Engineering Materials; Metals/ 8.

22

C o m p a r a t i v e c h a r t for b r e a k i n g l o a d s :

6/37 constn. 18/7 constn. 18/7

Size o f Rope
RHO, IWRC, R H O S t d core Hyflex
(diam)
180 k g f / m m
180kgf/mm 2
2
PRINCIPLES OF AIR
64 kgf. 68 k g f . 75 kgf.
13 m m Wt/100m.
M i n . Br. L o a d 9.7 Tons. 10.0 Tons 12.5 Tons COMPRESSION
138 kgf. 153 k g f . 176 kgf.
20 m m Wt/lOOm
Tons 23.0 Tons 28.0 Tons
M i n . Br. L o a d 21.3 Compressed a i r is u s e d as p o w e r m a i n l y t o operate d r i l l s a n d o t h e r
m a c h i n e r y i n m i n e s , b o t h o n t h e surface a n d u n d e r g r o u n d , a n d i n t h e
245 kgf. 272 k g f . 296 kgf.
26 m m Wt/lOOm u n d e r g r o u n d coal m i n e s w h e r e e l e c t r i c i t y is w i d e l y used as t h e m a i n p o w e r ,
Tons 40.0 Tons 48.0 Tons compressed a i r is p r e f e r r e d f o r d r i f t i n g i n stone d u e t o its r e l a t i v e l y s u p e r i o r
Min.Br. load 36.0
p e r f o r m a n c e as p o w e r o f d r i l l s . For o p e r a t i n g pusher r a m s d u r i n g d e c k i n g
kgf. 411 k g f . 452 kgf o p e r a t i o n s a t t h e p i t - t o p a n d p i t b o t t o m , compressed a i r is r e q u i r e d i n
32mm Wt/lOOm 371
Tons 59.0 Tons 76.0 Tons m e c h a n i s e d m i n e s . I n deep u n d e r g r o u n d coal m i n e s w i t h h e a v y m e t h a n e
Min.Br.Load 54.5
emission compressed a i r is t h e safest power.

Compressed air provides p o w e r somewhat s i m i l a r t o steam b u t u n l i k e

steam, i t c a n be used c o l d .
| QUESTIONS |
Air pressure :

1. W r i t e notes o n : Lang's lay, O r d i n a r y lay, Equal lay, p r e f o r m e d ropes. A b a r o m e t e r records a b s o l u t e pressure i n m m o f m e r c u r y c o l u m n s .

The v a l u e o f a t m s o p h e r i c pressure varies f r o m place t o place a n d d e p e n d s
2. Describe the procedure o f s p l i c i n g a w i r e r o p e o f a n endless haulage. f u r t h e r o n c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . I t is m a x i m u m at t h e sea level a n d g r a d u a l l y
decreases w i t h a l t i t u d e abvoe sea level. T h e s t a n d a r d a t m o s p h e r i c pressure,
3. Describe h o w reliance capel is t o be f i t t e d o n a w i n d i n g rope. also called the m e a n or n o r m a l atmospheric pressure, is defined as t h a t pressure
w h i c h s u p p o r t s a c o l u m n o f m e r c u r y 7 6 0 m m h i g h at sea l e v e l w h e n t h e
4. State the type o f r o p e t o be used f o r :
t e m p e r a t u r e o f m e r c u r y is 0°C. T h i s is stated as absolute pressure o f 7 6 0 m m
of mercury. I n t h e m e t r i c u n i t s the v a l u e o f s t a n d a r d a t m s o p h e r i c pressure is
(a) Coal c u t t i n g m a c h i n e .
1 k g f / c m . The internationally accepted values of standard atmospheric pressure
2

(b) W i n d i n g rope. i n SI u n i t s is 1 0 1 3 2 5 N / m i.e. a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 N / m o r 1 0 N / m .

2 2 s 2

(c) G u i d e rope. The u n i t bar (b) used b y the meteorologists t o express atmospheric pressure is
e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 0 N / m , a n d therefore v e r y n e a r l y e q u a l t o t h e a t m o s p h e r i c
s 2

(d) Crane hoist rope.

760x13.6
(e) D i p p e r shovel b o o m h i i s t rope.
pressure. A 7 6 0 m m c o l u m n o f m e r c u r y is equivalent t o — I Q Q Q — metres o f
(f) G u y rope.
w a t e r c o l u m n i.e. 1 0 . 3 4 m o f w a t e r c o l u m n , (sp. gr. of m e r c u r y is 1 3 . 6 ) . I f t h e
b a r o m e t r i c pressure at a place is h m m of mercury, its c o n v e r s i o n i n t o S.I.
O O O units is s i m p l e :
 Principles of Air Compression/9.2
Elements of Mining Technology-3 /9.3
h m m h e i g h t of H g = ( 1 0 1 3 2 5 / 7 6 0 ) x h N / m 2
This e q u a t i o n is applicable t o a fixed mass of gas. Let this mass be m .
= 133.3 h N / m 2
E q u a t i o n ( 3 ) c a n t h e n be w r i t t e n as

A t m o s p h e r i c pressure i n m i n e s b e l o w sea level is h i g h e r t h a n the PV

— = m x constant
atmospheric pressure near sea level a n d the rate of pressure rise is the same as T
the rate for pressure decrease for places above the sea level.
PV

Laws governing compression and expansion of gases :

w h e r e R is k n o w n as t h e characteristic gas constant.
T h e r e are c e r t a i n l a w s g o v e r n i n g prefect gases. A t m o s p h e r i c a i r is
also governed b y these laws t o a great extent, a n d i t is desirable t o u n d e r s t a n d This e q u a t i o n (4) is k n o w n as t h e characteristic e q u a t i o n o f a perfect
gas. For a p e r t i c u l a r gas t h e v a l u e of R is constant.
t h e m b r i e f l y as t h e y enter i n t o a l m o s t every compressed air p r o b l e m .
I n S.I. u n i t s i f P is i n u n i t s o f N / m , V i n units of m , T i n u n i t s o f K
2 3

1. B o y l e ' s l a w : It .states : The v o l u m e of a given mass o f gas varies a n d m i n u n i t s o f k g , t h e n t h e u n i t s o f R are

inversely as t h e absolute pressure w h e n the temperature remains constant.
Nm 2 J
1. e. V oc — a n d PV = constant - - - (1) m Kkg
2 ~°r kg K y ° ^ / k i l o g r a m m e K e l v i n ) . For a i r t h e v a l u e
e s

P
o f R i s 2 8 8 J / k g . K.
so t h a t P V
1 1 = P V2 2

The above l a w s are k n o w n as gas laws a n d a perfect gas is one w h i c h

w h e r e 1 a n d 2 d e n o t e i n i t i a l a n d f i n a l c o n d i t i o n s ( o f pressure obeys the gas laws exactiy. I n practice n o such gas exists b u t for the temperature
and volume). • a n d pressures o f gases o f a i r w i t h w h i c h w e are c o n c e r n e d i n compressed a i r
calculations t h e concept, o f a n i d e a l o r perfect gas i n quite h e l p f u l . T h e results
2 . C h a r l e ' s L a w : I t s t a t e s : The v o l u m e o f a g i v e n mass of gas
arrived by such calculations for air w i l l not show a significant deparature
varies d i r e c t l y as t h e absolute t e m p e r a t u r e w h e n the pressure is constant.
f r o m t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n p r a c t i c e . T h e gas l a w s d o n o t a p p l y t o v a p o u r s
a n d steam w h i c h get l i q u i f i e d at comparatively l o w pressure a n d t e m p e r a t u r e .
i.e. V cc T a n d — = a constant —(2)
T

The absolute t e m p e r a t u r e is always measured f r o m the absolute zero Example i

o f t e m p e r a t u r e a n d this is stated as - 273.13°C. For c a l c u l a t i o n purposes this A v o l u m e o f 0.045 m 3 o f a i r at a pressure o f 3 0 0 k N / m 2 and a
is t a k e n as - 273°C. t e m p e r a t u r e o f 15°C is e x p a n d e d t o a v o l u m e o f 0 . 0 7 5 m . I f t h e t e m p e r a t u r e
3

Absolute t e m p e r a t u r e = 273°C + C. falls t o 3°C c a l c u l a t e t h e final pressure o f t h e gas.

•

3. The characteristic equation of a perfect gas is derived froma Ans.:

c o m b i n a t i o n o f Boyle's a n d Charles' Laws. I t is :
PiVi _ P V 2 2
A p p l y i n g the f o r m u l a
PV
— = R = C o n s t a n t , or PV = RT - - - (3)
Pj = 3 0 0 x 1 0 N / m 3 2 P = final pressure
2

W h e r e , P, V, a n d T denote absolute pressure, v o l u m e a n d absolute V, = 0.045m 3 V = 0.075m

2 3

t e m p e r a t u r e respectively.
T , = 15 + 2 7 3 = 2 8 8 K T 2 = 3 + 273 = 276 K
 Principles of Air Compression/9.4 Elements of Mining Technology-3/9.5

T h i s v o l u m e has t o be expressed u n d e r the S.T.P. c o n d i t i o n s i.e.

P V
n T 2
101.3 k N / m a n d 0°C.
2

\ 2
PV P V
U s i n g t h e gas e q u a t i o n = — = s s

- 0.045 276
= 3 0 0 x 1 0 x -r-r— x 3
288 0.075 Where P = 101.3 X 1 0 N / m ; T = 2 7 3 K
3 2

= 172.5 X 1 0 N / m 3 2 V = V o l u m e at S.T.P.
= 172.5 k N / m
1720 x 1 0 x 0.031 101.3 x 1 0 x V
2
3 3
We get -
T h e final pressure o f t h e gas is 172.5 k N / m . 2
291 273

1720x0.031x273
V =
Example: 291x101.3
A n air receiver h a v i n g a v o l u m e o f 0 . 1 1 m contains air at a temperature 3
= 0.494 m 3

o f 18°C a n d u n d e r a pressure of 1 7 2 0 k N / m . A f t e r w o r k i n g o f some o f t h e a i r

2
T h e v o l u m e o f a i r c o n s u m e d is 0 . 4 9 4 m at S.T.P.
3

engines t o w h i c h t h e receiver is c o n n e c t e d the pressure of air i n the receiver

falls t o 1 2 0 0 k N / m a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o 10°C. D e t e r m i n e the v o l u m e of the
2

air at S.T.P. t h a t has been used f r o m t h e receiver. Specific heat of gas :

T h e specific heat o f a gas is d e f i n e d as the a m o u n t o f heat r e q u r i e d t o
Ans. :
raise the t e m p e r a t u r e o f u n i t mass of t h e gas t h r o u g h one degree. I f t h e gas be
Suppose t h e v o l u m e o f t h e a i r u s e d at 1 7 2 0 k N / m a n d 18°0 is V m
heated i n a closed vessel, so t h a t its v o l u m e remains constant, the w h o l e o f the
2 3

.-. V o l u m e r e m a i n i n g i n t h e receiver = ( 0 . 1 1 - V ) m .
T h i s v o l u m e t h e n fills the receiver a n d occupies the v o l u m e o f 0 . 1 1 m
a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e pressure falls t o 1 2 0 0 k N / m a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o 2
3
heat applied is spent o n increasing the temperature ( a n d incidendy the pressure)
3
of the gas. I f the gas be heated i n a c y l i n d e r h a v i n g a frictionless a n d weightless
piston u n d e r a constant e x t e r n a l pressure, its v o l u m e changes b u t its pressure

remains c o n s t a n t . I n this case, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e of the gas is raised a n d also

10°C. w o r k is d o n e i n p u s h i n g o u t t h e p i s t o n against the external pressure. I t f o l l o w s
P, = 1 7 2 0 x 1 0 N / m 3 2 P = 1200 x 1 0 N / m
? 3 2

Vi 1 (0.11-V)m
= 3 V *= 0 . 1 1 m
2 3 that the specific heat at c o n s t a n t pressure, C , m u s t always be greater t h a n
p

that at c o n s t a n t v o l u m e , C^. T h e u n i t s f o r C a n d C are J A g . K . T h e specific

=2 9219K1 K T = 10 273 = 2 8 3 K p v
T i = 1 8 + 2 7 3 = 2 +

heat capacities v a r y w i t h t e m p e r a t u r e a n d u s u a l l y a n average value is used f o r

the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e i n v o l v e d . For air,
Using the equation • • =
Tj T 2

a n d s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e values C p = 1005 J / k g . K a n d C = 7 1 2 J / k g . K so t h a t
v = L 4

1720 x l O 3 x ( 0 . 1 1 - V ) _ 1200 x l O 3 x 0.11 The r a t i o is d e n o t e d b y t h e Greek l e t t e r y ( g a m m a )

291 283 A t m o s p h e r i c a i r is compressed i n a m a c h i n e c a l l e d compressor a n d
such compressed a i r is stored i n a c y l i n d r i c a l t a n k , k n o w n as receiver, f o r use
0 \- 1200x0.11x291
1720x283 in machines referred t o as i n m o t o r s o r a i r engines. A compressor is said t o be
:;ingle-stage w h e n i t compresses t h e air t o its final pressure i n one compressor
= 0.079 • y l i n d e r a n d i t is said t o be m u l t i - s t a g e w h e n i t compresses the a i r i n t w o o r
V = 0.031 m 3 more compressor c y l i n d e r s .
 Principles of Air Compression/9.6
Isothermal and adiabatic compression and expansion.
W h e n air ( o r a n y o t h e r gas) is compressed f r o m a n i n i t i a l pressure P
t o a h i g h e r pressure P w i t h o u t change o f t e m p e r a t u r e , the process is called
2
I s o t h e r m a l c o m p r e s s i o n . Boyle's L a w s t r i c t l y applies t o s u c h c o n d i t i o n s a n d
PV = c o n s t a n t . For a gas t o b e compressed i s o t h e r m a l l y (a c o n d i t i o n
u n a t t a i n a b l e i n p r a c t i c e ) i t is necessary t h a t the heat p r o d u c e d d u r i n g
compression, b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f m e c h a n i c a l energy i n t o heat, m u s t be
r e m o v e d b y some c o o l i n g a r r a n g e m e n t as fast as i t is p r o d u c e d .
A gas is s a i d t o be c o m p r e s s e d a d i a b a t i c a l l y w h e n t h e r e is n o
transference o f heat t o or f r o m t h e gas d u r i n g its compression. I n other w o r d s ,
the mechanical energy c o n v e r t e d i n t o heat d u r i n g t h e compression is a l l o w e d
to r e m a i n i n the gas a n d goes t o increase its temperature. Adiabatic compression
follows t h e e q u a t i o n .
PV r = C where y = — = 1 . 4
Pure a d i a b a t i c c o m p r e s s i o n is never a t t a i n e d i n p r a c t i c e because
perfect l a g g i n g of the c y l i n d e r t o p r e v e n t loss of heat c a n n o t be secured, n o r
can f r i c t i o n a n d shock losses be avoided; b u t compression usually m o r e n e a r l y
approaches t h e a d i a b a t i c t h a n t h e i s o t h e r m a l unless effective steps are t a k e n
t o c o u n t e r a c t the t e m p e r a t u r e rise b y some c o o l i n g a r r a n g e m e n t . Except i n
small capacity compressors, w h i c h are p r o v i d e d w i t h fins o n t h e compressor-
c y l i n d e r f o r c o o l i n g b y a t m o s p h e r i c air, c o o l i n g is effected i n m o s t instances
b y s u r r o u n d i n g t h e c y l i n d e r or c y l i n d e r s w i t h a water-jacket t h r o u g h w h i c h
cold w a t e r is constantly circulated, a n d i n two-stage compressors, a n intercooler
is also p r o v i d e d between t h e t w o stages. The intercooler is m u c h m o r e effective
t h a n w a t e r j e c k e t i n g . (see Fig. 9.4 for s t a t i o n a r y r e c i p r o c a t i n g compressor).
A n i n t e r c o o l e r is a veseel w i t h a n e t w o r k o f tubes t h r o u g h w h i c h w a t e r as
atmospheric t e m p e r a t u r e is c i r c u l a t e d a n d the compressed air passes t h r o u g h
the space outside the tubes before entering the h i g h pressure cylinder for further
compression. I t s f u n c t i o n is l i k e t h a t o f a r a d i a t o r o n a u t o m o b i l e s . Baffle
plates are fitted i n a n i n t e r c o o l e r so t h a t t h e air, d u r i n g its passage, makes
contact w i t h the w a t e r tubes several times. Other fittings o n a n intercooler are
a s p r i n g l o a d e d safety v a l v e a n d a d r a i n cock. B y u s i n g i n t e r c o o l e r the air
t e m p e r a t u r e is m u c h r e d u c e d a n d b r o u g h t d o w n w i t h i n a few degrees m o r e
t h a n the atmospheric t e m p e r a t u r e .
Because of the reduced t e m p e r a t u r e , the v o l u m e o f a i r is reduced a n
the h i g h pressure c y l i n d e r is of smaller size. Some compressors are p r o v i d e
w i t h aftercoolers, described later. A two-stage a i r cooled compressor has an
intercooler w i t h fins, served b y a fan m o u n t e d o n the compressor w h i c h p r o v i d
Elements of Mining Technology -3 /'9.7 r
;iir circulation a r o u n d the intercooler a n d t h e compressor cylinders, air-cooled
compressors are preferred w h e r e there is d i f f i c u l t y o f g e t t i n g cool, clean w a t e r
in sufficient q u a n t i t y e.g. i n some u n d e r g r o u n d m i n e s a n d i n quarries o r sites
located at h i l l tops.
Compression o f a i r i n a two-stage compressor e m p l o y i n g i n t e r cooler
generally f o l l o w s the e q u a t i o n P V = constant.
1 3
The advantages of c o m p r e s s i n g i n m o r e t h a n one stage are
( i ) The w o r k o f c o m p r e s s i o n is r e d u c e d b y a b o u t 10 t o 1 5 % for final gauge
pressures o f 4 t o 7 k g c m because c o m p r e s s i o n m o r e n e a r l y approaches t h e
2
isothermal, as w i l l be clear i n the f o l l o w i n g pages, ( i i ) The final air temperature
is reduced o w i n g t o the effect o f t h e intercooler. Difficulties of l u b r i c a t i o n a n d
excessive wear a n d tear are thus avoided, ( i i i ) The stresses set u p i n t h e m a c h i n e
•ire g r e a t l y r e d u c e d a n d a better b a l a n c e d compressor m a y be b u i l t .
T h e h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e o f compressed air, r a n g i n g between 150°C a n d
200°C has a n adverse effect o n t h e w o r k i n g p a r t s , especially t h e valves, a n d i t
may also result i n the i g n i t i o n o f carbonaceaous deposits i f i n f e r i o r l u b r i c a n t s
.iie used. T h e temperature is b r o u g h t d o w n b y t h e use o f a n aftercooler, placed
I >etween the last c y l i n d e r i n w h i c h compression is c a r r i e d o u t a n d t h e receiver.
An after cooler is s i m i l a r t o a n i n t e r c o o l e r i n c o n s t r u c t i o n , o p e r a t i o n a n d
•ippearance. A n aftercooler does n o t i m p r o v e t h e efficiency o f c o m p r e s s i o n
hut an i n t e r c o o l e r does. A n aftercooler a n d a n i n t e r cooler, b y c o o l i n g the air,
«'.iuse m u c h o f its m o i s t u r e t o settle d o w n .
Work done in compression :
I n F i g . 9 . 1 the area o f A B Y D is a p r o d u c t o f t h e v o l u m e a n d t h e
pressure i n t h e case o f i s o t h e r m a l c o m p r e s s i o n a n d therefore i t represents t h e
work done d u r i n g such compression. Area A H Y D represents the w o r k done i n
•uliabatic c o m p r e s s i o n a n d i t w i l l be observed t h a t the w o r k d o n e d u r i n g
i.i "thermal compression is less t h a n i n a d i a b a t i c compression b y t h e a m o u n t
i -I i he shaded area. This shaded area represents the increase i n i n t e r n a l energy
• •I the air c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o its t e m p e r a t u r e rise b u t the air g e n e r a l l y cools
nK..iin d u r i n g t r a n s m i s s i o n a n d before its use i n a i r m o t o r s , so t h a t this e x t r a
mergy is w a s t e d b y dissipation of heat. I t is therefore economical t o compress
l»<'thermally r a t h e r t h a n a d i a b a t i c a l l y a n d this is one reason for the w a t e r
|<trketing o f air compressors. I n practice t h e compression is neither i s o t h e r m a l
ii"t adiabatic b u t p o l y t r o p i c a n d t h e i n d e x o f c o m p r e s s i o n is u s u a l l y 1.3 so
lh.it the c o m p r e s s i o n c u r v e lies b e t w e e n t h e i s o t h e r m a l a n d the a d i a b a t i c
twves.
 Principles of Air Compression/9.8 Elements of Mining Technology-3/9.9

PV = P V I 1 = P V 2 2 = Q

The w o r k done

W = P V log ^ = P V log §-
1 1 e 1 1 e

If P is i n N / m a n d V i n m
2 3

t h e n W = PjV, l o g S - N m e - - - (5)
Pi

The w o r k done b y the compressor p i s t o n per complete storke includes,

l>esides this w o r k of compression, t h e w o r k d o n e i n e x p e l l i n g the a i r f r o m t h e
cylinder. T h e area A B N X is a measure o f t h e t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k r e q u i r e d t o
Fig. 9.1 Single stage compression compress a i r from t h e i n i t i a l pressure Pj t o t h e final pressure P . The area o f 2

Isothermal compression: the r e c t a n g l e O N B Y ( P V ) is a measure o f t h e displacement w o r k r e q u i r e d t o

2 2

force t h e compressed a i r i n t o a receiver a t pressure P . T h e area o f r e c t a n g l e2

To find the w o r k d o n e d u r i n g compression let us consider the i n s t a n t

s h o w n i n Fig. 9.2 (a) w h e n the absolute pressure o f t h e air is P. I f the s t r i p
h e i g h t is P a n d t h e w i d t h dV, t h e area of the s t r i p is PdV.
The t o t a l area A B N X represents t h e w o r k d o n e i n p a r t t r a v e l of one
stroke of the p i s t o n i n c o m p r e s s i n g a g i v e n mass of air f r o m v o l u m e V t to
v o l u m e V . T h e t o t a l area, A B N X (Fig. 9.2, a) f o r i s o t h e r m a l compression
2
OXAD ( P J V J ) is a measure o f t h e w o r k d o n e b y t h e a t m o s p h e r i c pressure
behind t h e a d v a n c i n g p i s t o n . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e net w o r k r e q u i r e d o f t h e
p r i m e r m o v e r t o compress a n d d e l i v e r t h e a i r is equal t o t h e area DABY. I n
other w o r d s .
Net w o r k done = DABY =

w o r k of compression atmosphere + displacement w o r k - w o r k done b y

(which follows the l a w
.itmosphere
= NXAB + ONBY - OXAD
= NXAB + P V - P V 2 2 1 1

W i t h t h e i s o t h e r m a l c o m p r e s s i o n P V . = P V a n d therefore t h e n e t t
2 2

work r e q u i r e d for i s o t h e r m a l c o m p r e s s i o n a n d d e l i v e r y o f a i r (area = D A B Y )

Is the same as the t h e o r e t i c a l w o r k o f c o m p r e s i n a l o n g ( = area N X A B ) .

Adiabatic Compression:
I n t h e case o f adiabatic c o m p r e s s i o n (Fig. 9.2) (b) w o r k d o n e at a n y
Instant, w h e n t h e pressure o f a g i v e n mass o f a i r is P p is P d V for the s t r i p d V
The t o t a l w o r k d o n e i n c o m p r e s s i o n from V t o V , is a g a i n t h e s u m o f t h e

Fig. 9.2 '•lementary s t r i p PdV represented b y t h e area A B N X .

 Elements of Mining Technology-3/9.11
Principles of Air Compression /9.10
I t can be s h o w n b y w o r k i n g out a n example t h a t adiabatic compression
requires m o r e w o r k t h a n i s o t h e r m a l compression. T h e e x t r a energy received
JpdV by t h e a i r d u r i n g adiabatic compression is a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y lost i n the f o r m
W o r k done d u r i n g a d i a b a t i c compression of heat w h i c h is dissipated t o t h e atmosphere a n d b y t h e t i m e t h e compressed
air is used i n the air motors, the former is almost at the atmospheric temperature.

Sincehowever P V n = C a n d ... P = JL w e m a y substitute as follows:

Example:
F i n d the w o r k done i n a compressor i n compressing air (a) isothermally
«J v, v, and (b) adiabatically w i t h the f o l l o w i n g data.

I n t i a l abs. pressure = 1 0 x 1 0 N / m = 1 0 N / m 4 2 s 2

F i n a l abs. pressure = 5 0 x 1 0 N / m = 5 x 1 0 N / m 4 2 5 2

Initial volume = 6 m 3

I n d e x o f adiabatic compression, n = 1.4

1-n z '
Ans.

= ~ fat V? ~ n ) - P V 2 2n v* -)) Isothermal compression

p
W o r k done = PV log, — l l

= PiVi-P V 2 2
= 10 x 6 log 5 N m s e

1-n
= 6 x 1 0 x 1.6 N m 5

I f the pressure are g i v e n i n N / m a n d v o l u m e i n m , t h e w o r k d o n e is2 3

= 9.6462 x 1 0 N m 5

= 964620 N m
W = T ^ - ( P 1 V 1 - P 2 V 2 )
1 -n Adiabatic Compression

P V 1 1 n =P V
2 2 n

---(6)
n - 1
P 2

N o t e t h a t this is t h e w o r k d o n e d u r i n g compression only. I t is the area or

Pi
A B N X i n Fig. 9.2 ( b ) . T h e w o r k d o n e per stroke, w h i c h has also t o i n c l u d e the
w o r k d o n e t o p u s h t h e compressed a i r i n t o the receiver, is
or Log 1 0 5 = 1.4 l o g i o ^ -
v 2
= A B N X + O N B Y - OXAD
V-
P V -PiVi p V -P
2 2 + 2 2 l V l or Log 1 0 = 0.4993 •*• r r - = 3 . 1 5 7
V-
N - 1

v. = = 1.9nr
= - r(P V -PiVi)
i L 2 2
- - - (7) 3.157
n - 1
 Principles of Air Compression/9.12 Elements of Mining Technology-3/9.13
Now P Vj = P V
a n 2 2n

W o r k done = (P V -
2 2 P^i)
n - 1
1.35
xV,
p,
= M(5xl.9-lx6)xl0 5 Nm
0.4 V

2070 1.35
= 12.25 x 1 0 N m s
V 2 = 0.014
207

= 1225 x 1 0 N m . 3

= 0.014 x 1.3^10

W o r k d o n e (adiabatic) 1225000 , ^ o r 7 n /
= 0 . 0 1 4 x 5.5 = 0 . 0 7 7 m . 3

— f—; T\ —7—,— = 1.27 or 2 7 % m o r e

W o r k done (isothermal) 964620
W o r k d o n e d u r i n g compression o n l y is g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n . ( 6 ) . I f i t is

I f a gas is t o be compressed f r o m a lower pressure t o a higher pressure considered as p o s i t i v e w o r k , the w o r k d o n e b y t h e gas d u r i n g expansion is
negative a n d t h e equation. (6) therefore, t h e expansion becomes
t h e n w o r k w i l l be r e q u i r e d t o c a r r y o u t t h e compression. W h e n t h e gas is a t
the n e w h i g h pressure, i t possesses the p o t e n t i a l t o e x p a n d a n d d o w o r k i n
W = T 7( iVi i P -P V )2 2

e x p a n d i n g . The equations (5) a n d (6) w i l l a p p l y equally w e l l t o compression n - 1

o r e x p a n s i o n . D u r i n g c o m p r e s s i o n t h e w o r k is done, o n t h e gas;
(2070 x 1 0 3 x 0.014 - 207 x 10 3 x O.O77)
d u r i n g expansion w o r k is d o n e b y the gas. I f w o r k done d u r i n g compression
1.35 - 1
is c o n s i d e r e d p o s i t i v e , t h e w o r k d o n e b y t h e gas d u r i n g e x p a n s i o n is
negative. 10 ; 10 ;

(29 - 1 5 . 9 5 ) = -^-(13.05)
0.35 0.35
= 37.3 x 10 N m 3

Example:
= 37.3 k J .
A gas at a pressure o f 2 0 7 0 k N / m has a v o l u m e o f 0 . 0 1 4 m .
2 3

I t expands t o a l o w pressure o f 2 0 7 k N / m a c c o r d i n g t o the l a w P V

2 1 3 5 = C.
F i n d o u t the w o r k done b y the gas d u r i n g expansion. Two Stage Compression :

Ans. T h e s a v i n g effected b y two-stage c o m p r e s s i o n is s h o w n i n F i g . 9.3

where t h e l o a d d o t t e d c u r v e A B represents a n i s o t h e r m a l c u r v e a n d A B , a n d
P = 2070 k N / m
t 2 P = 207 k N / m
2 2
.idiabatic c u r v e , corresponding t o a n i n i t i a l pressure P a n d a final pressure P : 2

assuming s i n g l e stage compression. T h e c u r v e A L is a p o l y t r o p i c c u r v e w h i c h

Vj = 0.014 m 3 V 2 = ?
Is a s s u m e d t o obey the l a w PV - 1 3 = a c o n s t a n t . T h e n , f o r s i n g l e stage
compression, t h e w o r k r e q u i r e d f o r c o m p r e s s i o n a n d d e l i v e r y is represented
n = 1.35
hy the area A L Y D .
 Principles of Air Compression /9.14 Elements of Mining Technology.3/9.15

Final absolute
pressure

Area represents
work saved by
ftsv two staging

Initial absolute pressure

I Zero absolute pressure

L-H.P.cyl.vol.-J [_p c y l . v o l .
4 . 3TcRIsitcra5

Fig. 9.3 Two-Stage Compression.

(9. c l l ^ 4 1 l $

Assume n o w t h a t t w o stages are used a n d t h a t , i n the first stage the

pressure is raised f r o m V t o P p o l y t r o p i c a l l y a c c o r d i n g t o the c u r v e A N , the
x
^o.ftrasreftsre
2

v o l u m e o f t h e same t i m e decreasing from OX t o SN. The compressed air is Rurrsrsr ^rtcti

t h e n passed t h r o u g h a i n t e r c o o l e r w h e r e its t e m p e r a t u r e is r e d u c e d t o the
i n i t i a l free a i r t e m p e r a t u r e , the pressure r e m a i n i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y constant.
T h e v o l u m e is thereby r e d u c e d t o SM w h e r e M is a p o i n t o n the i s o t h e r m a l
c u r v e . I n t h e second stage, compression starts at M o n this curve a n d t h e
pressure is raised f r o m P t o P according t o p o l y t r o p i c curve MK. I t is evident
2 3

t h a t t h e w o r k r e q u i r e d for two-stage c o m p r e s s i o n is represented b y the area

A N M K Y D a n d t h a t the a m o u n t o f w o r k saved is t h a t equivalent t o the shaded
area M N L K . To o b t a i n t h e highest efficiency, t h e cylinders s h o u l d be of such a Fig. 9.4
size t h a t equal w o r k is done i n each a n d the absolute pressure P at the e n d of 2

llorizontal 2-stage stationary compressor i n section. 1-Atmospheric air suction.

the first stage s h o u l d be such t h a t P 2 = fifa w h e r e P = i n t a k e absolute
l
Shaft of prime mover. 3. Corliss valve. 4. Valve, spring loaded. 5. Intercooler.
<> Intercooler w a t e r tubes. 7. A i r receiver. 8. Pressure gauge. 9. M a n h o l e .
pressure a n d P = delivery absolute pressure. Two-stage compression is used
3 Ml. Drain cock, 1 1 . Relief valve, 12. Main of delivery valve.
for gauge pressures between 4.5 k g f / c m a n d 7 k g f / c m , this being the range
2 2

of pressure c o m m o n l y a d o p t e d i n m i n i n g . The percentage saving o f power Capacity of a compressor:

o v e r single-stage compression ( w i t h i n t h e range of pressure g i v e n ) is of the
o r d e r of 10 t o 1 5 % . Three stage compression is used for higher pressures upto
a b o u t 5 0 k g f / c m a n d f o u r or even
2 five-stage
pressures.
T h e c a p a c i t y o f a compressor is always expressed i n c u b i c feet or
i ill )ic metres o f free a i r per m i n u t e a n d this refers t o t h e a c t u a l v o l u m e o f a i r
compression for still higher it (npressed a n d delivered expressed, i n terms o f free air at t h e i n l e t temperature
M id pressure.
 Principles of Air Compression /9-16
Elements of Mining Technology-3 /9.17

V o l u m e t r i c efficiency o f a compressor is d e f i n e d as

Vol. Efficiency - Q y ^ delivered i n a given time

u a n t i t o f r

p i s t o n displacement i n t h e same p e r i o d

A little consideration w i l l show that

V o l u m e t r i c E f f i c i e n c y = Effective s w e p t v o l u m e i n a g i v e n t i m e
Swept v o l u m e i n t h e s a m e p e r i o d

V -V<
x

Vx-V 3

total vol. vy
T h e f i g u r e is u s u a l l y i n t h e range o f 6 0 % t o 8 5 % .

Fig. 9.5

Effect of clearance volume : | QUESTIONS |

T h e clearance v o l u m e i n a r e c i p r o c a t i n g compressor is the v o l u m e !
between t h e c y l i n d e r cover a n d piston, a n d the valve passages w h e n the piston
has reached the e n d of its compression stroke. I n Fig. 9.5 the d i a g r a m enclosed
b y 1,2,3,4 is a t h e o r e t i c a l d i a g r a m o f a single stage compressor h a v i n g
p o l y t r o p i c c o m p r e s s i o n a c c o r d i n g t o the l a w PV = C. A t 1 t o t a l v o l u m e
(or initial v o l u m e ) i n the cylinder is Vj before the piston starts o n its compression
stroke. Points 2 represents the pressure t o w h i c h t h e air is compressed. A t 2,
d e l i v e r y v a l v e t h e o r e t i c a l l y opens a n d f o r t h e p i s t o n - t r a v e l f r o m p o i n t 2 t o
p o i n t 3, t h e compressed a i r is delivered from t h e cylinder. Point 3 represents
1. E x p l a i n t h e difference between isothermal compression a n d adiabatic
compression. S h o w b y calculations how, a n d b y w h a t extent, adiabatic
c o m p r e s s i o n requires m o r e p o w e r t h a n i s o t h e r m a l c o m p r e s s i o n .
2. W r i t e s h o r t notes o n : gauge pressure, intercooler, aftercooler.
3. C a l c u l a t e t h e mass i n k g o f 1500 l i t r e s o f a i r at a gauge pressure o f
1.9 M N / m a n d a t e m p e r a t u r e o f 27°C. Take t h e characteristics gas
2

t h e end of piston-travel a n d delivery of compressed air cases at 3. The v o l u m e c o n s t a n t f o r a i r as 2 8 8 J / k g K.

b e t w e e n the c y l i n d e r over a n d p i s t o n a n d also i n the passages t o the valve
(Arts. 34.7kg).
(clearance v o l u m e , V ) is f i l l e d w i t h compressed air. As the p i s t o n starts o n its
3

r e t u r n stroke t h e r e s i d u a l compressed air (V ) expands a n d w h e n its pressure

3

drops t o the i n t a k e pressure at 4, inlet valve begins to open a n d thereby permits

the i n t a k e o f fresh atmospheric air. D u r i n g the t r a v e l of p i s t o n from p o i n t 4 to o o o
p o i n t 1, the a t m o s p h e r i c a i r is a d m i t t e d i n t o the c y l i n d e r a n d the v o l u m e of
atmospheric air so a d m i t t e d ( f r o m p o i n t 4 t o p o i n t ) is called the effective!
swept v o l u m e .