adequate planning and best utility form
the data received from maintenance personnel following their intervention.
5.5.2 Findings – Old Machine
The findings from the RCFA, comparison of the machine state with the original design,
scrutinising of the components, analysis of data and consultation with experienced personnel
identified
 frequently wearing parts
 mean Time To Repair (MTTR)
 severity of impact on loss of production/maintenance cost
 areas where design modifications or introduction of new equipment, components or

technology could be implemented
The collated data is presented in table 6
43
Table 6: Failure data of old QC machine.
MONTHS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 TOTAL HRS COUNT %
1 Misalignment 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 2 0.340611
2 Trolley gearbox 1.5 1.5 2.25 0 0 0 0 0 5.25 3 0.894104
3 Rollerbed 20.25 10.5 47.5 8.5 11.75 5.75 7.5 8 119.75 85 20.39409
4 Electrical trip 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.5 2 0.425764
5 Vertical lift 1 7 32 7 8 0 0.5 5 60.5 40 10.30348
6 Lost Sequence 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7 Liftbox 17.5 19.25 39.25 15.25 6.75 3.5 5 13.25 119.75 90 20.39409
8 Mechanical repairs 0.75 0 3.5 0 0 0 0 0 4.25 3 0.723798
9 Production change 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 3 2 0.510917
10 Air pipe 4.5 9.5 27.25 0 0.5 1.5 1 1 45.25 30 7.706325
11 Trolley / gearbox 1 1.5 4.25 1.25 3.5 1.75 0 0 13.25 13 2.256548
12 Conveyor 0 1 6 0 0 1 0.75 1 9.75 6 1.660479
13 Limit mechanical 2 0.5 4 1 7 0 2.5 1 18 17 3.0655
14 Offloader Cross travel - 5.25 3 6.5 1 3 0 1 1 20.75 14 3.53384
15 Lights 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16 Trolley rails/trolley off rails 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1.5 2 0.255458
17 Size change 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0.5 1 2 4 0.340611
18 Electrical programming 12 0 5.5 0 1.5 0 0 0 19 7 3.235805
19 Vacuum fan 26.5 1.5 6 0 13.5 0 2.5 9 59 22 10.04803
20 Roller drive 1.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.5 2 0.255458
21 Squaring table 2.3 0.5 12.5 12 0.5 3.75 3 3 37.55 33 6.394973
22 Offtake-taperlock 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
23 ?? 0.5 3 4 0 1.5 0 0 0 9 6 1.53275
24 Compressed air line 0 1 5 7 1.13 0 1.5 1.5 17.13 29 2.917334
25 Tripped 2.5 0 1 0.5 0.5 0 0.5 0 5 6 0.851528
26 Cross travel 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
27 No. 2 pulley gearbox 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
28 Electrical parts 7.5 1 2 0 1 0 0 0 11.5 5 1.958514
29 REPAIR OFFLOADER 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
110.05 60.75 209 55.5 60.13 17.25 26.25 48.25 587.18 423 100
The table contains the total downtime hours per month and over an 8 month period. The
number (listed under count in table 6) and type of failures over the 8 month period are
included in the table with the raw data in appendix 1. The frequency of failures also signals a
lack of predictive and preventive maintenance measures that could result in the reduction of
failures and increased availability.
The 29 failure categories over the 8 month analysis period are represented in the pie chart in
figure 12 which shows the percentage contribution as a result of each category to the
downtime of the machine. This can also be quantified in terms of cost of maintenance as this
is how much time they spent resolving the problem.
44
Figure 12: Pie chart representing data collected for old QC machine.
The failure areas with the highest downtime hours are easily identified in the pie chart and are
areas that required re-design or upgrades.
5.5.3 Actions- Redesign and Replacement
The actions from the findings were to replace, re-design or render items or components
obsolete.
Re-design
The justification for re-design aims to find:
 Simpler Solutions
o for maintainability to be improved
45
o standard parts to be more simple and easily attainable
 Better Designs
o reliability of components to be in line with manuals
o re-designs to included revised Safety factors
o re-designs to include modern and more efficient technology
 Faster Operation
o using modern technology
o as a result of reduced maintenance intervals
Typical upgrade changes and modifications of the original design for technology
improvements included proposals such as figure 13 for the modification of the liftbox to
replace highly inefficient system in figure 14. This part contributed to 20% of all lost time
and was the highest contributor; it experienced 90 of the 423 reported failures and 119 of the
587 hours of downtime. Design proposals on the roller-bed were also proposed and approved.
The benefits of the approval are listed below in figure 13.
High pressure vacuum fan proposed to replace

centrifugal fan used to lift product
Lightweight aluminium structure to reduce

shock loads and stresses on moving parts
Vacuum pads proposed to replace vacuum box

arrangement
Figure 13: Design recommendation for lift-box.
46
“Gripper assembly” Multi-component linkages
that often failed due to excessive loads
Original Vacuum box with rubber mats to aid

suction of product
Figure 14: Old lift-box mechanism.
The lift-box in figure 14 could be replaced by the more modern lighter, stronger and flexible
lifting box with adjustability. The effect of the modification reduced stock holding of
frequently failing items and machine down-time due to stoppages as detailed in the resulting
table that shows the most significant reduction in downtime from all changes that were
implemented. The improvement proposal resulted in the approval to install a new vacuum
lifting mechanism shown in operation at EBP in figure 15. The most significant change of the
improvement in figure 14 was replacing the “gripper assembly” identified as an area of
concern in table 4. This was also a safety concern.
Multiple spaced vacuum pads

with more flexibility replacing
a heavy rigid box
Suction cavities on pad over

a reduced area
Figure 15: Approved vacuum lifting device in operation at EBP.

Source [http://www.aero-lift.de].
47
The change to other various parts or components was conducted in a similar manner and
some components such as the vertical lift that accounted for 10% of total downtime time and
the roller-bed that accounted for 20% were re-design and fabricated.
The steps for using RCM shown in figure 4 were used in determining what to re-design for
the new machine based on historical data collated for the old machine. The aim of the design
was to reduce the frequency of breakdown maintenance of the machine as well as reduce the
number of rejects while operating at an increased production rate. This would result in an
increase in the OEE. The purpose of improving the design was to increase the reliability of
components (Coetzee, 2006) by reducing the rate of wear or stress caused as a consequence
of the production process.
5.6 Plant Maintenance data and interpretation (new QC)
The results of the new QC machine are shown in table 7. The data used to compile the table
was taken over a period of 11 months with the raw data in appendix 2.
Table 7: Failure data of new QC machine.
MONTHS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 TOTAL HRS COUNT %
1 Misalignment 7.75 0 3.83 2.5 0.5 1.5 0 3 0 0 3 22.08 20 5.37
2 Trolley gearbox 3 0.5 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.5 6 1.58
3 Rollerbed 10.25 9.34 4.5 2 8.5 11.5 3.5 11.25 0 1 2.33 64.17 50 15.61
4 Electrical trip 1.25 0.5 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.25 3 0.55
5 Vertical lift 1.5 1.5 7.83 5 4.25 1 0 4 0 0 0.5 25.58 14 6.22
6 Lost Sequence 1.58 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.58 1 0.38
7 Liftbox 12 6.5 4.83 13 7.75 1 2 6 1 1 4.5 59.58 52 14.50
8 Mechanical repairs 1.5 0 0.5 0.5 2 0 0 12 0 0 0.25 16.75 9 4.08
9 Production change 1 0.75 0 0 0.5 0.33 0 2.25 0 0.5 0 5.33 9 1.30
10 Air pipe 5.5 5.25 3.25 5.25 15 0 0 6.25 0 2.5 6.25 49.25 60 11.98
11 Trolley / gearbox 0.75 1 5.25 5.25 1 3 3.75 11.75 0 3 1.5 36.25 29 8.82
12 Conveyor 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0.49
13 Limit mechanical 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0.24
14 Offloader Cross travel - electrical
1.5 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 3.5 3 0.85
15 Lights 1 0 0 0.75 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.75 2 0.43
16 Trolley rails/trolley off rails 4 0 0.92 0 1.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.17 5 1.50
17 Size change 0 1.5 0 0.5 1.5 1 1 3.75 1 0 2 12.25 19 2.98
18 Electrical programming 0 0 1.83 0 0 0 0 1.5 0 0 0 3.33 4 0.81
19 Vacuum fan 0 0.5 2 0 1.5 0 2 0 0 2.5 7 15.5 15 3.77
20 Roller drive 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 2.5 4 0.61
21 Squaring table 0 1 0 3.34 2.5 1.5 0.75 8.08 3 0.5 2.5 23.17 26 5.64
22 Offtake-taperlock 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0.73
23 ?? 0 0.75 4.75 0.33 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 6.33 6 1.54
24 Compressed air line 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 4 0.97
25 Tripped 0 0 2 0 1 0.16 0 1 0 0 0 4.16 6 1.01
26 Cross travel 0 0 2.25 0 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 12.25 9 2.98
27 No. 2 pulley gearbox 0 0 0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5 1 0.12
28 Electrical parts 0 0 0 0.67 5.08 0.75 0.5 13.25 0 0 0 20.25 18 4.93
29 Repair offloader 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 0 0 0 0 12 1 2.92
55.58 35.09 47.24 39.59 56.83 22.74 25.5 88.08 11 11 30.33 410.98 378 100.00
The 29 failure categories over the 11 month analysis period post modifications are
represented in the pie chart in figure 16.
48
Figure 16: Pie chart representing data collected for old QC machine.
The positive aspects of the new findings are reduced downtime as a result of the reduced
frequency of breakdowns. The effects of the improvements are shown in table 8 that shows
the improvements by comparing the monthly average of failures before and after the
upgrades.
49
Table 8: Monthly average comparison of breakdown data.
OLD QC NEW QC
8 MONTHS 11 MONTHS % CHANGE
BREAKDOWN TOTAL HRS COUNT AVE HRS/ MONTH TOTAL HRS COUNT AVE HRS/MONTH
1 Misalignment 2 2 0.3 22.08 20 2.0 803%
2 Trolley gearbox 5.25 3 0.7 6.5 6 0.6 90%
3 Rollerbed 119.75 85 15.0 64.17 50 5.8 39%
4 Electrical trip 2.5 2 0.3 2.25 3 0.2 65%
5 Vertical lift 60.5 40 7.6 25.58 14 2.3 31%
6 Lost Sequence 0 0 0.0 1.58 1 0.1 NEW
7 Liftbox 119.75 90 15.0 59.58 52 5.4 36%
8 Mechanical repairs 4.25 3 0.5 16.75 9 1.5 287%
9 Production change 3 2 0.4 5.33 9 0.5 129%
10 Air pipe 45.25 30 5.7 49.25 60 4.5 79%
11 Trolley / gearbox 13.25 13 1.7 36.25 29 3.3 199%
12 Conveyor 9.75 6 1.2 2 1 0.2 15%
13 Limit mechanical 18 17 2.3 1 1 0.1 4%
14 Offloader Cross travel - electrical 20.75 14 2.6 3.5 3 0.3 12%
15 Lights 0 0 0.0 1.75 2 0.2 NEW
16 Trolley rails/trolley off rails 1.5 2 0.2 6.17 5 0.6 299%
17 Size change 2 4 0.3 12.25 19 1.1 445%
18 Electrical programming 19 7 2.4 3.33 4 0.3 13%
19 Vacuum fan 59 22 7.4 15.5 15 1.4 19%
20 Roller drive 1.5 2 0.2 2.5 4 0.2 121%
21 Squaring table 37.55 33 4.7 23.17 26 2.1 45%
22 Offtake-taperlock 0 0 0.0 3 1 0.3 NEW
23 ?? 9 6 1.1 6.33 6 0.6 51%
24 Compressed air line 17.13 29 2.1 4 4 0.4 17%
25 Tripped 5 6 0.6 4.16 6 0.4 61%
26 Cross travel 0 0 0.0 12.25 9 1.1 NEW
27 No. 2 pulley gearbox 0 0 0.0 0.5 1 0.0 NEW
28 Electrical parts 11.5 5 1.4 20.25 18 1.8 128%
29 REPAIR OFFLOADER 0 0 0.0 12 1 1.1 NEW
587.18 423 73.4 410.98 378 37.4 51%
5.7 Results and Interpretation
Re-design has the potential of improving breakdown and failure rate frequency and thus
contributing to greater availability and production time. Areas of further continuous
improvement can always be found after the re-design process as noted on the results of the
case study. Further work on MTBF and MTTR can further enhance the reliability of
components and refine maintenance intervals. Further work for replace the right parts before
imminent failure by utilizing predictive and preventive maintenance can justify predictive
technology.
The interpretation of the results for a very complex multi-component machine with 29
maintenance areas is interpreted in a single table showing results that can be used in
justifying motivation for investment and maintenance upgrades identified in chapters 4.1, 4.7,
5.4.1 and 5.4.7.
50
Table 8 shows the monthly average of the data collected on the old and new machines where
data on the old installation was measured over an 8 month period and 11 month period on the
new or upgraded installation. The total number of hours where the machine is not available
on the new machine over 11 months of operation is less than the total hours over an 8 month
period for the old machine. The same applies when viewing the total quantity of breakdowns
for the respective periods. The average number of hours per month allows us to compare the
monthly average of the two machines in order to assess the impact of the improvements.
Once compared, the data reflects an average of 73.4 hours downtime on the old machine and
37.4 hours on the new machine which is decrease of 50.9% on downtime. The negative
aspects of the results are the new 6 breakdown areas as well as the increase in downtime
hours in areas that are marked in red in the “% change” column.
The results of the case study conducted show the benefits of continuous improvement and re-
design. The positive effect on the reliability of components validates the exercise and
investment and should be a practice exercised in the maintenance environment. Of interest is
that redesign can introduce new failure areas that were unforeseen at design stage and these
need to be managed. Through the continuous improvement exercise conducted the primary
areas of concern were identified resolved with the resources available. This contributed in the
increase in IKS associated with the maintenance department as there is better knowledge of
how the machine operates and needs to be maintained.
The significant impact of the improvements can bring about the following
 reductions in stock-holding of spares required

 modifications or retrofits of other old machinery
 re-assigning the maintenance personnel to other areas interest due to reduced demand
 optimising of preventive maintenance to further reduce breakdowns and downtime
 restarting the RCFA process with data collected and repeating the exercise
The chapter focused on the effects of introducing continuous improvement and presented the
maintenance philosophy used at Everite Building Products. The status of maintenance was
assessed for a Quality Control packing station through quantitative analysis and the
improvements presented and interpreted after the implementation of measures.
51
CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION
6.1 Introduction
Best practice methods for preventive maintenance assist an organisation in optimising

maintenance through reducing maintenance costs, improving the system availability,
improving safety and the reliability of equipment (Chinniah, 2015). This in effect means the
increase in OEE where operations are more efficient, the improvement in quality standard
and increase in safety of all people working. The objective for the organisations maintenance
is to shift from reactive and preventive maintenance to planned maintenance that is constantly
monitored and the paper highlights methods and changes that need to be implemented to
achieve this. (Arnaiz, 2013) shows the impact of preventive technology and how it can aid in
decision making when maintenance strategies are considered for a company’s growth.
6.2 Research conclusions
The management of change and the impact on sustaining knowledge to advance organizations
to becoming more competitive in a fast changing environment where the reliance of external
service providers is an essential aspect that needs further consideration and possibly can be
researched. Transfer of knowledge and skills as well as the up-skilling of individuals to
enhance IKS as well as the use of TPM can sustain the organization through competitive
times as the aims of these two areas are centred around people and their ability to work
together toward a common goal while growing their skill and contributing to company
growth.
EBP can benefit from the introduction and implementation of policies and strategies
highlighted in the research. The feedback from the organizations ERP system needs further
manipulation to get valuable information and can be altered to suit systems researched and
those available in the market to assist in the planning of maintenance activities. The impact
and management of this change can be researched further as this will drive maintenance from
the software but also needs to be managed by individuals who can advise contrary to the
recommendations of software where necessary. Predictive and preventive actions and
planning can only be implemented following maintenance action and the assessment of past
events over a period of time. The maintenance data of past events needs to be credible,
reliable and have details needed to make important decisions. Scheduling and planning is
52
reliant on this data and the system to support this information is a key business tool that is
needed.
The use of tools and processes can be implemented into maintenance policy as key guidelines
for managing maintenance. The change or growth of the organization’s maintenance needs to
follow defined steps for reliability centred maintenance with impacts being assessed by CLDs
for conceptualising and the effects of change by using FRACAS loops. The design and of
these tools can be researched further as it requires participation from different disciplines or
departments in the organization for any benefit to be realised. A computerized program to
support maintenance is needed that complies to an already established policy and assists in
the execution of an already defined structure and maintenance plan.
6.3 Case study conclusions
Gaps have often been identified where the interpretation of the intention by an organisations
management on maintenance has not been translated into improvements and implementation.
Factors influencing improvements highlighted in the research can aid in meeting set
objectives and they stress the need for learning, knowledge and improvement in human
intellectual capital on operations and maintenance. This increase in IKS is necessary to
sustain organisations as it is the internal knowledge that can bring out change that can
improve the efficiency of plant maintenance that contributes to the manufacturing output.
The process followed in the case study closely relays the content of processes recommended
in the literature review conducted specifically in areas of RCM, the maintenance data from
software tools, equipment choice and selection as well as the FRACAS process. Analysis of
failures was conducted, the frequency of failures was considered and the origin of the
equipment and machinery used was investigated to show what deviation from original
designs was done over time. The findings after completion of improvements shows the
impact to maintenance activities and resources which can be translated to financial terms
allowing a sound measurement of the return on investment which as researched is not a
common trait after introduction of assets that organization invest in.
Where reliability levels are not acceptable, an effort to reduce the breakdown maintenance
effect of poorly maintained equipment is needed. This can be done by assessing the failed
products or equipment, assessing the damage and finding ways to mitigate in the form of
redesign or applying predictive and preventive maintenance.
53
The balance between maintenance, production output and quality is a relationship that needs
to be controlled through the management of manufacturing operations.
6.4 Recommendations and suggestions for future research
A well structured maintenance plan is recommended to support all improvements made to

EBP’s machinery to achieve a balance in production, quality and maintenance for simpler
interpretation a CLD for the machinery and equipment concerned can be created to support
future improvement initiatives. Investment in an ERP system is needed for rapid results and
reporting. RCM is needed to study and interpret the data so as to enhance the maintenance
activities of a predictive or preventive nature. Records of all maintenance activities conducted
need to be interpreted frequently so that any deviation to the standard set by a maintenance
plan can be addressed.
Further research on optimizing the cost of maintenance can be conducted focusing on

maintenance activities, the introduction of predictive technology, inventory control,
investment in training to increase or maintain the IKS, the assessment of the impact and of
predictive technology and the allocation of resources.
54
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APPENDICES
Appendix 1: Raw old QC data

(Partial EBP Maintenance data) Full data available on request
60
Appendix 2: Raw new QC data
(Partial EBP Maintenance data) Full data available on request
61

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COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION

How to cite this thesis

A Minor Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Degree of

FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Supervisor: Prof JHC Pretorius

Figure 1: Definition of maintenance .......................................................................................... 6

Table 1 Summary of major empirical findings in eight field studies ...................................... 14

EBP Everite Building Products

RCM Reliability Centred Maintenance

TPM Total Productive Maintenance

PPM Predictive and Preventive Maintenance

MTBF Mean Time Between Failures

MTTF Mean Time To Failure

FMECA Failure Mode Effects and Critical Analysis

CLD Causal Loop Diagram

RCFA Root Cause Failure Analysis

RAM Reliability, Availability and Maintainability

RUL Remaining Useful Life

PdM Predictive maintenance

PMPs Predictive Maintenance Programs

PPM Predictive and Preventive Maintenance

AGAN As Good As New

AHP Analytical Hierarchy Process

ALARP As Low As Reasonably Practicable

OEE Overall Equipment Effectiveness

FMCG Fast Moving Consumer Goods

OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer

ERP Enterprise Resource Planning

TOPSIS Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to the Ideal Solution

FRACAS Failure Reporting And Corrective Action Systems

MTTR Mean Time To Repair

I declare that this research/minor dissertation is my own work. It is submitted in partial

Fulufhelo Tshabuse Date

Failure Modes , Effects and critical Analysis (FMECA)

The introduction of a maintenance plan through findings from analysis of the

1.3 Aim or objective

2.1 Predictive Maintenance

Figure 1: Definition of maintenance (http://www.idcon.com, 2013).

2.2 Preventive Maintenance

A possible consequence of this planned maintenance is the disturbance to a production

A cost-benefit analysis for PM needs to be conducted to prove the worthiness of interruption

2.3 What is PPM and what can it achieve?

2.4 Reliability based predictive and preventive maintenance

 Policies based on the discrete-state Markov chains where components are in a

Ri,0,n = Ri,f,n-1 + m2(1-Ri,f,n-1), (1)

Ri,n(t) = Ri,0,nExp (-[ ]β), (n-1)tp ≤ t ≤ ntp (2)

2.5 Chapter Conclusion

3.1 Introduction to maintenance policies and measures

Maintenance policies are “traditionally centred” around resources and cost

 Measures should be accepted by all persons

The selection of maintenance strategy in Table 1 is a reflection of the companies’ corporate

3.2 Economic and cost implications of maintenance on deteriorating equipment

A possible consequence of insufficiently maintained assets is reduced availability and an

Figure 3: Typical graphical display of cost of deteriorating plant (Mobley, 2002).

3.3 Overall Equipment Effectiveness

The Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) is thus

OEE %= A (availability) x PE (performance efficiency) x Q (quality)

3.4 Total Productive Maintenance

TPM aims to have the following in production environments

Implementation of TPM is usually done separately in departments at a high cost. The

Potential benefits of TPM at EBP would be

 increased staff moral sue to participation and inclusivity

3.5 Reliability Centred Maintenance