MIDTERM EXAMINATION IN PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT

I.
II. EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT OF YESTERDAY AND TODAY

Theory X & Theory Y of Motivation

In the 1960s, social psychologist Douglas McGregor developed two contrasting theories that explained
how managers' beliefs about what motivates their people can affect their management style. He
labelled these Theory X and Theory Y. These theories of yesterday continue to be important even today.

People come to work each morning as they are motivated to earn money for their family and at the
same time striving for a position in a certain company. For some , I believe that they get great
satisfaction from their work and take pride in doing the best possible job or simply they see it as a
burden, and simply work for the money.

Theory X and Theory Y of Motivation by McGregor expressed his views of human nature in two sets of
assumptions. They are popularly known as ‘Theory X’ and ‘Theory Y’.

• Theory X stands for the set of traditional beliefs held, while Theory-Y stands for the set of beliefs based
on researchers in behavioral science which are concerned with modern social views on the man at work.
• These two theories represent the extreme ranges of assumptions.

• The managerial attitudes and supervisory practices resulting from such assumptions have an
important bearing on employees’ behavior

Theory X Assumptions

1. Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.

2. Since’ employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with
punishment.

3. Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.

4. Most workers place security above all other factors and will display little ambition.

 Managers who accept theory-X have a tendency to structure, control and closely supervise their
employees. These managers think that external control is clearly appropriate for dealing with
unreliable, irresponsible and immature people. Drawing heavily on Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, McGregor concluded that theory-X assumptions about the nature of man are generally
inaccurate and the management practices that develop from these assumptions will often fail to
motivate individuals to work toward organizational goals. Management by direction and control
may not succeed as it is a questionable way of motivating people whose physiological and safety
needs are reasonably satisfied and whose social, esteem and self-actualization needs are
becoming predominant. In view of the drawbacks of theory-X, McGregor developed an
alternative theory of human behavior called Theory-Y.
 Examples of theory x . Theory X presumes all employees are lazy and will shirk working if given a
chance. Most managers subscribe to this idea. An example is the time clock. You have to clock in
partly because the management thinks you'll arrive late and leave early if you don't.

Theory Y Assumptions

1. Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.

2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the objectives.
3. The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
4. The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population.

Managers who accept theory-Y assumptions about nature of man do not attempt to structure,
control or closely supervise the employees. Instead, these managers help their employees
mature by subjecting them to progressively less external control and allowing them to assume
more and more self-control. Employees derive the satisfaction of social, esteem and self-
actualization need within this kind of environment. It aims at the establishment of an
environment in which employees can best achieve their personal goals by consulting,
participating and communicating themselves to the objectives of the organization. In this
process, employees are expected to exercise a large degree of internal motivation.

 It assumes that lower-order needs dominate individuals. Theory Y assumes that higher-order
needs dominate individuals. McGregor himself held to the belief that Theory Y assumptions
were more valid than Theory X. There is no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is
valid.
 Examples of theory y ;Theory Y presumes that workers want to do a good job and will do a good
job if you let them. An example is an artist on contract to produce art. You tell the artist what
you want done but you leave it to him/her when and how to do it as long as they produce what
you want within your timeline. She can paint at 2AM for all you care - as long as you get art by
the deadline.

 Merits -Theory X and Theory Y •(i) Theory ‘X’ and theory ‘Y’ are a good guide to management,
to not only developing motivational techniques; but also attuning entire managerial systems
around these assumptions about human behavior. McGregor’s assumptions about human
behavior are rather realistic; as in practice we usually find people corresponding to Theory ‘X’ or
Theory ‘ Y’ ideologies.

 Demerits -Theory X and Theory Y . It tends to over-generalize and over simplify people as being
one way or the other. People cannot be put on two extremes. No enterprising man belongs
either to Theory X or Theory Y. It squeezes managerial styles and philosophies into two
extremes of conduct which is devoid of reality. • It suggests that job itself is the key to
motivation. But all people do not see motivation in the job. The management has to motivate
 people to work. People who follow Theory Y still find that they have to behave in a very
directive and controlling manner.

Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model, or Two Factor Theory, argues that there are two factors that an
organization can adjust to influence motivation in the workplace.

These factors are:

Motivators: Which can encourage employees to work harder.

Hygiene factors: These won’t encourage employees to work harder but they will cause them to become
unmotivated if they are not present.

What is Two Factor Theory?

Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation tries to get to the root of motivation in the workplace. You can leverage
this theory to help you get the best performance from your team.

Frederick Herzberg developed this model in 1959. He did this by interviewing over 200 professionals.
The interviews delved into when the interviewees were at their most and least happy with their jobs.

Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation tries to get to the root of motivation in the workplace. You can leverage
this theory to help you get the best performance from your team.

The two factors identified by Herzberg are motivators and hygiene factors.

1. Motivating Factors

The presence of motivators causes employees to work harder. They are found within the actual job
itself.

2. Hygiene Factors

The absence of hygiene factors will cause employees to work less hard. Hygiene factors are not present
in the actual job itself but surround the job.

Motivating factors include:

Achievement: A job must give an employee a sense of achievement. This will provide a proud feeling of
having done something difficult but worthwhile.

Recognition: A job must provide an employee with praise and recognition of their successes. This
recognition should come from both their superiors and their peers.

The work itself: The job itself must be interesting, varied, and provide enough of a challenge to keep
employees motivated.
Responsibility: Employees should “own” their work. They should hold themselves responsible for this
completion and not feel as though they are being micromanaged.

Advancement: Promotion opportunities should exist for the employee.

Growth: The job should give employees the opportunity to learn new skills. This can happen either on
the job or through more formal training.

Hygiene factors include:

Company policies: These should be fair and clear to every employee. They must also be equivalent to
those of competitors.

Supervision: Supervision must be fair and appropriate. The employee should be given as much
autonomy as is reasonable.

Relationships: There should be no tolerance for bullying or cliques. A healthy, amiable, and appropriate
relationship should exist between peers, superiors, and subordinates.

Work conditions: Equipment and the working environment should be safe, fit for purpose, and hygienic.

Salary: The pay structure should be fair and reasonable. It should also be competitive with other
organizations in the same industry.

Status: The organization should maintain the status of all employees within the organization. Performing
meaningful work can provide a sense of status.

Security: It is important that employees feel that their job is secure and they are not under the constant
threat of being laid-off.

The Four Stats

In a general sense, there are four states an organization or team can find themselves in when it comes
to Two Factor Theory.

1. High Hygiene and High Motivation

This is the ideal situation and the one which every manager should strive for. Here, all employees are
motivated and have very few grievances.

2. High Hygiene and Low Motivation

In this situation, employees have few grievances but they are not highly motivated. An example of this
situation is where pay and working conditions are competitive but the work isn’t very interesting.
Employees are simply there to collect their salary.

3. Low Hygiene and High Motivation

In this situation, employees are highly motivated but they have a lot of grievances. A typical example of
this situation is where the work is exciting and really interesting but the pay and conditions are behind
competitors in the same industry.
4. Low Hygiene and Low Motivation

This is obviously a bad situation for an organization or team to find itself in. Here, employees aren’t
motivated and the hygiene factors are not up to scratch.

There is a two-step process to use the Two Factor Theory model to increase the motivation of your
team.

- Eliminate job hygiene stressors.

- Boost job satisfaction.

1. Eliminate Job Hygiene Stressors

The first step to enhancing the motivation of your team is to ensure that the hygiene factors are not
causing dissatisfaction.

Each person will examine hygiene factors through their own unique frame of reference. Because of this,
it’s important to work with each member of your team to understand their specific perspective.

Some common steps to remove hygiene stressors are:

-Rectify petty and bureaucratic company policies.

-Ensure each team member feels supported without feeling micromanaged. You can do this by
using servant leadership or a democratic leadership style.

-Ensure the day to day working culture is supportive. No bullying. No cliques. Everyone treated
with equal respect.

-Ensure that salaries are competitive within the industry. Ensure there are no major salary
disparities between employees doing similar jobs.

-To increase job satisfaction and status, aim to construct jobs in such a way that each team
member finds their job meaningful.

2. Boost Job Satisfaction

Once you have removed hygiene stressors, the next step is to boost the job satisfaction of each team
member. We can do this by improving the actual content of the job itself. Again, a unique approach for
each employee will be required.

Three techniques which can be used to achieve this are:

a. Job Enrichment

Job enrichment means enriching a team member’s job by giving them more challenging or complex
tasks to perform. These more complex tasks should make the job more interesting.
b. Job Enlargement

Job enlargement means giving a team member a greater variety of tasks to perform. This variety can
also make a job more interesting.

Note that with job enlargement the variety of tasks is increased, but not the difficulty of those tasks. If
difficulty increased then that would be job enrichment.

c. Employee Empowerment

Employee empowerment means delegating increasing responsibility to each team member. This can be
done by slowly increasing the amount of responsibility you delegate to an employee.

Herzberg’s Motivation Theory model, or Two Factor Theory, provides two factors that affect motivation
in the workplace.

These factors are hygiene factors and motivating factors. Hygiene factors will cause an employee to
work less if not present. Motivating factors will encourage an employee to work harder if present.

To use the theory within your team, start by getting any hygiene issues resolved. Once you have done
this, you can boost motivation by putting in place as many motivating factors as practical.

III. THRE ROLE OF AN EDUCATIONAL MANAGERS MEETING THE CHANGING DEMANDS OF THE
EDUCATIONAL DELIVERY SYSTEM ENTAILS COMPETENCIES IN PLANNING , ORGNIZING ,
MOTIVATING , LEADING AND CONTROLLING. DISCUSS EACH PROCESS AND GIVE CONCRETE
EXAMPLES.

Management is the art and science of decision making and leadership. A distinct process consisting of
planning, organizing, directing, and controlling and evaluating to accomplish the predetermined
objectives of an institution through the coordinated use of human and material resources. Is the
accomplishment of results through the efforts of other people. It is the process of planning, organizing,
directing and controlling the activities of an institution by utilizing human and material resources so as
to effectively and efficiently accomplish functions of teaching, extension work and research. Need for
educational management is to create a congenial environment, helps to generate the situation without
generating negative consequences.

Knowledge of relevant management theories, principles, concepts, techniques skills and the
applications to educational system is necessary for effective and efficient functioning & outputs It is
required to manage and create institutions of excellence, to train the present teachers to learn and run
educational institutions professionally.

A. THE DECISION –MAKING PROCESS

Decision is said to be making the best choice from two or more alternatives. As an educational manager
he/she needs to carefully plan and identify a problem and decide on a criteria by allocating its weights.
She/he must develop, analyze, and select alternative that can resolve the problem. She/he must
implement the selected alternative and evaluate its effectiveness.

Example:

Michaela is the President of an institution whose teachers need new laptops because their old
ones are outdated and inadequate for doing their job. To make it simple, assume that it is not
economical to add memory to the old computers they have and it is just right for Michaela to decide to
purchase for them and make arrangement with the employees with the payment method.

B. FOUNDATION OF PLANNING

Planning is a process that involves defining the organization’s goals, establishing an overall strategy for
achieving those goals, and developing a comprehensive set of plans to integrate and coordinate
organizational work. Educational managers need to plan a way to anticipate and balance change, to
reduce contradictions, inconsistency and wasteful activities, and to establish coordinated efforts.
Example:

I can relate this in the school where I am affiliated. The president decided to have The Electronic
ID System and to upgrade the school facilities and laboratories to support the needs of todays demand
while our VP on internal affairs planned to have a computer-generated system to be of help in the
Registrar and Accounting. They carefully planned everything out as to which is the most important. ,It is
a matter of weighing and considering its importance. Computer generated system was then set aside
and they focus on the improvement of facilities and laboratories to aid students and the Electronic ID
system which is helpful too for the students to track their academic status,grades/ tracing their behavior
as well or sort of aiding in monitoring their behavior.

C.ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE AND DESIGN

ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

- Formal arrangement of jobs within an organization

ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN

- A process involving decisions about six key elements:

1. Work Specialization - the degree to which tasks in the organization are divided into separate
jobs into with each step is completed by different person

Example: It is then right for a manager to divide tasks among employees so as to avoid
overspecialization, stress, and poor quality of work.

2. Departmentalization

- Functional – grouping jobs by functions performed

- Product – grouping the jobs by product line

- Geographical – grouping jobs on the basis of the territory or locations

- Process – grouping jobs on the basis of customer flow

- Customer – grouping jobs by type of customers and needs

3. Chain of Command - The continuous line of authority that extends from the upper levels of an
organization to the lower level s of an organization and clarifies who report to whom

-Authority

-Responsibility

-Unity of Command
4. Span of Control - The number of employees who can be effectively and efficiently supervised by
a manager

5. Centralization - Organizations in which top managers make all the decisions and lower- level
employees simply carry out those orders

6. Decentralization - Organizations in which decision making is pushed down to the managers who
are closest to the actions.

7. Formalization -the degree to which the jobs within the organization are standardized and the
extent to which employee behavior is guided by rules and procedures.

8. Employee Empowerment - Increasing the decision -making authority (power) of employees

D. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION

One secret of success in organizations is motivated and enthusiastic employees, with such a
diverse workforce, it is ultimately a challenge for managers to motivate employees toward common
organizational goals. It is the job of the administrator to channel motivation towards the
accomplishment of the goal.
E. IMPORTANCE AND QUALITIES OF AN EFFECTIVE CONTROL SYSTEM

Managers are responsible for controlling in the organization and a manager must improve the
effectiveness of the organization’s control system; as can do a great deal to improve the effectiveness of
their control systems.

Principles of the effective control system are;

1. Matching controls to plans and position.

- Control techniques should reflect the plans they are designed to follow. Managers need the
information that will tell them how the plans for which they are responsible are
progressing.Controls should also be tailored to positions, i.e. they may differ in between
positions.Some control techniques, such as those involving standard hours and costs, budgets,
and various financial ratios, have general application in various situations.

However, none of these techniques are completely applicable in any given situation. Managers
should, therefore, be aware, of the critical factors in their plans requiring control, and they must
use techniques and information suited to them.

Controls should also reflect the place in the organization wherein responsibility for action lies,
thereby enabling managers to correct deviations from plans.

2. Ensuring flexibility to control.

- Flexibility is another essential characteristic of an effective control system. This means that the
control system itself must be flexible enough to accommodate the change.
 In other words, the controls should remain workable in the face of changed plans, unforeseen
circumstances, or outright failures.

The illustration may be of an organization whose diverse product lines require 101 different raw
materials. The company’s inventory control system must be able to manage and monitor the
current levels of inventory for all the 101 materials.

When a change in the product line changes the number of raw materials needed, or when the
required quantities of any of the existing materials change, the control system, should be able to
accommodate the revised requirements.

Yet the seniors and probably other students with certain problems may simply have to take the
course and they will be accommodated in its flexible computerized admission registration
system.
3. Ensuring accuracy
- Control systems must also be accurate managerial decisions based on inaccurate information
that may prove costly and harmful.

If for example, sales estimates are artificially high, a manager might either cut advertising on the
assumption that it is no longer needed or increase advertising to enhance the sale.

In either case, the action may not be appropriate.

Similarly, a manager, unaware of the hidden production cost, may quote a sales price much
lower than is desirable. The accuracy of control systems goes a long way in preventing such
damaging upshots.
4. Seeking objectivity of controls
- As far as possible the information provided by the control system should be objective.

If on the other hand, controls are subjective, a manager’s or an executive’s personality may
influence judgments of performance and make them less accurate.

Thus, the control system should ideally provide objective information to the manager for
evaluation and action.
5. Tailoring control to individual managers
- Control systems and information are, of course, intended to help individual managers carry out
their function of control.

If they are not of a type that a manager can or will understand, they will not be useful.

What managers cannot understand they will not be useful; what managers cannot understand
they will not trust; and what they do not trust they will not use.
 6. Pointing up exceptions
- One of the best ways to make control effective is to make sure that it is designed to point up
exceptions.

Controls that concentrate on exceptions from planned performance allow managers to benefit
from the time-honored exception principle and detect those areas that require their attention.

7. Ensuring corrective action through the control

- An effective control system will disclose where failures are occurring and who is/are
responsible for the failures and it will ensure that some corrective action is taken.

8. Control is justified only if deviations from plans are corrected by an appropriate authority.
- Taking the proper corrective action necessitates sufficient authority to accomplish this task.

An effective control system is important for an organization to run properly and achieve its goals. If any
part of it is ignored; then controlling the organization’s resources will be very difficult for managers.

F. INFORMATION QUALITY

Quality managers aim to ensure that the product or service an organisation provides is fit for purpose, is
consistent and meets both external and internal requirements. ... As a quality manager, sometimes
called a quality assurance manager, you'll coordinate the activities required to meet these quality
standards.

G. FLEXIBILITY

Flexibility skills are also relevant to the approach management takes to handling employees. Flexible
managers treat employees as individuals and make an effort to accommodate personal styles and
needs. Managers who are flexible provide workers with greater latitude about the way they accomplish
goals..

I. ETHICS

The ethical role of managers is a combination of being a moral person and being a moral manager. Being
a moral person rests on a combination of key traits such as integrity, honesty, and trustworthiness.
Integrity involves not only forthrightness and honesty or truthfulness but also consideration for the
soundness of the whole entity that one manages as well as of the society in which the organization is
located. Integrity also means firm adherence to a code, such as an ethical code of conduct. Thus, being a
moral person suggests that the individual has integrity and can be trusted. In addition to these traits,
being a moral person also involves behaviors such as doing the right thing, concern for people, being
open, and standards of personal integrity. The essence of ethics, of course, is doing the right thing,
especially under difficult circumstances, and that involves being able to reason well about what the right
thing to do actually is. To be able to reason well about a difficult ethical situation, a person needs to be
open to learning from multiple sources about the situation while taking care not to harm people and
actually attempting to treat people well in the decision-making process or when decisions are being
implemented. To be able to make good decisions ethically, an individual needs to have thoughtfully
developed his or her personal set of standards or values, a personal code of conduct or integrity.
Personal standards allow an individual to think through a decision with a clear rationale in mind.

III FROM A PERSPECTIVE OF A 21ST CENTURY EDUCATION STALWART, TRACE THE HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND OF OUR EDUCATIONAL MANAGEMENT BY INCORPORATING THE VALUABLE ENSIGTHS
THAT YOU HAVE GAINED FROM OUR DISCUSSION ON THE CLASSICAL THEORIES IN MANAGEMENT.

The classical perspective of management, which emerged from the Industrial Revolution, focuses on
improving the efficiency, productivity, and output of employees, as well as the business as a whole.
However, it generally does not focus on human or behavioral attributes or variances among employees,
such as how job satisfaction improves employee efficiency.

Max Weber

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Classical Perspective of Management: The classical perspective of management focused on improving

worker productivity.

Another leader in the classical perspective of management, Max Weber, created the bureaucracy theory
of management, which focuses on the theme of rationalization, rules, and expertise for an organization
as a whole. Weber’s theory also focuses on efficiency and clear roles in an organization, meaning that
management in organizations should run as effectively as possible with as little bureaucracy as possible.
One example of Weber’s management theory is the modern “flat” organization, which promotes as few
managerial levels as possible between management and employees.

Henri Fayol

Henri Fayol, another leader in classical management theory, also focused on the efficiency of workers,
but he looked at it from a managerial perspective—i.e., he focused on improving management efficiency
rather than on improving each individual employee’s efficiency. Fayol created six functions of
management, which are now taught as the following four essential functions of management: planning,
organizing, leading, and controlling.

The classical perspective of management theory pulls largely from these three theorists (Taylor, Weber,
and Fayol) and focuses on the efficiency of employees and on improving an organization’s productivity
through quantitative (i.e., measurable, data-driven) methods. The classical perspective is often criticized
for ignoring human desires and needs in the workplace and typically does not take into consideration
human error in work performance. The classical perspective has strong influences on modern operations
and process improvement, which uses quantitative metrics to determine how effectively a process is
running.

Classical management theory is based on the belief that workers only have physical and economic
needs. It does not take into account social needs or job satisfaction, but instead advocates a
specialization of labor, centralized leadership and decision-making, and profit maximization.

MICHAELA ELAINE M. MONTE, LPT