Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Industrial Crops & Products

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Ocimum sp.: Source of biorational pesticides T

a,⁎ b a a a
Kanika Chowdhary , Ashwani Kumar , Satyawati Sharma , Ritika Pathak , Monika Jangir
a
Centre for Rural Development and Technology, IIT- Delhi, Hauz Khas, Delhi 110016, India
b
Metagenomics and Secretomics Research Laboratory, Department of Botany, Dr. Harisingh Gour University (A Central University), Sagar, 470003, M.P., India

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Ecologically sustainable agriculture is an inherently self-preserving farming system. It denotes conservation of
Ocimum sp both quantity and quality of agricultural produce for prolonged time without undue resource exhaustion and
Sustainable agriculture vitality loss of soil and environment. Ethnobotanical plants have been utilised for pest control since early times
Essential oils of agricultural evolution. Biochemical biopesticides derived from Lamiaceae family (Lavender, rosemary, sage
Plant protection
and thyme) have been well documented in literature. The literature compiled in the present document sum-
Nano agri-pesticides
marises the intensity and impact of research carried out with respect to biopesticidal efficacy (fungicidal,
adulticidal, larvicidal, nematicidal, antihelminthic, ovicidal, oviposition deterrence, repellency, acaricidal, an-
tileishmanial, trypanocidal) exhibited by organic, aqueous extracts and essential oils of all Ocimum sp. together
as a single piece of work. Further, future challenges involved in the development of an efficacious biopesticide at
the field level along with prospective opportunities of nanoscience based agricultural biopesticides have been
discussed. The knowledge and data organised in this manuscript can be utilised as a reference point for future
investigators exploring the application of Ocimum sp. in fight against persistence pathogens and pest.

1. Introduction Broadly biopesticides are categorised in three ways based on their

The present and future creations belonging to our planet demand
definite and realizable changes in agricultural pest control practices
which have been industrially driven from multiple decades in rather
unwisely pattern. As per a recent approximation usage of pesticides on
agricultural crops has grown upto 2.5 million tons (De Oliveira et al.,
2014). Chemical pesticidal pollution has caused irremediable climatic
and topological changes which has severely affected local and regional
farming methods (Ouédraogo et al., 2017). Accumulation of pesticide
residue is another pressing issue. Recent survey in Uganda revealed
higher incidences of facial dysplasia in chimpanzees and baboons by
exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals. Marine turtles accumu-
lated significantly higher amounts of heavy metals in conjunction with
huge pesticidal toxicity in watercourses (Krief et al., 2017; Novillo
et al., 2017; Loughlin et al., 2017). Therefore, in such a scenario of
ecologically depreciating agro-systems; a sustainable, economical and
productive agricultural model shall be espoused. An agri-model should
be built that preserves both quantity and quality of agricultural produce
for prolonged time without undue resource exhaustion and vitality loss
(Fig. 1). Biopesticides are real backbone of sustainable agriculture. In
general, an ecologically apt pesticide shall have lower persistence in
environment and soil, lower toxicity levels towards non target organ-
isms, biodegradable mode of disposal and affordably priced to farmers.
origin: (1) Biochemical biopesticides (naturally occurring active meta-
bolites e.g. verbenone, citrellone etc); (2) Plant-incorporated protec-
tants (PIPs), transgenically synthesised natural biocontrol metabolites/
toxins (e.g., transgenic Bt toxin); and (3) Microbial biocontrol organ-
isms (e.g. Coniothyrium minitans, Bacillus subtilis).
Historically, plant extracts and their parts have been utilised for pest
control until the bulk and cheap availibity of chemical pesticides.
Romans were earliest to utilise aromatic plants for fumigation of
granaries (Dubey, 2011). In order to survive, plants produce secondary
chemical compounds as a defence mechanism against herbivores, pests
and pathogens (Khan et al., 2017; Pavela, 2016a, 2016b). As per an
estimate, out of 6000 plant species screened nearly ∼40% have in-
secticidal attributes and most of them are widely applied in traditional
farming systems (Walia and Koul 2008). Nevertheless, only a handful of
them have been scientifically validated and documented for insecticidal
activity (Isman and Grieneisen, 2013). Lamiaceae family has been well
documented in literature for its potential as insecticide (Clemente et al.,
2003; Kaur and Kaur, 2017). Neem and pyrethrum based botanicals
hold a successful commercial space in biopesticide market. Though as
compared with synthetic compounds their efficacy is slower, however,
they are imperative for a safer environmental and health (Kumar et al.,
2011). Futuristic estimate based on exponential annual growth stated
that overall biopesticides market might shoot upto 20% of the global

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kanikatokasiit@gmail.com (K. Chowdhary).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2018.05.068
Received 10 January 2018; Received in revised form 15 April 2018; Accepted 27 May 2018
Available online 20 June 2018
0926-6690/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
K. Chowdhary et al.
Fig. 1. Need for Sustainable and ecologically sound agro-systems.
pesticide market by 2025 whereas botanicals most likely to occupy 7%
market share (Isman, 2015).
The present consolidation and analysis of the broad biological ac-
tivities displayed by the plant extracts and essential oils of Ocimum sp. is
an elaborate work and is currently most updated document, high-
lighting the broad spectrum of bioactivities. While Pandey et al., in
2014 published a concise review focused on chemical constituents and
biological activities of essential oils derived from Ocimum sp. The re-
view incorporates organic, aqueous extracts and essential oils (EOs)
derived from Ocimum sp. for their efficacy against numerous plant pests
and pathogens. In addition, in the era of precision agriculture perti-
nence of nanoscience based biopesticides as a prospective approach has
been discussed.
2. Review methodology
Informative and related original research papers, review articles,
commentaries and reports were earnestly read and screened for data
compilation and its subsequent analysis. Scientific databases referred
for the purpose included Scopus, Sciencedirect, Pubmed, Scifinder,
ResearchGate, academia.edu and Google scholar. The literature so
collected was further evaluated based on the experimentation con-
ducted under laboratory and field conditions.
3. Botanical description and significance
Lamiaceae (Labiatae), largest dicotyledon family is considered most
diverse with respect to its ethnobotany and ethnopharmacology (Sarac
and Ugur, 2007). It is also known as family of culinary spices (i.e. mint,
oregano, lavender, rosemary, sage and thyme) and folk medicine in
Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia and USA (Fig. 2). Lamiaceae plants hold
unique aroma and essence with them (Giuliani and Maleci Bini, 2008).
687
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
In traditional aromatherapeutic practices, Ocimum sp. extracts are often
utilised for culinary flavours, insect repellency, flu control, anti-in-
flammation, as a sedative and analgesic remedy (Fig. 3). Metabolites
reported from this family includes terpenoids, polyphenols, flavones
and iridoids (Mamadalieva et al., 2017). Many noteworthy studies have
documented insecticidal potential of Lamiaceae family (Magalhães
et al., 2010 and Dias and Moraes, 2014).
3.1. Ocimum sp
Ocimum sp. plants belong to Lamiaceae family, are cosmopolitan
and grown for medicinal and culinary purposes chiefly. In French, ba-
sils are included in conventional seasoning called herbes de Provence.
Italian uses in a famous “pesto” dip while it’s a staple diet in
Mediterranean and Lebanese cuisine (Khoury et al., 2016; Bown, 2001).
O. basilicium has been majorly used for its sweet aroma. O. sanctum
holds a sacred significance in Hindu culture and has been well docu-
mented in Ayurveda and Charaka Samhita (Chowdhary and Kaushik,
2015). Ocimum has been described to have 65 species (Paton et al.,
1999). O. tenuiflorum L. (O. sanctum L.), O. gratissimum L., O. amer-
icanum L. (O. canum S.), O. basilicum L., O. kilimandscharicum G. and O.
micranthum W. are some of the medicinally significant species of the
genus (Prakash and Gupta, 2005, Table 1). In our preceding review,
methyl chavicol variety of O. basicilium was cited as most basil of India,
which is till date considered as one of the profitable herbal plant of
Indian origin (Vasudevan et al., 1999).
3.2. Phytochemical constituents in essential oils of Ocimum sp
Essential oils are chemically volatile. They consist of complex as-
sortment of secondary metabolites of variable chemical classes (Carson
and Hammer, 2011). Majority of the bioactive essential oils described
K. Chowdhary et al. Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701

Fig. 2. Lamiaceae plant family and its application.

Fig. 3. Essential oil production of Ocimum sp. − MPP and MEPP pathways.

from Ocimum species are terpenoids in the form of acyclic mono-
terpenes (alloocimene, p-cymene, citronellal, cis-β-ocimene); cyclic
monterpenes (limonene); bicyclic monoterpenes (camphene, α-pinene);
sesquiterpenes (β-carophyllene); terpene alcohol (linalool), mono-
terpene bicyclic ether (1,8-cineole), terpenic hydrocarbons and fewer
diterpenes. Besides this EO of Ocimum sp. contains significant amounts
of flavones (apigenin) (Fig. 3). Terpenoids are produced in two different
subcellular compartments independently, from isopentenyl dipho-
sphate (IPP) as the precursor molecule in the cytosol via mevalonic acid
pathway (Newman and Chappell, 1999). Whereas in plastids it is syn-
thesised from pyruvate and glyceraldehyde- 3-phosphate via the me-
thyl-erythritol-phosphate (MEP) pathway (Rohmer, 1999). Specific
metabolites IPP i.e. facilitate the “crosstalk” between these two path-
ways from plastids to cytosol (Dudareva et al., 2003) (Fig. 4). The
biological activities exhibited by EOs are cytotoxicity, insecticidal, in-
sect repellency, allelopathy, antimicrobial, antioxidant and anti-in-
flammatory (Dhifi et al., 2016). Prior to commercial usage at large,
toxicity profiling of the essential oil should be carried out; although
toxicity data of a particular essential oil varies according to its com-
position (Vigan, 2010). As per reports, basil oil market price reached
upto US$ 110,00/kg a decade ago (May et al., 2008). Another study
estimated evaluation of basil oil to be 1,200,000 € (Khalid et al., 2006).

688
K. Chowdhary et al. Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701

4. Ocimum sp.: botanical pesticides

(Micozzi and Dibra, 2016; Meyers,

(Hassane et al., 2011; Ngassoum

(Chowdhury et al., 2017; Singh
(Chowdhury et al., 2017) Indian pesticide industry in 2012 was estimated to be USD 3.8 bil-

(Chowdhury et al., 2017)

lion. Top key players includes multinational companies Bayer Crop

(Avetisyan et al., 2017)

(Albuguerque, 1996)
Science Ltd, Syngenta Ltd, United Phosphorus Ltd. Biopesticides hold
4.2% share of Indian pesticide market. India is the global leader of
Azadirachtin based biopesticides in R&D, production and which ac-

et al., 2012)

et al., 2004)
References

counts for 85% share in its biopesticides market. USA is the primary

2003)
exporter of Indian neem based biopesticides (Tata Strategic
Management Group 2013; Sola et al., 2014). Furthermore, India is also
leading ahead of china and Brazil in devoting international academic
Cures skin diseases (sores and boils) including insect bites. Nerol and citral are main

inflammation of joints and headaches. Also cures insomnia and anxiety disorders.
Cures influenza, fever, inflammation and diabetes, roots used as sexual stimulant

research on botanical insecticides by publishing 300 research papers/

Particularly used for gastrointestinal disorders and neutralises poisonous insect

Cures cold, cataract, diarrhoea. Persians (known as Reyhan) use it for treating
Used as a neurotoxic, CNS stimulant, tranquilizer and sedative effects. Treats

year from 2000 to 2010.

Treats cold, hypoglycaemia, fever, malaria, parasitic infestations, reduce

Methanolic extracts of 6 pesticidal plants from South India were

studied for anti-bruchid activity. Highest oviposition deterrence in
Cures nausea, gastrointestinal disorders, and several skin infections.

Callosobruchus chinenesis was observed upon treatment with O. sanctum

extracts (35.5 at 1% dose) found at par with Catheranthus sp. (35 at 1%
dose). Whereas adult emergence reduction of O. sanctum extract
(59.8%) was moderate in comparison with extracts of Vitex sp.(64.2%),
urinary tract infections, stomach ulcers and influenza.

Catheranthus sp.(69.7%), Acalypha sp (75.5%) (Sathyaseelan et al.,

2008). Organic extracts of different plant parts of O. sanctum and O.
canum were tested for antifeedant and larvicidal activity against Heli-
coverpa armigera and Sylepta derogata. Of O. canum flower extracts
bronchitis, viral infections and ulcers

(MeOH and EtOAc) displayed highest larvicidal activity towards H.

armigera (LC50 = 51 mg/L) and S. derogata (LC50 = 58 mg/L). Acetone
constituents of its essential oil.

extract of O. sanctum was best against S. derogata (LC50 = 36 mg/L)

comparable with methanolic peel extract of Citrus sinensis L.
(LC50 = 20 mg/L) investigated in the same study (Kamaraj et al., 2008).
Extracts of O. sanctum, O. canum, O. gratissimum, O. basicilium and O.
Medicinal uses

selloi have been found highly effective against vector mosquitoes i.e.
Anopheles ap., Culex sp. and Aedes sp. (Table 2) (Maurya et al., 2012;
Tennyson et al., 2012; Okigbo et al., 2010; Anees, 2008). Studies re-
stings

ported here hold the merits of further be taken for performance on field
level conditions. Organic plant extracts should also be tested for phy-
(African/clove basil) Occurs in Africa, southern parts of Asia. Naturalized in Mexico,

Southeast Asia, European countries and naturalised in Australia and South America

totoxicity and effect on plant growth before being recommended for use
(Sweet basil) Middle Asia, Eastern Asia, Russia, Europe, South Africa, Central and

(Hairy basil) O. americanum formerly known as O. canum wildly grown in India,

in plant protection.
(Holy basil) Widespread in Indian subcontinent and cultivated throughout the

(Camphor basil) Occurs in eastern Africa (Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, Sudan;

5. Insecticidal activity of EOs of Ocimum sp

Essential oils exert insecticidal activities by altering significant

biochemical parameters. Largely three common modes of action have
been elucidated: Chloringenic system is the prime target of insect
naturalised in Angola, Myanmar, Thailand and India.

neurotoxicity. Disruption of neurotransmission is the quickest way of

Tropical and temperate regions of Asia and Africa

achieving insect mortality. Secondly, they suppress regular develop-

ment, metamorphosis and reproduction system. Thirdly, induction of
high oxidative stress by interfering with various mitochondrial enzy-
West Indies, Brazil, Panama and Bolivia

matic cascades. For, clear understandings of readers, studies compiled

have been categorised based on target pest/pathogen and specific de-
velopmental stage (i.e. oviposition deterrence) in if mentioned certain
Found in India and Sri Lanka

work (Casida, 2009, Nascimento et al., 2015).

Distribution and medicinal attributes of Ocimum sp.

Southeast Asian tropics

5.1. Post harvest pathogens and pests inhibition

South America

Food production faces immense loss due to post harvest infestation

Distribution

globally. It is estimated that 1/3rd of global food production,

costing > $100 billion struggles severe infestation by field and storage
pests. It was estimated that nearly 20–25% food grains are damaged by
stored grain pests in India (Rajashekar and Shivanandappa, 2010).
O. kilimandscharicum

World Bank report approximated that annually sub-Saharan Africa

O. africanum Lour

Ocimum basilicum

O. americanum L.
O. tenuiflorum L.
O. gratissimum L

O. minimum L.

(SSA) countries incur post harvest losses of 4 billion USD (Affognon

Plant species

et al., 2015).
Blended proportions of EOs and individual components of O. kili-
mandscharicum and O. kenyense were tested for their efficacy against
Sitophilus zeamais M. and Rhyzopertha dominica F. Best results shown
Table 1

S.No

were that of complete mortality of S. zeamais in a blend of 1,8-cineole

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

and methyl chavicol as compared with 44% mortality of former

689
K. Chowdhary et al.
Fig. 4. Structures of biologically significant phytochemicals in Ocimum sp.
component alone (Bekele and Hassanali 2001). Interestingly, a relative
study of bioactivity of EOs extracted from 18 different O. basilicum
accessions against stored grain pest Callosobruchus maculatus was in-
vestigated. It emphasised the impact of geographical location on che-
mical composition and bioactivity of EOs extracted. Most repellent and
toxic EO containing linalool was reported in plant collected from Af-
ghanistan (Pascual-Villalobos and Ballesta-Acosta, 2003).
Analysis of agricultural census data quotes that > 570 million farms
are small and family-run globally (Lowder et al., 2016) and small scale
farmers lose 80% of their foodstock to PHL (Nukenine et al., 2002).
Adoption of EOs for minimising PHL has been found compatible with
biosafety standards; they are well documented as effective fumigants
and repellents (Asawalam et al., 2008; Abdollahi et al., 2012; Nenaah
and Ibrahim, 2011). To minimise volatization and enhance field per-
sistence Keita et al. (2000, 2001), suggested adsorption of EOs (O. ba-
sicilium and O. gratissimum) on economically feasible and handy Kaolin
clay. Studies reported complete lack of adult emergence upon dusting of
aromatised powders in storage facility. Likewise, thymol-rich O. gra-
tissimum EO when adsorbed on Mont-CTMA clay (montmorillonite-ce-
thyltrimethylammonium chloride), persisted for 80 days having po-
tency of 70% mortality on S. zeamais (Nguemtchouin et al., 2013).
5.2. Nematicidal activity
Phytoparasitic nematodes are infamously destructive and their
biocontrol is most challenging amongst agricultural pests. Meloidogyne
sp., Tylenchulus sp., and Bursaphelenchus sp. are few of the successful
endoparasites of plant roots (Andrés et al., 2012). Reports on nemati-
cidal activity from Ocimum sp. are almost negligible. This is a research
gap identified by in review that needs to be filled in future. EOs from O.
basicilium were found to be less effective in controlling rootknot ne-
matodes M. incognita K. and W. in motility bioassays (Ntalli et al.,
2010). While, Pandey revealed much higher nematicidal activity (70%
690
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
mortality) of O. basilicum EO at 125 mg/L against M. incognita (Pandey
et al., 2000). Eugenol, major component from O. sanctum EO exerted
impressive activity on juveniles of Tylenchulus semipenetrans when
tested separately (Sangwan et al., 1990).
5.3. Fungicidal activity
Phytopathogenic fungi, around 8000 species are causal agents of
plant diseases. They have been quite infamous for inflicting great
famines in history (El-Mohamedy, 2017). Ocimum sp. is a promising
alternative to control and manage phytopathogens as documented by
several studies (Anthony et al., 2004; Oxenham et al., 2005; Asgari
Marjanlu et al., 2009; Costa et al., 2014).
In 2017, Mohr et al. studied the fungicidal activity of O. gratissimum
EO. Plants were harvested on organically rich dystrophic red latosol
soil. Oxygenated monoterpenes were the predominant components
(linalool, 1,8-cineole, eugenol etc.) in EO extracted. The resultant EO
acted as potent antifungal agent against F. oxysporum f. sp lycopersici
and R. solani at an MIC of 31.25 μg/ml out of the isolates 10 phyto-
pathogenic fungi tested. Mycotoxins spoil 25% of food commodities and
essential oils have been studied for preservative and protective action
against mycotoxigenic fungi (Nielsen and Rios, 2000). Nguefack et al.
from Cameroon have tested thymol-rich O. gratissimum EO for in-
hibitory action on several mycotoxigenic fungi (Nguefack et al., 2005;
Nguefack et al., 2007; Nguefack et al., 2009, 2012). They investigated
synergistic effects of active fractions (based on superior bioactivity than
complete oil) of O. gratissimum EO against Penicillium expansum strains,
causal agent of blue rot in apples. OG1A (thymol rich) −OG1B (cymene
rich) in 50/50 (v/v) exerted better efficacy towards two strains of P.
expansum, thereby achieving dual purpose of maximising the antifungal
activity and reducing quantity of EO to be applied on edible items
(Nguefack et al., 2012).
 Table 2
Plant pest and disease management exhibited by extracts of Ocimum sp.
S.No. Plant species Plant extract investigated Activity exhibited by extracts Lab/field References
conditions
K. Chowdhary et al.

Larvicidal/Adulticidal activity
1. O. basilicum Crude petroleum ether and Anopheles stephensi L. C50 value of 0.01 and 0.007 mg/L and LC90 value of 0.033 and 0.023 mg/L L (Maurya et al., 2012)
imidacloprid (1:1)
2. O. basilicum Hexane and ethylacetate leaf 4th instar of Aedes aegypti L. LC50 and LC90value of 148.5 and 325.7 mg/L L (Tennyson et al., 2012)
extracts
3. O. basilicum Volatile leaf oil Highest mortality at 400 mg/L towards larvae instars and pupae of A. Aegypti L. L (Kalaivani et al., 2012)
4. O. gratissimum Petroleum ether extracts of leaf 100% mortality was achieved at 50% conc. after 24 h towards C. quinquefasciatus S. L (Okigbo et al., 2010)
5. O. basicilium Seed extracts EI50 value of CHCl3 extract 119.82 mg/L and EtOAc extract LD50value of 93.02 mg/L against Anopheles stephensi L. L (Zahir et al., 2010)
6. O. sanctum Acetone, CHCl3, EtOAc, hexane 4th instar larvae of A. subpictus G., C. tritaeniorhynchus G. and Aphis gossypii G. Highest mortality at 21.67 mg/L by MeOH leaf extract L (Bagavan et al., 2009)
and MeOH leaf extracts towards A. subpictus G.
7. O. canum Organic leaf 4th instar larvae of A. subpictus, C. tritaeniorhynchus and Aphis gossypii. Highest mortality at 73.27 mg/L by MeOH leaf extract towards C. L (Bagavan et al., 2009)
tritaeniorhynchus.
8. O. sanctum Acetone, CHCl3, EtOAc, hexane LC50 value of 150 mg/L towards 4th instar larvae of A. aegyptii L. and 82.15 mg/L towards C. quinquefasciatus G. L (Anees et al., 2008)
and MeOH extracts of leaf and
flower
9. O. basilicum Stem extracts in methanol 4th larval instar of the mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus G. LC50 value of 32 mg/L L (Pavela, 2008)
10. O. selloi Ethanol plant extract Biocidal principle coumarin exhibited insecticidal activity against Diaphania hyalinata L., Musca domestica L., Periplaneta americana L., L (Moreira et al., 2007)
Rhyzopertha dominica F.
11. O. basilicum Methanolic aerial plant extract 0.5% of plant extract exhibited 91% mortality of 3rd instar Spodoptera littoralis B. larvae L (Pavela, 2004)
12. O. basilicum Soxhlet extracted Methanolic a) Aerosol formulation (leaf extract: synergist/1.2% w/v) had a 30 min potency of 93% L (Umerie et al., 1998)
extract b) Coil formulation (leaf extract: synergist/0.36% w/v) had a 30 min potency of 95%
13. O. gratissimum Ethanolic leaf extracts 4% ethanolic extract caused 28% mortality of Acanthscelides obtectus S. L (Adeniyi et al., 2010)
14. O. sanctum Organic extracts of leaf Nymphs of A. subpictus at LC50 value of 21.6 mg/L and 4th instar larvae of A. gossypii at LC50 value of 130 mg/L and C. tritaeniorhynchus L (Bagavan et al., 2009)
at LC50 value of 72.4 mg/L

691
15. O. canum Organic extracts of leaf Nymphs of A. subpictus at LC50 value of 88.15 mg/L and 4th instar larvae of A. gossypii at LC50 value of 80.99 mg/L and C. L (Bagavan et al., 2009)
tritaeniorhynchus at LC50 value of 109.12 mg/L
16. O. canum Organic extracts of leaf and 4th instar larvae of gram pod borer i.e. Helicoverpa armigera (LC50 value of 51.78 mg/L; LC90 value of 218.18 mg/L) Sylepta derogata F. L (Kamaraj et al., 2008)
flower (LC50 value of 20.27 mg/L; LC90 value of 113.15 mg/L) and dengue vector Anopheles stephensi (LC50 value of 28.96 mg/L; LC90 value of
492.43 mg/L)
17. O. sanctum Organic extracts leaf and flower 4th instar larvae of gram pod Sylepta derogata (LC50 value of 58.21 mg/L; LC90 value of 285.70 mg/L) L (Kamaraj et al., 2008)
Oviposition deterrence and Ovicidal activity
18. Ocimum sp. Leaf extracts Oviposition deterrence (35%) in Callosobruchus chinenesis L. L (Sathyaseelan et al.,
2008)
19. O. gratissimum Leaf powder 100% mortality and complete reduction of oviposition and adult emergence at 5 g/20 g of leaf powder/rice grain towards Sitophilus L (Law-Ogbomo and
oryzae L. Enobakhare, 2007)

Repellency activity
20. O. gratissimum Methanolic plant extract 100% repellence for 0.5 h against mosquitoes L (Kazembe and
Chauruka, 2012)
21. O. gratissimum Leaf powder 2.5 g of leaf powder effectively repelled post harvest pests Sitophilus zeamais L. and Callosobruchus maculatus L. L (Iloba and Ekrakene,
2006)
Trypanocidal activity
22. O. gratissimum Leaf hexane extract Highest IC50 value of 2.08 ± 0.01 μg/ml towards Tryponosoma brucei rhodesiense STIB 900 L (Abiodun et al., 2011)
23. O. gratissimum Aqueous leaf extract Low viability at 1250 mg/L but no effect in in-vivo study against Tryponosoma brucei L (Adamu et al., 2009)

Anti-plasmodial activity
24. O. gratissimum Leaf methanol extracts Highest IC50 value of 32 mg/L towards CQ resistant INDO strain of Plasmodium falciparum L. L (Kamaraj et al., 2012)
25. O. tenuiflorum Leaf methanol extracts Highest IC50 value of 31 mg/L towards CQ resistant INDO strain of P. falciparum L. L (Kamaraj et al., 2012)
26. O. basilicum Quinones extracted from leaves 12.5 mg/L of extracted quinones inhibited 78% growth of P. falciparum L. L (Kayembe et al., 2010)

Antifeedant activity
27. O. basicilium 95% ethanolic seed extract 70% feedancy deterrence against 3rd-4th instar larvae of Thaumetopoae solitaria F. L (Ertürk, 2006)
Antihelminthic activity
(continued on next page)
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
K. Chowdhary et al. Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701

5.4. Anti-leishmanial and trypanocidal activity

(Kanojiya et al., 2015)

(Ogbebor et al., 2007)

Ogbonnaya, 2006)
Leishmaniasis is a deadly chronic disease caused by protozoa of

Rahuman, 2012)
(Jayaseelan and
genus Leishmania. It is infected by female sandflies (Phlebotomus ar-

(Okigbo and
References

gentipes) as vectors in animals. WHO (2004) recorded leishmaniasis

threatening 350 million people globally. Trypanosomiasis is an ignored
tropical disease affecting third world countries. Drugs currently ad-
ministered for its treatment are expensive and give adverse side reac-
tions. Hence, cheaper and natural remedies are need of the hour
conditions

(Abiodun et al., 2012) and studies of Ocimum sp. in controlling vectors

Lab/field

leishmaniasis and trypanosomiasis are few and scanty.

EO of O. gratissimum showed in vitro inhibition on growth of
L

L
L

Leishmania chagasi promastigote forms at IC50 value of 75 mg/L

Upto 70% reduction of spore germination and mycelial inhibition against Aspergillus niger M., A. flavus, Botryodiplodia theobromae G & F,
Both extracts were highly effective in egg hatching assay; larval development and larval paralysis test against gastrointestinal nematodes

(Oliveira et al., 2009) while it was 135 mg/Lfor L. amazonensis(Ueda-

Nakamura et al., 2006). Trypanocidal activity of basil O. basilicum L. EO
were investigated and depicted IC50/24 h of 102 mg/L against epi-
mastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi (Santoro et al., 2007) whereas for EO
of O. gratissimum it was 100 mg/LIC50 towards Herpetomonas sa-
muelpessoai (Holetz et al., 2003).
Larval stage of Hyalomma anatolicum K. and H. issaci K. at LC50 value of 780 and 1510 mg/ml respectively

5.5. Antiplasmodial and antihelminthic activity

Malaria is caused by the most pervasive parasite on earth

Plasmodium falciparum. It is considered as a major public health pro-
blem in Sub-african countries (UNICEF, 2015). Ethnobotanically sig-
100% conidial inhibition after 24 h of treatment towards Colletotrichum gleosporioides P&S.

nificant plants are widely used for control and management of malaria
(Gessler, 1995). Studies on antiplasmodial activity from EO of Ocimum
sp. are very low though plant extracts and quinones isolated from O.
Haemonchus sp., Trichostrongylus sp., Oesophagostomum sp., and Strongyloides sp.

gratissimum, O. tenuiflorum (Kamaraj et al., 2012) and O. basilicum

(Kayembe et al., 2010) showed considerable antiplasmodial activity. γ
Penicillium chrysogenum F., Fusarium oxysporum and Rhizopus stolonifer E.

−terpinene rich EO of O. gratissimum was tested in vivo assay against

antiplasmodial action on P. berghei and 77.8% suppression in para-
sitemia was observed (Tchoumbougnang et al., 2005). Action of med-
icinal plants for treating gastrointestinal nematodes in grazing animals
has proven its merits (Camurça-Vasconcelos et al., 2007). O. sanctum
EO exerted antihelminthic activity with median effective dose of
237 μg/ml against Caenorhabditis elegans, in which eugenol was the
main EO compenent (Asha et al., 2001).

5.6. Acaricidal activity

Activity exhibited by extracts

Numerous plant extracts were found effective as natural acaricides

on phytophagous mites since mites have evolved resistance to more
than 80synthetic acaricides (Attia et al., 2013; Al-Alawi, 2014 and
Pavela, 2016a, 2016b). Eugenol rich EO of O. suave was highly effec-
tive as potent acaricide against Rhipicephalus appendiculatus on cattles in
paddock grassland (Mwangi et al., 1995). While EOs of O. basicilium
displayed repellency towards R. microplus
(Martinez-Velazquez et al., 2011) and Tetranychus urticae and Be-
misia tabaci (Aslan et al., 2004). Linalool was the putative acaricide in
former study. More research of Ocimum essential oils and extracts must
Aqueous leaf and methanolic

Silver nanoparticles utilizing

be pursued in future.
Plant extract investigated

Ethanolic leaf extracts

aqueous leaf extract

5.7. Oviposition deterrence activity

Plant extracts

Oviposition deterrents are chemicals/metabolites which prevent

gravid females from laying their eggs on a specific host plant. Females
extract

generally take cues from volatiles emitted by plant surface as deciding

factor for laying eggs (Kumari and Kaushik, 2016). EO of O. gra-
O.grattissimum

tissimum, O. sanctum and O. basilicum L. have depicted oviposition de-

Plant species

Antifungal activity
Table 2 (continued)

O.basicilium
Acaricidal activity
O. sanctum

terrence on post harvest insect pests in former studies (Shadia et al.,

O. canum

2007; Asawalam et al., 2008; Ogendo et al., 2008; Kiradoo and Sri-
vastava 2010 and Warikoo et al., 2011). Yarou et al., 2017 re-
commended usage of EOs of O. gratissimum and O. basilicum for inclu-
S.No.

sion in IPM practices in for deterring oviposition in gravid females of

28.

29.

30.
31.

Tuta absoluta by. Also, authors suggested intercropping of basil plants

692
 Table 3
Plant pest and disease management exhibited by essential oils of Ocimum sp.
S.No. Plant species Extraction method Yield Components Applied formulation Biological activity/Organism Effective dose Lab/field References
identified tested conditions
K. Chowdhary et al.

1 O. gratissimum
2 O. gratissimum
3 O. basilicum
4 O. selloi
5 O. basilicum
6 O. tenuiflorum
7 O. gratissimum
8 O. kilimandscharicum
9 O.basicilium
10 O. basilicum
Hydrodistillation of 0.18% Linalool (32%) EO diluted in 2% Fungicidal activity towards 10 F. oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici and R. solani L (Mohr et al., 2017)
fresh aerial parts polysorbate-80 phytopathogenic fungi exhibited 31.25 mg/L MIC
Commercially – Thymol (33%) 5 and 10 mg/ml of EO were Oviposition deterrence towards Effective oviposition deterrence at F (Yarou et al., 2017)
purchased major component in paraffin oil Tuta absoluta M. 0.5 mg/ml of EO
Commercially – Estragol (78%) 5 and 10 mg/ml of EO were Oviposition deterrence towards Effective oviposition deterrence at 1 mg/ F (Yarou et al., 2017)
purchased major component in paraffin oil Tuta absoluta M. ml of EO
Hydrodistillation of – Methyl chavicol EO diluted in 1% propylene Fungicidal activity towards Highest inhibition of L (Costa et al., 2014)
leaves and (93%) glycol Alternaria alternata., M.perniciosa at 125 mg/L
inflorescence Colletotrichum gloeosporioides and
Moniliophthora perniciosa
Commercially – Estragol (74%) 0.001 to 10 mg of EO in Fumigant toxicity towards LC50 of 0.014 and 0.020 mg cm−3 L (Kim and Lee, 2014)
purchased major component ethanol Sitophilus zeamais M. and towards adult populations of S. zeamais
Tribolium castaneum H. and T. castaneum respectively after 2hr
exposure
Hydrodistillation of – Eugenol (66%) EO in poisoned food Antifungal activity towards 100% growth inhibition of R. solani and L (Padalia et al., 2014)
leaves technique Rhizoctonia solani K. and C. cucurbitarum
Choanephora cucurbitarum B. & K.
Hydrodistillation of – Eugenol (78.0%) Same as above Same as above 100% growth inhibition of R. solani and L (Padalia et al., 2014)
leaves C. cucurbitarum
Hydrodistillation of – Eugenol (34.0%) Same as above Same as above 100% growth inhibition of R. solani and L (Padalia et al., 2014)
leaves C. cucurbitarum
Hydrodistillation of – Methyl chavicol Same as above Same as above 63.0-100% growth inhibition of R. solani L (Padalia et al., 2014)
leaves (86%) and C. cucurbitarum
Hydrodistillation of 0.11% Limonene (30.9%) 250, 200, 150, 100, 50 mg/ Adulticidal activity towards LC50 value of L (Belong et al., 2013)

693
leaves L in acetone Anopheles funestus L. 45.61 mg/L 1hr after exposure
11 O.canum Hydrodistillation of 0.44% Linalool (53.8%) 250, 200, 150, 100, 50 mg/ Adulticidal activity towards LC50 value of L (Belong et al., 2013)
leaves L in acetone Anopheles funestus L. 84 mg/L 1hr after exposure
12 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of 0.9% Thymol (54%) EO absorbed on modified Adulticidal activity towards LC50 and LC95 values of 37.9 mg/ml and L (Nguemtchouin et al.,
leaves major component montmorillonite (Mont- Sitophilus zeamais M. 152.3 mg/ml respectively 2013)
CTMA) and unmodified one
(Mont-Na) clay
13 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of 0.75%; a) p-cymene EO dissolved in DMSO a) Antimicrobial activity a) MFC of 0.24 mg/ml towards Candida L (Kpadonou Kpoviessi
aerial plant parts: 0.78% (46.5%) b) Toxicity against Artemia salina albicans from EO of full-flowering stage;, et al., 2012)
a)Pre-flowering stage b) p-cymene (53%) L. larvae MBC of 0.950.03 mg/ml towards S.
b)Full flowering stage aureus from EO of pre-flowering stage
b)LC50 value of 145–146 mg/L against
Artemia salina larvae pre-flowering and
full flowering stage respectively
14 O.grattissimum Hydrodistillation of 0.7% Thymol (49%) and EO fractions (50 μl) Fungicidal activity towards OG1AeOG1B fractions (50/50) gave 0.77 L (Nguefack et al., 2012)
dried leaves p-cymene (61%) dissolved in PDA broth Penicillium expansum L. and 0.67 NDR cfu/ml towards P.
expansum MRC 6935 and MRC 6939
15 O. sanctum Essential oils – – EO Antiparasitoidal activity Parasitoid Exoristas orbillans L (Bora and Khanikor
2011)
16 Ocimum sp. Essential oils – – EO Antiparasitoidal activity Control agent against Exorista sorbillans L (Khanikor and Bora,
constituents with geraniol and nerol having 2011)
LC50 = 124.11 and 135.75 mg/L
respectively
17 O.basicilium Hydrodistillation of – Linalool (30%) EO (1.25 − 20%) in ethanol Acaricidal activity of Moderate repellency towards 10 day old L (Martinez-Velazquez
leaves Rhipicephalus microplus C. tick larvae – Rhipicephalus microplus at et al., 2011)
20% dilutions of EO
18 O. basicilium Hydrodistillation of 0.67% Methyl Eugenol EO dissolved in acetone Fumigant toxicity against stored 1.50 ml cm−2 of EO caused 100% L (Nenaah and Ibrahim,
dried plant parts (71%) grain pests Trogoderma granarium mortality in T. granarium and T. 2011)
E. and Tribolium castaneum H. castaneum
(continued on next page)
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
 Table 3 (continued)

S.No. Plant species Extraction method Yield Components Applied formulation Biological activity/Organism Effective dose Lab/field References
identified tested conditions

19 O.basicilium Steam distillation of 1%, 5% and 10% of EO in Adulticidal activity towards LC50 value of 6.31 for A. aegypti, < 0.1 L (Phasomkusolsil and
K. Chowdhary et al.

– –
leaves soybean oil A. aegyptii L., A. dirus L.and C. for A. dirus and 10.98 for C. Soonwera, 2011)
quinquefasciatus S. quinquefasciatus
20 O. basilicum Hydrodistillation of – – E8 (10% v/v basil/soybean Repellent activity towards Aedes M7 had higher efficacy than E8. A. L (Sritabutra et al., 2011)
leaves oil); aegyptii L. and Anopheles dirus P. aegyptii (98.8) min protection time and
M7(5% v/v basil + 5% & H. 0.9% biting rate and A. dirus (210) min
eucalyptus/soybean oil) protection time and 0.93% biting rate
21 O. basilicum Commercially – – 100- 0.1% EO in ethanolic Oviposition deterrence and 10% oil exerted 95% Oviposition L (Warikoo et al., 2011)
purchased solution ovicidal activity towards Aedes deterrence and 0.1% oil caused 100% egg
aegypti L. mortality
22 O.basicilium Essential oils – Linalool (65%) EO Antifungal activity towards post 600 mg/L efficacy of basil oil towards L (Abdollahi et al., 2012)
harvest pathogenic fungi Botrytis cinerea and Mucor piriformis
23 O. americanum L. Steam distillation of – – 0.05-0.5% crude EO Adulticidal activity towards LC50 and LC90 of 230 mg/L and 700 mg/L L (Ilboudo et al., 2010)
aerial parts Callosobruchus maculatus F. respectively
24 O. basilicum Hydrodistillation of 0.71% Linalool (43%) 1–3% EO in Tween-20 Nematicidal activity against Low nematicidal activity L (Ntalli et al., 2010)
aerial parts major component Meloidogyne incognita K. and W.
25 O. sanctum Essential oils – – EO in poisoned food Antifungal activity towards Effective concentration ≥ 2000 mg/L L (Seema and Devaki,
technique Rhizoctonia solani K. towards R. solani 2010)
26 O. basicilium Commercially – Linalool EO dissolved in acetone Toxicity against LT90 at 10% of basil oil against all L (Chang et al., 2009)
purchased tephritid fruit flies i.e. Ceratitis tephritid fruit flies within 8 − 38 min
capitata W., Bactrocera dorsalis H.
and Bactrocera cucurbitae H.
27 O.grattissimum Hydrodistillation of 0.75% Thymol (46%) EO (50 μl) dissolved in PDA Fungicidal activity towards NDR cfu/ml* ≥ 6 towards A. ochraceus, L (Nguefack et al., 2009)
dried leaves broth mycotoxigenic fungi P. expansum and P.verrucosum at
4000 mg/L at pH 3, 6 and 9

694
28 O. basilicum Steam distillation of – Linalool (%50), 0.1% of EO Repellency activity towards EO active at 0.1% concentration by L (Nour et al., 2009)
(4 accessions) leaves Methyl cinnamate Anopheles adults human-bait technique towards Anopheles
(40%) and Geraniol sp.
(60%)
29 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of 0.54% Eugenol (40%) EO dissolved in DMSO at a Antileishmanial activity towards IC50value of 75 mg/L towards L (Oliveira et al., 2009)
fresh leaves 50 mg/ml Leishmania chagasi C. promastigotes of L. chagasi
30 O. basilicum Steam distillation – – 50 mg/L EO + 1% PBO Larvicidal activity towards 3rd LC50/LC90value of 23.8/59.3 mg/L L (Yadav et al., 2009)
(chemical synergist: instar larvae Anopheles stephensi
piperonyl butoxide) L.
31 O. grattissimum Hydrodistillation of – Thymol (31%) EO on grain maize Fumigant toxicity against stored (750 mg) 0.6% of EO caused 77.5% L (Asawalam et al., 2008)
dried plant parts grain pest Sitophilus zeamais M. mortality rate and inhibited progeny
emergence towards Sitophilus zeamais
32 O. basilicum Steam distillation of – Linalool was the 500, 1000 and 5000 mg/L Larvicidal and antifeedant 94% antifeedancy index and 62% L (Kostić et al., 2008)
leaves major components of EO in ethanolic solution activity towards 2nd instar mortality after 48 h.
amongst 37 sesqu- larvae of Lymantria dispar L.
terpene compounds
33 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of – Methyl Eugenol 0.5–2.0 ml/g grain of EO in Fumigant and repellency activity a) Fumigant toxicity LC50 values of 0.20, L (Ogendo et al., 2008)
aerial parts (64%) −major acetone towards Sitophilus oryzae L., 0.50, 0.50 and 14.0 ml/L air for C.
component Rhyzopertha dominica F., chinensis, R. dominica, O. surinamensis and
Tribolium castaneum H., Oryzae S. oryzae respectively 24 h after treatment
philus surinamensis L. and b) Higher range of percentage Repellence
Callosobruchus chinensis L. values of S. oryzae, R. dominica, T.
castaneum and C. chinensis were 100%,
78%, 38% and 93% after 24 h exposure
34 O.grattissimum Hydrodistillation of – Thymol (46%) EO (50 μl) dissolved in PDA Fungicidal activity towards MFC of fraction 74.7% towards A. L (Nguefack et al., 2007)
dried leaves broth Alternaria padwickii G. and padwickii and 84% B. oryzae at 500 mg/L
Bipolaris oryzae S.
35 O. basilicum Steam distillation of – Linalool (47%) EO dissolved in DMSO at a Trypanocidal activity towards L (Santoro et al., 2007)
leaves 100 mg/ml Trypanosoma cruzi
(continued on next page)
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
 Table 3 (continued)

S.No. Plant species Extraction method Yield Components Applied formulation Biological activity/Organism Effective dose Lab/field References
identified tested conditions

IC50/24 h of 102 mg/Land 467.5 mg/L

K. Chowdhary et al.

against T. cruzi epimastigote and

bloodstream trypomastigote respectively
36 O. americanum Hydrodistillation 60–76 Eugenol (28%)- 2–3% oil in Triton X-100 Insecticidal activity towards 3% conc. exerted 66.42% repellency in L and Semi-F (Shadia et al., 2007)
litres/ major component and water Agrotis ipsilon H. semi-field choice test bioassay and 65%
fed larval mortality in laboratory conditions
after 48hr.
37 O.gratissimum Commercially – Eugenol (75%) EO+ ethyl iso Repellency activity towards 70% reduction of Thrips tabaci in push- F (pasture (Van Tol et al., 2007)
purchased -nicotinate (attractant) Thrips tabaci adults pull approach field, Lincoln,
NZ)
38 O. basilicum Commercially – – 50 mg/L basil oil in acetone Larvicidal activity towards 3rd 86.7% mortality at 50 mg/L after 24hr L (Amer and Mehlhorn,
purchased and tap water instar larvae of Aedes aegyptii L, exposure 2006)
Anopheles stephensi L. and
Culex quinquefasciatus S.
39 O. basicilium Hydrodistillation of – – EO dissolved in ethanol Toxicity against post harvest pest 2% conc. exerted 28.1% mortality of S. L (Popović et al., 2006)
dried leaves Sitophilus oryzae L. oryzae
40 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of – – 50- 200 μg/ml of EO Antileishmanial activity towards IC50value of 135 and 100 mg/L towards L (Ueda-Nakamura et al.,
leaves Leishmania amazonensis C. promastigotes and amastigotes 2006)
respectively of L. amazonensis
41 O.basicilium Essential oils – – Antifungal activity Botrytis fabae and Uromyce sfabae L (Oxenham et al., 2005)
42 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of – γ −terpinene EO in oil Antiplasmodial activity towards 86.6% suppression of parasitemia of P. L (Tchoumbougnang
fresh leaves (21.9%) Plasmodium berghei V. berghei in mice et al., 2005)
43 O.basicilium Commercially – – 0.1–3.0% EO dissolved in Fungistatic and fungicidal MIC of Fusarium proliferatum, L (Anthony et al., 2004)
purchased ethanol 50: 50 (v/v) activities Lasiodiplodia theobromae and
Colletotrichum musae at 0.2-0.6% conc. in

695
poisoned food bioassay
44 O.basicilium Steam distillation of 0.27% – 1.56 − 12.5 μl of EO Acaricidal activity towards 53% and 72% adult mortality of L (Aslan et al., 2004)
whole plant vapours Tetranychus urticae K. and Tetranychus urticae and Bemisia tabaci
Bemisia tabaci G. respectively at 3.125 μl/L dosage after
96 h of exposure
45 O. canum Hydrodistillation of – Thymol 100–600 mg/L in Ethanol Larvicidal activity towards 3rd LC50 value for A. gambiae eggs ranged L (Bassolé et al. 2003)
leaves and 4th instar larvae Anopheles between < 188.7 mg/L, while LC90
stephensi L., A. gambiae L. and A. value < 488 mg/L towards
arabiensis L.
46 O. gratissimum Hydrodistillation of – ·- EO dissolved in 2% Tween Trypanocidal activity towards IC50/24 h of 100 mg/L and 91 mg/L in L (Holetz et al., 2003)
fresh leaves 20 Herpetomonas samuelpessoai defined and complex media respectively
47 O. sanctum Hydrodistillation of 0.6% Eugenol (53.1%) 50–250 (μg/ml) EO Antihelminthic activity towards ED50 of 237 mg/L towards C. elegans L (Asha, 2001)
whole plant Caenorhabditis elegans M.
48 O. kilimandscharium Hydrodistillation of – Camphor (70%) EO (2.5–0.5 mg cm−2) Toxicity against post harvest 100% mortality at doses 1.4 and 0.8 mg/ L (Bekele and Hassanali,
fresh plant parts dissolved in acetone pests cm2 against S. zeamais and R. dominica 2001)
Sitophilus zeamais M. and respectively
Rhyzopertha dominica F.
49 O. kenyense Hydrodistillation of – 1,8-cineole (37%) EO (2.5–0.5 mg cm−2) Same as above 100% mortality at doses 2.0 and 0.8 mg/ L (Bekele and Hassanali
fresh plant parts dissolved in acetone cm2 against S. zeamais and R. dominica 2001)
respectively
50 O. basicilium Steam distillation of – – EO adsorbed on kaolin Larvicidal and ovicidal activity 25 μl/vial of EO caused 80%mortality of F (farmer’s (Keita, 2001)
greener parts powder towards C. maculatus after 12 h. Egg hatching rate storage
Callosobruchus maculatus F. reduced to 3% at 30 μl EO. facility)
51 O. gratissimum Steam distillation of – – EO adsorbed on kaolin Larvicidal and ovicidal activity 25 μl/vial of EO caused 70% of C. F (farmer’s (Keita, 2001)
greener parts powder towards maculatus after 12 h. Egg hatching rate storage
Callosobruchus maculatus F. reduced to 15% at 30 μlEO. facility)
52 O. americanum Leaf essential oils – – EO + 5% addition of Repellency activity towards A. EO repelled all vectors (A. aegypti, A. L and Semi (Twastin et al., 2001)
vanillin aegypti, A. dirus and C. dirus and C. quinquefasciatu) upto 8 h field
quinquefasciatus conditions
(continued on next page)
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
 Table 3 (continued)

S.No. Plant species Extraction method Yield Components Applied formulation Biological activity/Organism Effective dose Lab/field References
identified tested conditions

53 O. basilicum Steam distillation of EO adsorbed on kaolin Larvicidal activity towards L (Kéïta, 2000)
K. Chowdhary et al.

– – 93% mortality by 40 μl of EO mixed with

greener parts powder Callosobruchus maculatus F. kaolin on cowpea weevils
54 O. canum Steam distillation of – – EO adsorbed on kaolin Larvicidal and ovicidal activity 50% egg hatching of Callosobruchus L (Kéïta, 2000)
greener parts powder towards maculatus
Callosobruchus maculatus F.
55 O. basilicum Herbage – – 125–1000 mg/L of EO Nematicidal activity against 70% mortality after 24 h at 125 mg/L L (Pandey et al., 2000)
hydrodistillation dissolved in Tween-80 Meloidogyne incognita K. and W.
56 O. basilicum Hydrodistillation of – Linalool, methyl 5 μl of EO Repellency and toxicity activity OB17 (Afghanistan) depicted 100% L (Pascual-Villalobos and
(18 accessions) greener parts chavicol, and towards Callosobruchus maculatus mortality and while OB46 (Pennsylvania) Ballesta-Acosta, 2003)
eugenol F. showed least oviposition
57 0. kenyense A. Steam distillation of – 1,8-cineole (37%) 1,8-cineole (1–10 μl/ml of Adulticidal activity towards 10 μl exerted L (Obeng-Ofori et al.,
aerial parts −major component acetone) Sitophilus granarius L., S. zeamais 100% mortalities in all tested beetles 1997)
M., Tribolium castaneum H. and after 24 h
Prostephanus truncatus H.
58 O. suave Hydrodistillation of – Eugenol-major 2% of O. suave oil in liquid Acaricidal activity towards LC50 of 0.024% towards larvae of L and F (zebu (Mwangi et al., 1995)
leaves component paraffin Rhipicephalus appendiculatus Rhipicephalus appendiculatus ticks in in- cattle in
vitro bioassay and 10% of oil caused paddock
100% mortality in in-vivo bioassay grassland)
59 O. basilicum Hydrodistillation of – Linalool (TLC EO dissolved in aqueous Nematicidal activity against 2nd Highest toxicity towards T. semipenetrans L (Sangwan et al., 1990)
greener parts determined) major gum acacia at a stage juveniles of Anguina tritici with LC50 of 132 mg/L
component concentration of 20 mg/ml S., Tylenchulus semipenetrans C.,
Meloidogyne javanica T. and
Heterodera cajani K.
60 O. sanctum Hydrodistillation of – Eugenol (TLC EO dissolved in aqueous Nematicidal activity against 2nd Highest toxicity towards T. semipenetrans L (Sangwan et al., 1990)
greener parts determined) major gum acacia at a stage juveniles of Anguina tritici with LC50 of 164 mg/L

696
component concentration of 20 mg/ml S., Tylenchulus semipenetrans C.,
Meloidogyne javanica T. and
Heterodera cajani K.

– =not mentioned.
L/F = studies conducted in laboratory or field conditions.
*NDR cfu/ml = Number of decimal reduction of the colony forming units.
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
K. Chowdhary et al. Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701

alongwith tomato plantation for reduction of eggs laid by T. absoluta. small holder farmers; making them viable, handy and on-site alter-
natives.
Notable limitations of biopesticides such as physical stability, high
6. Challenges, issues and future perspectives
volatility, decomposition, run-off degradation amongst numerous
others could be improved and circumvented with the aid of newer
Biorational or ‘reduced risk’ pesticides are derived from biological/
formulations based on nano-science and technology (Khot et al. 2012;
natural origins that effectively control disease and pests are of high
Scott and Chen, 2012). Nano-formulations provide enhanced stability,
priority in sustainable agriculture. The present review is an in-
effectiveness and control release of active ingredient at the specific site
dustriously prepared, comprehensive literature describing pesticidal
of action (Perlatti et al., 2013). Of different nano-formulations of well
and pathogenic control exhibited by extracts and EOs of Ocimum sp. But
known insecticidal compound Azadirachtin (emulsion concentrates,
results of these reports differ in bioassays, insect and pathogen targeted,
microparticles and nanocapsules) investigated for protection towards
variation in plant and essential oil composition. Out of more than 50
UV degradation and it was revealed that only 20% degradation oc-
studies reviewed, only 12 reported yields of EOs which largely varied.
curred in nano-encapsulated product as compared to control (Costa
Highest reported yield of O. gratissimum EO was 0.9% whilst lowest was
et al., 2014). Papanikolaou et al. (2017) formulated highly effective
0.18%. In case of, O. basicilium EO yield ranged from 0.11-0.71%
pyrethrin nanoproduct with superior penetration, dispersion and ad-
(Table 3). Edapho-climatic conditions considerably influence the yield,
hesion properties.
volatomics and biological activities of EO (Martinez et al., 2005;
High Volatility, difficulty in storage and transportation requires
Lermen et al., 2015). Nevertheless, few generalizations could be de-
reapplication of EOs, which raises their economics and hinders agri-
duced. In the analyses, some of the take home points are: a) leaves were
cultural usage. Likewise, eugenol (main component of Ocimum sp. EO)
most common plant parts investigated, b) bioactivity of the blended
nanoparticles consisting of chitosan and tripolyphosphate exhibited
form and mixtures of fractions have been found to be higher than those
enhanced efficacy and were thermally more stable than control
of purified compounds c) Most of the studies conducted on the subject
(Woranuch and Yoksan, 2013).
pertained to application of Ocimum sp. in post harvest protection
Pesticidal plants are known to have variable chemical profiles that
(equally against Sitophilus sp. and Callosobruchus sp.), which can pro-
usually vary depending on geographical, climatic and genetic, thereby
vide economical and feasible vistas to small and marginal famers d)
making their identical ingredients in the prescribed concoctions nearly
Essential oils were investigated more than organic and aqueous plant
impossible since certain variables everytime are bound to occur.
parts e) Eugenol, followed by linalool (monoterpenes ether and alcohol
Furthermore, abundance of active components makes standardization
respectively) are most putative biopesticidal principle in EOs of Ocimum
of product rather difficult. The tedious process of biopesticide devel-
sp. (Figs. 5 and 6) f) Studies describe potential of EOs and extracts of
opment involves manifold tasks of extraction, isolation, purification,
Ocimum sp. as natural mosquito repellents (Anopheles, Aedes and Culex
structure determination, bioassay studies and usage of appropriate
sp.) The datum emphasise upon recent claim that EOs can be opted as
surfactants, emulsifiers and stabilizers. Researchers should also con-
feasible alternative to pyrethroids resistance in (IRS) indoor residual
sider studying synergistic effects of various combinations and permu-
spraying against mosquitoes (Gnankiné and Bassolé, 2017). Since EOs
tations formed between Ocimum extracts and other already established
have no specific site of action, pests and pathogens find it difficult to
botanicals. Such reinvented chemistries could exhibit promising results
adapt and generate resistance. However, dosage for effective insect
on field. China and India are already marketing biopesticides con-
mortality has been found to be comparable for extracts and EOs of
taining mixtures of two or more plant extracts (Isman, 2017). Likewise,
Ocimum sp. Of plant extract best LC50 value 20.27 mg/L (Kamaraj et al.,
EOs of Ocimum sp. can be investigated for synergism with chemical
2008) was recorded while for EO LC50 value 23.8 mg/L (Yadav et al.,
insecticides to ameliorate drawbacks of each other. A combitorial
2009) was mentioned against Anopheles sp. Overall, noteworthy effec-
product with multifold efficacy, high stability and less toxic could
tive dosage is IC50 value 12.5 mg/L for quinones extracted from Ocimum
possibly be realised (Faraone et al., 2015).
sp.
Insect resurgency ensues due to intricate mechanisms involving
Interestingly, few researchers channelized their investigations based
enhanced insecticide detoxification and decreased sensitivity at the
on farmer and herborist surveys (Kamraj et al., 2008; Kamraj et al.,
target proteins site. This serious issue calls for search of natural, eco-
2012 and Nguefack et al., 2009; Nguefack et al. 2011). The basis of such
friendly, biodegradable and target-specific anti-vector metabolites.
an approach was to validate and develop plant species already used by

Fig. 5. Essential oils were investigated more than organic and aqueous plant parts.

697
K. Chowdhary et al.
Fig. 6. Highest application of Ocimum sp. in post harvest protection.
It is envisaged that this accumulative work could guide deployment
of appropriate species of Ocimum genus both at the commercial and
grass root level by marginal farmers in future. The cumulative efficacy
of a mixture is propounded here and projected as a practical implication
for controlling plant pathogens and pests.
7. Conclusions
This review presented is comprehensive and updated information
on the use of EO from Ocimum species as an efficient pesticidal resource
and emphasizes its potential as an industrial crop. Widespread pesti-
cides and pathogenic activities have been exhibited by Ocimum EOs and
plant extracts. The findings discussed in the article shows that the
compounds of Ocimum EOs are a potential source of pesticidal com-
pounds and demonstrating that different Ocimum sp. found in different
locations may be used for integrated pest management. Most of the
studies were limited to laboratory conditions, it is suggested that with
proper formulation and dosage EOs and extracts must be taken forward
to field conditions. At the same time, the formulations developed by
using Ocimum sp. are organic, pesticide-free products, and en-
vironmentally friendly. All of these aspects should encourage the de-
velopment and use of “green pesticides” that do not harm the en-
vironment.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare non-existence of any potential conflict of in-
terest.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge CRDT, IIT Delhi, for providing infrastructural
support. Kanika Chowdhary humbly acknowledges the financial assis-
tance provided by DST-NPDF scheme (grant no. PDF/2016/000317).
References
Abdollahi, A., Hassani, A., Ghosta, Y., Bernousi, I., Meshkatalsadat, M.H., Shabani, R.,
Ziaee, S.M., 2012. Evaluation of essential oils for maintaining postharvest quality of
Thompson seedless table grape. Nat. Prod. Res. 26 (1), 77–83.
Abiodun, O.O., Gbotosho, G.O., Ajaiyeoba, E.O., Brun, R., Oduola, A.M., 2012.
Antitrypanosomal activity of some medicinal plants from Nigerian ethnomedicine.
Parasitol. Res. 110 (2), 521–526.
Adamu, M., Nwosu, C.O., Agbede, R., 2009. Anti-trypanosomal effects of aqueous extract
of Ocimum gratissimum (Lamiaceae) leaf in rats infected with Trypanosoma brucei
brucei. Afr. J. Tradit. Complement. Altern. Med. 6 (3).
698
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
Adeniyi, S.A., Orjiekwe, C.L., Ehiagbonare, J.E., Arimah, B.D., 2010. Preliminary phy-
tochemical analysis and insecticidal activity of ethanolic extracts of four tropical
plants (Vernonia amygdalina, Sida acuta, Ocimum gratissimum and Telfaria occi-
dentalis) against beans weevil (Acanthscelides obtectus). Int. J. Phys. Sci. 5 (6),
753–762.
Affognon, H., Mutungi, C., Sanginga, P., Borgemeister, C., 2015. Unpacking postharvest
losses in sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis. World Dev. 66, 49–68.
Al-Alawi, M.S., 2014. Acaricidal activity of medicinal plants against the developmental
stages of the two spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae (Acari: tetranychidae). Int.
J. Agric. Res. 9 (1), 38–46.
Albuguerque, U., 1996. Taxonomy and Ethnobotany of the Genus Ocimum. Federal Univ.
Pernambuco, Mexico, pp. 48–68.
Amer, A., Mehlhorn, H., 2006. Larvicidal effects of various essential oils against Aedes,
Anopheles, and Culex larvae (Diptera, Culicidae). Parasitol. Res. 99 (4), 466–472.
Andrés, M.F., González-Coloma, A., Sanz, J., Burillo, J., Sainz, P., 2012. Nematicidal
activity of essential oils: a review. Phytochem. Rev. 11 (4), 371–390.
Anees, A.M., 2008. Larvicidal activity of ocimum sanctum linn. (Labiatae) against aedes
aegypti (L.) and culex quinquefasciatus (Say). J. Parasitol. Res. 103 (6), 1451–1453.
Anthony, S., Abeywickrama, K., Dayananda, R., Wijeratnam, S.W., Arambewela, L., 2004.
Fungal pathogens associated with banana fruit in Sri Lanka, and their treatment with
essential oils. Mycopathologia 157 (1), 91–97.
Asawalam, E.F., Emosairue, S.O., Hassanali, A., 2008. Essential oil of Ocimum grattissimum
(Labiatae) as Sitophilus zeamais (Coleoptera: curculionidae) protectant. Afr. J.
Biotechnol. 7 (20), 3771–3776.
Asgari Marjanlu, A., Mostofi, Y., Shoeibi, S., Maghoumi, M., 2009. Effect of Basil
(Ocimum basilicum L.) essential oil on gray mold control and postharvest quality of
strawberry (cv. Selva). J. Med. Plants 4 (29), 131–139.
Asha, M.K., Prashanth, D., Murali, B., Padmaja, R., Amit, A., 2001. Anthelmintic activity
of essential oil of Ocimum sanctum and eugenol. Fitoterapia 72 (6), 669–670.
Aslan, I., Özbek, H., Çalmaşur, Ö., Şahin, F., 2004. Toxicity of essential oil vapours to two
greenhouse pests, Tetranychus urticae Koch and Bemisia tabaci Genn. Ind Crops
Prod. 19 (2), 167–173.
Attia, S., Grissa, K.L., Lognay, G., Bitume, E., Hance, T., Mailleux, A.C., 2013. A review of
the major biological approaches to control the worldwide pest Tetranychus urticae
(Acari: tetranychidae) with special reference to natural pesticides −Biological ap-
proaches to control Tetranychus urticae. J. Pest Sci. 86, 361–386.
Avetisyan, A., Markosian, A., Petrosyan, M., Sahakyan, N., Babayan, A., Aloyan, S.,
Trchounian, A., 2017. Chemical composition and some biological activities of the
essential oils from basil Ocimum different cultivars. BMC Comp. Alter. Med. 17
(1), 60.
Bagavan, A., Kamaraj, C., Rahuman, A.A., Elango, G., Zahir, A.A., Pandiyan, G., 2009.
Evaluation of larvicidal and nymphicidal potential of plant extracts against
Anopheles subpictus Grassi, Culex tritaeniorhynchus Giles and Aphis gossypii Glover.
Parasitol. Res. 104 (5), 1109–1117.
Bassolé, I.H., Guelbeogo, W.M., Nébié, R., Costantini, C., Sagnon, N., Kabore, Z.I., Traoré,
S.A., 2003. Ovicidal and larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti and Anopheles
gambiae complex mosquitoes of essential oils extracted from three spontaneous plants
of Burkina Faso. Parassitologia 45 (1), 23–26.
Bekele, J., Hassanali, A., 2001. Blend effects in the toxicity of the essential oil constituents
of Ocimum kilimandscharicum and Ocimum kenyense (Labiateae) on two post-har-
vest insect pests. Phytochemistry 57 (3), 385–391.
Belong, P., Ntonga, P.A., Fils, E.B., Dadji, G.A.F., Tamesse, J.L., 2013. Chemical compo-
sition and residue activities of Ocimum canum Sims and Ocimum basilicum L essential
oils on adult female Anopheles funestus ss. J. Anim. Plant Sci. 19 (1), 2854–2863.
Bora, D., Khanikor, B., 2011. Selective toxicity of Ageratum conyzoides and Ocimum
sanctum against Exorista sorbillans (Diptera: Tachinidae) and Antheraea ussama
(Lepidoptera: Saturniidae). Nat. A Sci. Lett. 34, 9–14.
Bown, D., 2001. New Encyclopedia of Herbs and Their Uses. Dorling Kindersley Ltd.,
K. Chowdhary et al.
London, England (448 pp).
Camurça-Vasconcelos, A.L.F., Bevilaqua, C.M.L., Morais, S.M., Maciel, M.V., Costa,
C.T.C., Macedo, I.T.F., et al., 2007. Anthelmintic activity of Croton zehntneri and
Lippia sidoides essential oils. Vet. Parasitiol. 148 (3–4), 288–294.
Carson, C.F., Hammer, K.A., 2011. Chemistry and bioactivity of essential oils. Lipids and
Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents. pp. 203–238.
Casida, J.E., 2009. Pest toxicology: the primary mechanisms of pesticide action. Chem.
Res. Toxicol. 22 (4), 609–619.
Chang, C.L., Cho, I.K., Li, Q.X., 2009. Insecticidal activity of basil oil, trans-anethole,
estragole, and linalool to adult fruit flies of Ceratitis capitata, Bactrocera dorsalis, and
Bactrocera cucurbitae. J. Econ. Entomol. 102 (1), 203–209.
Chowdhary, K., Kaushik, N., 2015. Fungal endophyte diversity and bioactivity in the
indian medicinal plant ocimum sanctum linn. PLoS One 10 (11). http://dx.doi.org/
10.1371/journal.pone.0141444.
Chowdhury, T., Mandal, A., Roy, S.C., De Sarker, D., 2017. Diversity of the genus Ocimum
(Lamiaceae) through morpho-molecular (RAPD) and chemical (GC–MS) analysis. J.
Genetic Eng. Biotechnol. 15 (1), 275–286.
Clemente, S., Mareggiani, G., Broussalis, A., Martino, M., Ferraro, G., 2003. Insecticidal
Effects of Lamiaceae Species Against Stored Products Insects. Boletín de Sanidad
Vegetal, Plagas. (España).
Costa, L. C. B., Costa, J. C. B., Pinto, J. E. B. P., Bertolucci, S. K. V., Alves, P. B., Nicolau, E.
S., 2014. In vitro activity of essential oil of Ocimum selloi and its major chemical
compound against Moniliophthora perniciosa, causal agent of witches’ broom disease
in cacao. In XXIX International Horticultural Congress on Horticulture: Sustaining
Lives, Livelihoods and Landscapes (IHC2014): V World. 1125, pp. 137–144.
De Oliveira, J.L., Campos, E.V.R., Bakshi, M., Abhilash, P.C., Fraceto, L.F., 2014.
Application of nanotechnology for the encapsulation of botanical insecticides for
sustainable agriculture: prospects and promises. Biotechnol. Adv. 32 (8), 1550–1561.
Dhifi, W., Bellili, S., Jazi, S., Bahloul, N., Mnif, W., 2016. Essential oils’ chemical char-
acterization and investigation of some biological activities: a critical review.
Medicines 3 (4), 25.
Dias, C.N., Moraes, D.F.C., 2014. Essential oils and their compounds as Aedes aegypti L.
(Diptera: culicidae) larvicides. Parasitol. Res. 113 (2), 565–592.
Dubey, N.K., 2011. Natural Products in Pest Management. CAB International, London.
Dudareva, N., Martin, D., Kish, C.M., Kolosova, N., Gorenstein, N., Faldt, J., Miller, B.,
Bohlman, J., 2003. (E)-b-Ocimene and myrcene synthase genes of floral scent bio-
synthesis in snapdragon: function and expression of three terpene synthase genes of a
new TPS-subfamily. Plant Cell 15, 1227–1241.
El-Mohamedy, R.S.R., 2017. Plant essential oils for controlling plant pathogenic fungi.
Volatiles and Food Security. Springer, Singapore, pp. 171–198.
Ertürk, O., 2006. Antifeedant and toxicity effects of some plant extracts on thaumetopoae
solitaria frey. (Lep.: thaumetopoeidae). Turk. J. Biol. 30, 51–57.
Faraone, N., Hillier, N.K., Cutler, G.C., 2015. Plant essential oils synergize and antagonize
toxicity of different conventional insecticides against Myzus persicae (Hemiptera:
aphididae). PLoS One 10 (5), e0127774.
Gessler, M., 1995. The antimalarial potential of medicinal plants traditionally used in
Tanzania, and their use in the treatment of malaria by traditional healers. Inaugural
Dissertation. University Basel, Baseler-Schnelldruck, Basel.
Giuliani, C., Maleci Bini, L., 2008. Insight into the structure and chemistry of glandular
trichomes of Labiatae: with emphasis on subfamily Lamioideae. Plant Syst. Evol. 276,
199–208.
Gnankiné, O., Bassolé, I.H.N., 2017. Essential oils as an alternative to pyrethroids’ re-
sistance against anopheles species complex giles (Diptera: culicidae). Molecules 22
(10), 1321.
Hassane, S.O.S., Ghanmi, M., Satrani, B., Farah, A., Amarti, F., Achmet, S.M., Chaouch,
A., 2011. Composition chimique et bioactivité des huiles essentielles de deux pro-
venances d’Ocimum canum S. de l’île de la Grande Comore. Phytothérapie 9 (1),
18–24.
Holetz, F.B., Ueda-Nakamura, T., Filho, B.P.D., Cortez, D.A.G., Morgado-Diaz, J.A.,
Nakamura, C.V., 2003. Effect of essential oil of Ocimum gratissimum on the trypano-
somatid Herpetomonas samuelpessoai. Acta Protozoologica 42 (4), 269–276.
Ilboudo, Z., Dabiré, L.C.B., Nébié, R.C.H., Dicko, I.O., Dugravot, S., Cortesero, A.M.,
Sanon, A., 2010. Biological activity and persistence of four essential oils towards the
main pest of stored cowpeas, Callosobruchus maculatus (F.)(Coleoptera: Bruchidae). J.
Stored Prod. Res. 46 (2), 124–128.
Iloba, B.N., Ekrakene, T., 2006. Daily Mortality Responses of Callosobruchus maculatus
and Sitophilus zeamais to changes in the concentrations of Azadirachta indica,
Ocimum gratissimum and Hyptis suaveolens. J. Entomol. 3, 271–276.
Isman, M.B., 2015. A renaissance for botanical insecticides? Pest Manage. Sci. 71 (12),
1587–1590.
Isman, M.B., 2017. Bridging the gap: moving botanical insecticides from the laboratory to
the farm. Ind. Crop Prod. 110, 10–14.
Isman, M.B., Grieneisen, M.L., 2013. Botanical insecticide research: many publications,
limited useful data. Trends Plant Sci. 1–6.
Jayaseelan, C., Rahuman, A.A., 2012. Acaricidal ef cacy of synthesized silver nano-
particles using aqueous leaf extract of Ocimum canum against Hyalommaanatolicum
anatolicum and Hyalomma marginatum isaaci (Acari: ixodidae). J. Parasitol. Res.
111 (3), 1369–1378.
Kalaivani, K., Senthil-Nathan, S., Murugesan, A.G., 2012. Biological activity of selected
Lamiaceae and Zingiberaceae plant essential oils against the dengue vector Aedes
aegypti L. (Diptera: culicidae). Parasitol. Res. 110 (3), 1261–1268.
Kamaraj, C., Rahuman, A.A., Bagavan, A., 2008. Screening for antifeedant and larvicidal
activity of plant extracts against Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner), Sylepta derogata (F.)
and Anopheles stephensi (Liston). Parasitol. Res. 103 (6), 1361–1368.
Kamaraj, C., Kaushik, N.K., Mohanakrishnan, D., Elango, G., Bagavan, A., Zahir, A.A.,
Rahuman, A.A., Sahal, D., 2012. Antiplasmodial potential of medicinal plant extracts
699
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
from Malaiyur and Javadhu hills of South India. Parasitol. Res. 111 (2), 703–715.
Kanojiya, D., Shanker, D., Sudan, V., Jaiswal, A.K., Parashar, R., 2015. Anthelmintic
activity of Ocimum sanctum leaf extract against ovine gastrointestinal nematodes in
India. Res. Vet. Sci. 99, 165–170.
Kaur, A., Kaur, P., 2017. Green pesticides for clean environment. Int. J Dev. Eng. Res. 5
(4), 1347–1349.
Kayembe, J.S., Taba, K.M., Ntumba, K., Tshiongo, M.T.C., Kazadi, T.K., 2010. In vitro
anti-malarial activity of 20 quinones isolated from four plants used by traditional
healers in the Democratic Republic of Congo. J. Med. Plants Res. 4 (11), 991–994.
Kazembe, T., Chauruka, D., 2012. Mosquito repellence of Astrolochii hepii, Cymbopogon
citratus and Ocimum gratissimum extracts and mixtures. Bull. Environ. Pharmacol. Life
Sci. 60–64.
Keita, S.M., Vincent, C., Schmit, J.P., Ramaswamy, S., Belanger, A., 2000. Effect of var-
ious essential oils on Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: bruchidae). J. Stored
Prod. Res. 36, 355–364.
Keita, Se ́ kou Moussa., Vincent, C., Schmita, J.P., Arnason, J.T., Langer, A.B., 2001.
Efficacy of essential oil of Ocimum basilicum L. and O. gratissimum L. applied as an
insecticidal fumigant and powder to control Callosobruchus maculatus (Fab.)
[Coleoptera: Bruchidae]. J. Stored Prod. Res. 37, 339–349.
Khalid, K.A., Hendawy, S.F., El-Gezawy, E., 2006. Ocimum basilicum L. production under
organic farming. Res. J. Agric. Biol. Sci. 2 (1), 25–32.
Khan, S., Taning, C.N.T., Bonneure, E., Mangelinckx, S., Smagghe, G., Shah, M.M., 2017.
Insecticidal activity of plant-derived extracts against different economically im-
portant pest insects. Phytoparasitica 45 (1), 113–124.
Khanikor, B., Bora, D., 2011. Toxicity of essential oil compounds against Exorista sorbil-
lans (Diptera: Tachinidae), a parasitoid of silkworm. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 10 (85),
19807–19815.
Khot, L.R., Sankaran, S., Maja, J.M., Ehsani, R., Schuster, E.W., 2012. Applications of
nanomaterials inagricultural production and crop protection: a review. Crop Prot. 35,
64–70.
Khoury, M., Stien, D., Eparvier, V., Ouaini, N., El Beyrouthy, M., 2016. Report on the
medicinal use of eleven lamiaceae species in Lebanon and rationalization of their
antimicrobial potential by examination of the chemical composition and anti-
microbial activity of their essential oils. Evid.-Based Comp. Altern. Med.
Kim, S.I., Lee, D.W., 2014. Toxicity of basil and orange essential oils and their compo-
nents against two coleopteran stored products insect pests. J. Asia-Pac. Entomol. 17
(1), 13–17.
Kostić, M., Popović, Z., Brkić, D., Milanović, S., Sivcev, I., Stanković, S., 2008. Larvicidal
and antifeedant activity of some plant-derived compounds to Lymantria dispar L.
(Lepidoptera: limantriidae). Bioresour. Technol. 99 (16), 7897–7901.
Kpadonou Kpoviessi, B.G., Ladekan, E.Y., Kpoviessi, D.S., Gbaguidi, F., Yehouenou, B.,
Quetin-Leclercq, J., Figueredo, G., Moudachirou, M., Accrombessi, G.C., 2012.
Chemical variation of essential oil constituents of Ocimum gratissimum L from Benin,
and impact on antimicrobial properties and toxicity against Artemia salina leach.
Chem. Biodivers. 9 (1), 139–150.
Krief, S., Berny, P., Gumisiriza, F., Gross, R., Demeneix, B., Fini, J.B., Chapman, C.A.,
Chapman, L.J., Seguya, A., Wasswa, J., 2017. Agricultural expansion as risk to en-
dangered wildlife: pesticide exposure in wild chimpanzees and baboons displaying
facial dysplasia. Sci. Total Environ. 598, 647–656.
Kumar, P., Mishra, S., Malik, A., Satya, S., 2011. Insecticidal properties of Mentha species:
a review. Ind. Crops Prod. 34 (1), 802–817.
Kumari, A., Kaushik, N., 2016. Oviposition deterrents in herbivorous insects and their
potential use in integrated pest management. Indian J. Exp. Biol.
Law-Ogbomo, K.E., Enobakhare, D.A., 2007. The use of leaf powders of Ocimum gra-
tissimum and Vernoniaamygdalina for the management of Sitophilusoryzae (Lin.) in
stored rice. J. Entomol. 4 (3), 253–257.
Lermen, C., Morelli, F., Gazim, Z.C., da Silva, A.P., Gonçalves, J.E., Dragunski, D.C.,
Alberton, O., 2015. Essential oil content and chemical composition of Cymbopogon
citratus inoculated with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi under different levels of lead.
Ind Crops Prod. 76, 734–738.
Loughlin, T.M.M., Peluso, L., Marino, D.J., 2017. Pesticide impact study in the peri-urban
horticultural area of Gran La Plat, Argentina. Sci. Total Environ. 598, 572–580.
Lowder, S.K., Skoet, J., Raney, T., 2016. The number, size, and distribution of farms
smallholder farms, and family farms worldwide. World Dev. 87, 16–29.
Magalhães, L.A.M., Lima, M.P., Marques, M.O.M., Facanali, R., Pinto, A.C.S., Tadei, W.P.,
2010. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity against Aedes aegypti larvae of
essential oils from four Guarea species. Molecules. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/
molecules15085734.
Mamadalieva, N.Z., Akramov, D.K., Ovidi, E., Tiezzi, A., Nahar, L., Azimova, S.S., Sarker,
S.D., 2017. Aromatic medicinal plants of the lamiaceae family from uzbekistan:
ethnopharmacology, essential oils composition, and biological activities. Medicines 4
(1), 8.
Martinez, R.M., Jordán, M.J., Quilez, M., Sotomayor, J.A., 2005. Effects of edaphocli-
matic conditions on Thymus hyemalis L. essential oil yield and composition. J.
Essential Oil Res. 17 (6), 614–618.
Martinez-Velazquez, Moises, Castillo-Herrera, G.S., Rosario-Cruz, R., Flores-Fernandez,
J.M., Lopez-Ramirez, J., Gutierrez, R.Z., Carmen Lugo-Cervantes, E.D., 2011.
Acaricidal effect and chemical composition of essential oils extracted from Cuminum
cyminum, Pimenta dioica and Ocimum basilicum against the cattle tick
Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Acari: ixodidae). Parasitol. Res. 108, 481–487.
May, A., Bovi, O.A., Maia, N.B., Barata, L.E.S., Souza, R.D.C.Z.D., Souza, E.M.R.D.,
Moraes, A.R.A.D., Pinheiro, M.Q., 2008. Basil plants growth and essential oil yield in
a production system with successive cuts. Bragantia 67 (2), 385–389.
Maurya, P., Sharma, P., Mohan, L., Verma, M.M., Srivastava, C.N., 2012. Larvicidal ef-
ficacy of Ocimum basilicum extracts and its synergistic effect with neonicotinoid in
the management of Anopheles stephensi. Asian Pac. Trop. Dis. 2 (2), 110–116.
K. Chowdhary et al.
Meyers, M., 2003. Basil: An Herb Society of America Guide. The Herb Society of America,
Kirtland, Ohio, pp. 6–7.
Mohr, F.B., Lermen, C., Gazim, Z.C., Gonçalves, J.E., Alberton, O., 2017. Antifungal ac-
tivity, yield, and composition of Ocimum gratissimum essential oil. Genet Mol Res:
GMR 16 (1).
Moreira, M.D., Picanço, M.C., Barbosa, L.C., Guedes, R.N., Barros, E.C., Campos, M.R.,
2007. Compounds from Ageratum conyzoides: isolation, structural elucidation and
insecticidal activity. Pest Manag. Sci. 63 (6), 615–621.
Mwangi, E.N., Hassanali, A., Essuman, S., Myandat, E., Moreka, L., Kimondo, M., 1995.
Repellent and acaricidal properties of Ocimum suave against Rhipicephalus appen-
diculatus ticks. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 19 (1), 11–18.
Nascimento, S.S., Araujo, A.A.S., Brito, R.G., Serafini, M.R., Menezes, P.P., DeSantana,
J.M., et al., 2015. Cyclodextrin-complexed ocimum basilicum leaves essential oil
increases fos protein expression in the central nervous system and produce an anti-
hyperalgesic effect in animal models for fibromyalgia. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 16 (1),
547–563.
Nenaah, G.E., Ibrahim, S.I.A., 2011. Chemical composition and the insecticidal activity of
certain plants applied as powders and essential oils against two stored-products co-
leopteran beetles. J. Pest Sci. 84, 393–402.
Newman, J.D., Chappell, J., 1999. Isoprenoid biosynthesis in plants: carbon partitioning
within the cytoplasmic pathway. Crit. Rev. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 34, 95–106.
Ngassoum, M.B., Ousmaila, H., Ngamo, L.T., Maponmetsem, P.M., Jirovetz, L.,
Buchbauer, G., 2004. Aroma compounds of essential oils of two varieties of the spice
plant Ocimum canum Sims from northern Cameroon. J. Food Comp. Anal. 17 (2),
197–204.
Nguefack, J., Somda, I., Mortensen, C.N., Amvam Zollo, P.H., 2005. Evaluation of five
essential oils from aromatic plants of Cameroon for controlling seed-borne bacteria of
rice (Oryza sativa L.). Seed Sci. Technol. 33 (2), 397–407.
Nguefack, J., Nguikwie, S.K., Fotio, D., Dongmo, B., Zollo, P.A., Leth, V., Nkengfack, A.E.,
Poll, L., 2007. Fungicidal potential of essential oils and fractions from Cymbopogon
citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Thymus vulgaris to control Alternaria padwickii and
Bipolaris oryzae, two seed-borne fungi of rice (Oryza Sativa L.). J. Essential Oil Res. 19
(6), 581–587.
Nguefack, J., Lekagne Dongmo, J.B., Dakole, C.D., Leth, V., Vismer, H.F., Torp, J.,
Guemdjom, E.F.N., Mbeffo, M., Tamgue, O., Fotio, D., Amvam Zollo, P.H., Nkengfack,
A.E., 2009. Food preservative potential of essential oils and fractions from
Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Thymus vulgaris against myco-
toxigenic fungi. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 131, 151–156.
Nguefack, J., Tamgue, O., Lekagne Dongmo, J.B., Dakole, C.D., Leth, V., Vismer, H.F.,
Amvam Zollo, P.H., Nkengfack, A.E., 2012. Synergistic action between fractions of
essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus, Ocimum gratissimum and Thymus vulgaris
against Penicillium expansum. Food Control. 23, 377–383.
Nguemtchouin, M.G., Ngassoum, M.B., Chalier, P., Kamga, R., Ngamo, L.S., Cretin, M.,
2013. Ocimum gratissimum essential oil and modified montmorillonite clay: a means
of controlling insect pests in stored products. J. Stored Prod. Res. 52, 57–62.
Nielsen, P.V., Rios, R., 2000. Inhibition of fungal growth on bread by volatile components
from spices and herbs: and the possible application in active packaging with special
emphasis on mustard essential oil. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 60, 219–229.
Nour, A.H., Elhussein, S.A., Osman, N.A., Nour, A.H., 2009. Repellent activities of the
essential oils of four Sudanese accessions of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) against
Anopheles mosquito. J. Appl. Sci. 9 (14), 2645–2648.
Novillo, O., Pertusa, J.F., Tomás, J., 2017. Exploring the presence of pollutants at sea:
monitoring heavy metals and pesticides in loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) from
the western Mediterranean. Sci. Total Environ. 598, 1130–1139.
Ntalli, N.G., Ferrari, F., Giannakou, I., Menkissoglu-Spiroudi, U., 2010. Phytochemistry
and nematicidal activity of the essential oils from 8 Greek Lamiaceae aromatic plants
and 13 terpene components. J. Agric. Food Chem. 58 (13), 7856–7863.
Obeng-Ofori, D., Reichmuth, C.H., Bekele, J., Hassanali, A., 1997. Biological activity of 1,
8 cineole, a major component of essential oil of Ocimum kenyense (Ayobangira)
against stored product beetles. J. Appl. Entomol. 121 (1-5), 237–243.
Ogbebor, N.O., Adekunle, A.T., Enobakhare, D.A., 2007. Inhibition of Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides (Penz) Sac. causal organism of rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg.)
leaf spot using plant extracts. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 6 (3).
Ogendo, J.O., Kostyukovsky, M., Ravid, U., Matasyoh, J.C., Deng, A.L., Omolo, E.O.,
Kariuki, S.T., Shaaya, E., 2008. Bioactivity of Ocimum gratissimum L oil and two
constituents against five insect pests attacking stored food products. J. Stored Prod.
Res. 44, 328–334.
Okigbo, R.N., Ogbonnaya, U.O., 2006. Antifungal effects of two tropical plant leaf ex-
tracts (Ocimum gratissimum and Aframomum melegueta) on postharvest yam
(Dioscorea spp.) rot. Afr. J. Biotechnol. 5 (9).
Okigbo, R.N., Okeke, J.J., Madu, N.C., 2010. Larvicidal effects of Azadirachta indica,
Ocimum gratissimum and Hyptis suaveolens against mosquito larvae. J. Agric.
Technol. 6 (4), 703–719.
Oliveira, V.C., Moura, D.M., Lopes, J.A., de Andrade, P.P., da Silva, N.H., Figueiredo,
R.C., 2009. Effects of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus (DC) Stapf., Lippia
sidoides Cham., and Ocimum gratissimum L. on growth and ultrastructure of
Leishmania chagasi promastigotes. Parasitol. Res. 104 (5), 1053–1059.
Ouédraogo, M., Zougmoré, R., Moussa, A.S., Partey, S.T., Thornton, P.K., Kristjanson, P.,
Ndour, N.Y.B., Somé, L., Naab, J., Boureima, M., Diakité, L., Quiros, C., 2017.
Markets and climate are driving rapid change in farming practices in Savannah West
Africa. Reg. Environ. Change 17 (2), 437–449.
Oxenham, S.K., Svoboda, K.P., Walters, D.R., 2005. Antifungal activity of the essential oil
of basil (Ocimum basilicum). J. Phytopathol. 153, 174–180.
Padalia, R.C., Verma, R.S., Chauhan, A., Goswami, P., Chanotiya, C.S., Saroj, A., et al.,
2014. Compositional variability and antifungal potentials of ocimum basilicum, O.,
tenuiflorum, O. gratissimum and O. kilimandscharicum essential oils against
700
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
Rhizoctonia solani and Choanephora cucurbitarum. Nat. Prod. Commun. 9 (10),
1507–1510.
Pandey, R., Kalra, A., Tandon, S., Mehrotra, N., Singh, H.N., Kumar, S., 2000. Essential
oils as potent source of nematicidal compounds. J. Phytopathol. 148 (7-8), 501–502.
Pandey, A.K., Singh, P., Tripathi, N.N., 2014. Chemistry and bioactivities of essential oils
of some Ocimum species: an overview. Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 4 (9), 682–694.
Papanikolaou, N.E., Kalaitzaki, A., Karamaouna, F., Michaelakis, A., Papadimitriou, V.,
Dourtoglou, V., Papachristos, D.P., 2017. Nano-formulation enhances insecticidal
activity of natural pyrethrins against Aphis gossypii (Hemiptera: Aphididae) and re-
tains their harmless effect to non-target predators. Environ. Sci. Poll. Res. 1–7.
Pascual-Villalobos, M.J., Ballesta-Acosta, M.C., 2003. Chemical variation in an Ocimum
basilicum germplasm collection and activity of the essential oils on Callosobruchus
maculatus. Biochem. Syst. Ecol. 31, 673–679.
Paton, A., Harley, R.M., Harley, M.M., 1999. Ocimum-an overview of relationships and
classification. Ocimum Aromatic Plants-Industrial Profiles. Harwood Academic,
Amsterdam.
Pavela, R., 2004. Insecticidal activity of certain medicinal plants. Fitoterapia 75 (7–8),
745–749.
Pavela, R., 2008. Larvicidal effects of various Euro-Asiatic plants against Culex quin-
quefasciatus Say larvae (Diptera: culicidae). Parasitol. Res. 102, 555.
Pavela, R., 2016a. Acaricidal properties of extracts of some medicinal and culinary plants
against Tetranychus urticae Koch. Plant Protect. Sci. 52, 54–63.
Pavela, R., 2016b. History, presence and perspective of using plant extracts as commercial
botanical insecticides and farm products for protection against insects −a review.
Plant Protection Science. 52, 229–241.
Perlatti, B., Souza, B., de P.L., Fernandes da Silva M.F., Das, G., Batista, J., Rossi, M.,
2013. Polymericnanoparticle-based insecticides: a controlled release purpose for
agrochemicals. In: Trdan S, (Eds.), Insecticides — Development of Safer More Eff
ectiveTechnologies, Intech.
Phasomkusolsil, S., Soonwera, M., 2011. Efficacy of herbal essential oils as insecticide
against Aedes aegypti (Linn.), Culex quinquefasciatus (Say) and Anopheles dirus
(Peyton and Harrison). Southeast Asian J. Trop. Med. Public Health 42 (5),
1083–1092.
Popović, Z., Kostić, M., Popović, S., Skorić, S., 2006. Bioactivities of essential oils from
basil and sage to Sitophilus oryzae L. Biotechnol. Biotechnol. Equip. 20 (1), 36–40.
Prakash, P., Gupta, N., 2005. Therapeutic uses of Ocimum sanctum Linn (Tulsi) with a
note on eugenol and its pharmacological actions: a short review. Indian J. Physiol.
Pharmacol. 49 (2), 125–131.
Rajashekar, Y., Shivanandappa, T., 2010. A novel natural insecticide molecule for grain
protection, in Stored Products Protection, M. O. Carvalho, P. G. Fields, C. S. Adler
et al. Eds., Proceedings of the 10th International Working Conference on Stored
Product Protection, pp. 913–917, Julius-Kühn-Archiv 425.
Rohmer, M., 1999. The discovery of a mevalonate-independent pathway for isoprenoid
biosynthesis in bacteria, algae and higher plants. Nat. Prod. Rep. 16 (5), 565–574.
Sangwan, N.K., Verma, B.S., Verma, K.K., Dhindsa, K.S., 1990. Nematicidal activity of
some essential plant oils. Pest Manag. Sci. 28 (3), 331–335.
Santoro, G.F., Cardoso, M.G., Guimarães, L.L.G., Mendonç, L.Z., Soares, M.J., 2007.
Trypanosoma cruzi: activity of essential oils from Achillea millefolium L., Syzygium
aromaticum L. and Ocimum basilicum L. on epimastigotes and trypomastigotes. Exp.
Parasitol. 116 (3), 283–290.
Sarac, N., Ugur, A., 2007. Antimicrobial activities and usage in folkloric medicine of some
Lamiaceae species growing in Mugla, Turkey. Eur. Asia J. Bio. Sci. 1, 28–34.
Sathyaseelan, V., Baskaran, V., Mohan, S., 2008. Efficacy of some indigenous pesticidal
plants against Pulse Beetle, Callosobruchus chinensis (L.) on green Gram. J. Entomol.
5 (2), 128–132.
Scott, N., Chen, H., 2012. Nanoscale science and engineering for agriculture and food
systems. Ind. Biotechnol. 8 (6), 340–343.
Seema, M., Devaki, N.S., 2010. Effect of some essential oils on Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn
infecting flue − cured virginia tobacco. J. Biopest. 3 (3), 563–566.
Shadia, E., Abd, E., Elsayed, A.O., Aly, S.S., 2007. Chemical composition of Ocimum
americanum essential oil and its biological effects against, Agrotis ipsilon,
(Lepidoptera: noctuidae). Res. J. Agric. Biol. Sci. 3, 740–747.
Singh, N., Verma, P., Pandey, B.R., Bhalla, M., 2012. Therapeutic potential of Ocimum
sanctum in prevention and treatment of cancer and exposure to radiation: an over-
view. Int. J. Pharma. Sci. Drug Res. 4 (2), 97–104.
Sola, P., Mvumi, B.M., Ogendo, J.O., Mponda, O., Kamanula, J.F., Nyirenda, S.P.,
Belmain, S.R., Stevenson, P.C., 2014. Botanical pesticide production, trade and reg-
ulatory mechanisms in sub-Saharan Africa: making a case for plant-based pesticidal
products. Food Secur. 6 (3), 369–384.
Sritabutra, D., Soonwera, M., Waltanachanobon, S., Poungjai, S., 2011. Evaluation of
herbal essential oil as repellents against Aedes aegypti (L.) and Anopheles dirus
(Peyton&Harrison). Asian Pac. J. Trop. Biomed. 124–128.
Tchoumbougnang, F., Zollo, P.H., Dagne, E., Mekonnen, Y., 2005. In vivo antimalarial
activity of essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on mice
infected with Plasmodium berghei. Planta Med. 71 (1), 20–23.
Tennyson, S., Ravindran, K.J., Arivoli, S., 2012. Screening of twenty five plant extracts for
larvicidal activity against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: culicidae). Asian Pac.
J. Trop. Biomed. 1130–1134.
Ueda-Nakamura, T., Mendonça-Filho, R.R., Morgado-Díaz, J.A., Maza, Korehisa, Prado
Dias, P., Filho, B., Aparício Garcia Cortez, D., Alviano, D.S., Rosa, Mdo. S., Lopes,
A.H., Alviano, C.S., Nakamura, C.V., 2006. Antileishmanial activity of Eugenol-rich
essential oil from Ocimum gratissimum. Parasitol. Int. 55 (2), 99–105.
Umerie, S.C., Anaso, H.U., Anyasoro, L.J.C., 1998. Insecticidal potentials of Ocimum
basilicum leaf-extract. Bioresour. Technol. 64 (3), 237–239.
Van Tol, Rob W. H. M., James, D.E., De Kogel, W.J., Teulon, David A. J., 2007. Plant
odours with potential for a push–pull strategy to control the onion thrips, Thrips
K. Chowdhary et al.
tabaci. Entomol Exp Appl. 122, 69–76, 2007.
Vasudevan, P., Kashyap, S., Sharma, S., 1999. Bioactive botanicals from basil (Ocimum
sp.). J. Sci. Ind. Res. 58, 332–338.
Vigan, M., 2010. Essential oils: renewal of interest and toxicity. Eur. J. Dermatol. 20,
685–692.
World Health Organization Regional Technical Advisory Group on Kala-azar Elimination.
Report of the first meeting, Manesar, Haryana, 20–23 December, 2004. 2005;
Regional Office for South-East Asia, New Delhi.
Walia, S., Koul, O., 2008. Exploring plant biodiversity for botanical insecticides.
Sustainable Crop Protection, Biopesticide Strategies. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,
pp. 191–206.
Warikoo, R., Wahab, N., Kumar, S., 2011. Oviposition-altering and ovicidal potentials of
five essential oils against female adults of the dengue vector, Aedes aegypti L.
701
Industrial Crops & Products 122 (2018) 686–701
Parasitol. Res. 109 (4), 1125–1131.
Woranuch, S., Yoksan, R., 2013. Eugenol-loaded chitosan nanoparticles: i: Thermal sta-
bility improvementof eugenol through encapsulation. Carbohydr. Polym. 96 (2),
578–585.
Yadav, S., Mittal, P.K., Saxena, P.N., Singh, R.K., 2009. Effect of synergist piperonyl
butoxide (PBO) on the toxicity of some essential oils against mosquito larvae. J.
Commun. Dis. 41 (1), 33–38.
Yarou, B.B., Bawin, T., Boullis, A., Heukin, S., Lognay, G., Verheggen, F.J., Francis, F.,
2017. Oviposition deterrent activity of basil plants and their essentials oils against
Tuta absoluta (Lepidoptera: gelechiidae). Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 1–9.
Zahir, A.A., Rahuman, A.A., Bagavan, A., Elango, G., Kamaraj, C., 2010. Adult emergence
inhibition and adulticidal activities of medicinal plant extracts against Anopheles
stephensi Liston. Asian Pac. J. Trop Dis. 3 (11), 878–883.