CHAPTER 10.
H+ is a Lewis acid since it accepted an electron pair to form
ACIDS AND BASES: DEFINITIONS, BASIC CALCULATIONS OF [H+]
AND [OH-], CALCULATIONS OF pH AND pOH
Arrhenius definition of Acids and Bases.
Arrhenius acid is a substance that when added to water
increases the concentration of H+ ions present.
Arrhenius base is a substance that when added to water
increases the concentration of OH- ions present.
Example: HCl is an Arrhenius acid and NaOH is an Arrhenius
base.
HCl (aq) à H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) NaOH(aq) à Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Bronsted- Lowry definition of Acids and Bases.
Bronsted- Lowry acid is anything that donates H+ ions;
proton donor.
Bronsted- Lowry base is anything that accepts H+ ions;
proton acceptor.
Example: NH3 + H2O à NH4+ + OH-
NH3 à NH4+
NH3 is a proton acceptor. Therefore, is a Bronsted- Lowry base.
NH4+ is the corresponding conjugate acid.
H2O à OH-
H2O is a proton donor. Therefore, is a Bronsted- Lowry acid.
OH- is the corresponding conjugate base.
Lewis Definition of Acids and Bases.
Lewis Acid is anything that accepts an electron pair to
form a covalent bond.
Lewis Base is anything that donates an electron pair to
form a covalent bond.
water. OH- is a Lewis base since it donated an electron pair to
form water. Water is called an adduct.
STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES
Strong Acids. Acids that dissociates completely in aqueous
solution.
HCl(aq) à H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Weak Acids. Acids that ionize only partially in aqueous solution.
CH3COOH(aq) ßà CH3COO-(aq) + H+(aq)
The concentration of H+ is high in strong acid solutions and low
in weak acid solutions.
Strong Bases. Bases that dissociate completely into ions and
hydroxide (OH-) in aqueous solution.
NaOH(aq) à Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)
Weak Bases. Bases that react with water to form the conjugate
acid and OH-. However, the dissociation is only partial.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ßà NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
The concentration of OH- is high in strong base solutions and low
in weak base solutions.
Acids and Base solutions are called electrolytes because acids
and bases, regardless of strength, dissociate in solution to form
ions.
 pH and pOH SCALE CHAPTER 11. NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY
In the pH scale:
0-6 indicates an acidic solution. Nuclear Chemistry. Deals with the reaction that takes
7 indicates a neutral solution. place in the nucleus of an atom. It includes radioactive
8-14 indicates a basic solution.
substances that emit radiation as a result of changes in
their nuclei.
A strong acid has a pH closer to 0 and a strong base has a pH
closer to 14.

In order to get the pH of a solution, take the –log of the Chemical Reaction Nuclear Reaction
concentration of hydrogen. Atoms are rearranged by the Elements (or isotopes of some
pH = -log[H+] breaking and forming of elements) are converted to
chemical bonds. one form to another.
In order to get the concentration of hydrogen in a solution, use Only electrons in atomic or Protons neutrons, electrons
the following formula: molecular orbitals are involved and other elementary particles
[H+] = 10-pH in the breaking and forming of may be involved.
bonds.
Reactions are accompanied Reactions are accompanied
In the pOH scale: by absorption or release of by absorption or release of
0-6 indicates a basic solution. relatively small amounts of tremendous amount of
7 indicates a neutral solution. energy. energy.
8-14 indicates an acidic solution. Rates of reaction normally Rates of reaction normally are
affected by temperature, not affected by temperature,
A strong base has a pOH closer to 0 and a strong acid has a pressure, catalysis. pressure and catalysis.
pOH closer to 14.
Elementary Particles involved in a Nuclear Reaction:
In order to get the pOH of a solution, take the –log of the
concentration of hydroxide.
Name Symbols Name Symbols
pH = -log[OH-] ! ! ! !
Proton Positron
!p   !H !!e   !!β
In order to get the concentration of hydroxide in a solution, use
Neutron ! ! !
!n   !α   !He
the following formula: 𝛼 −particle
[H+] = 10-pOH
Electron ! ! Gamma !
!!e   !!β !γ  
Relationship between pH and pOH 𝛽 −particle particle
pH + pOH = 14.00
Increasing Penetrating power:  α < β <  γ
Types of Nuclear Reaction. Nuclear Transmutation. Involves changes in nucleus when
it is bombarded by a neutron or another nucleus. This
Radioactive Decay. Involves the emission of results for the atom to change into another.
particles and/or energy as one nucleus transform to
!"
another. !𝑁 + !!𝐻𝑒   →   !"!𝑂 +   !!𝐻
Nuclear Fission. Splitting of heavy nucleus into lighter ones
Types of Radioactive Decay
with a consequent release of neutron and large amount
Alpha decay/emission. Leads to a decrease in the
of energy. Can be used to generate power.
atomic number of the atom by 2 and a decrease in the
mass number by 4.
!"# !"#
!"#
!"𝑈 + !!𝑛   →   !"# !" !
!"𝑇𝑒 + !"𝑍𝑟   + 2 !𝑛
!"𝑈   →   !"𝑇ℎ +   !!𝐻𝑒
Nuclear Fission. Union of two light nuclei forming a heavier
Beta decay/emission. Beta particle is similar to an nucleus. Also releases large amount of energy.
!
electron, but its distinction is that it is produced inside the !𝐻 + !!𝐻   →   !!𝐻 +   !!𝑒
nucleus. The reaction implies that a neutron was
dissociated into a proton and a beta particle. Atomic Half life (t1/2). The time it takes for half of a radioactive
number increases. substance to decay.
!"! !"!
+   !!!𝛽 0.693 𝑙𝑛2
!"𝐼   →   !"𝑋𝑒 𝑡! =   =  
! 𝑘 𝑘
Positron emission. Positive counterpart of electron. where k is the rate constant of the system, which
Leads to decrease of atomic number. can be obtained experimentally. Half-life can be used to
!! !! determine the age of relics, fossils, and artifacts where
!𝐶   →   !𝐵 +   !!!𝛽
radioactive substances are present.
Electron capture. Results to a decrease in atomic
Example:
number. This is due to the instability of the nucleus that
Given that the rate constant for strontium-90 is 0.0241/yr.
might lead to the capture of electron in its inner shell.
!" a) What is the half-life of strontium-90?
!"𝑅𝑏 + !!!𝑒 →   +   !"
!"𝐾𝑟 0.693 𝑙𝑛2 𝑙𝑛2
𝑡! =   =   =   = 28.8  𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑠
! 𝑘 𝑘 0.0241/𝑦𝑟
Gamma emission. Similar to a photon (particle of b) How much strontium-90 will remain after 86.4 yrs if
light). Atomic number and mass number do not change. the initial mass of strontium-90 is 1.000g?
In general, gamma rays are not shown in equation but Time Amount
should always occur in an alpha or beta decay process.
0 yrs 1.000g
28.8 yrs 0.500g
57.6 yrs 0.250g
86.4 yrs 0.125g
 CHAPTER 12. BASIC ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND
INTRODUCTION TO BIOMOLECULES
Organic Chemistry. study of compounds containing
carbon with the exception of simple compounds e.g.
carbonates (CO32-), carbon dioxide (CO2) and carbon
monoxide (CO).
Aromatic vs Aliphatic Hydrocarbon.
Aromatic. Closed- chain hydrocarbon that contains one or
more benzene rings. Has sigma bonds and delocalized pi
electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. Has no
distinctive odor or aroma.
Aliphatic. Hydrocarbons with no distinct odor.
Guidelines in Naming Organic Compounds:

General Properties of Organic Compounds Parent Chain. Longest possible C-C chain that exists in a
hydrocarbon.
Property Organic Inorganic
Solubility in Generally insoluble; Soluble 1. Establish the type of parent chain by looking at the longest
water except for those chain. (alkane, alkene, alkyne). Least priority: alkane
capable of Priority: alkane < alkene <alkyne
hydrogen bonding.
in Soluble insoluble 2. Number each carbon atom present in the chain starting from
organic the end where the functional group of the parent chain is
solvents present. To ensure the lowest possible numbers assigned to the
Melting and Boiling low Very high substituents.
point
Bonding type Non polar covalent Ionic; polar 3. In case of different functional groups attached to the chain,
covalent refer to the table of functional groups to ensure the group with
Intermolecular forces Generally London Dipole dipole, the highest priority in numbering. Higher priority, lower number.
dispersion forces hydrogen
Combustibility flammable Non 4. Identify the substituents attached to the chain. In case of two
flammable or more of the same substituent are attached to a specific
Isomerism Common Rare carbon, use di-, tri-, tetra- etc. The substituent are named in
alphabetical order.
Types of Hydrocarbons according to bond:
Saturated hydrocarbon. Carbon- carbon bond are all single 5. Use dashes to separate numbers from letters, and commas to
bonds. Also called Alkanes. separate numbers from other numbers.
Unsaturated hydrocarbon. Carbon- carbon bond are either
double bond (alkene) or triple bond (alkyne). Types of Carbons
Primary Carbon. Carbon attached to one carbon.
Types of Hydrocarbon according to arrangement of carbon- Secondary Carbon. Carbon attached to two carbons.
carbon chains: Tertiary Carbon. Carbon attached to three carbons.
Straight chain. Open-ended or non-cyclic Quaternary Carbon. Carbon attached to four carbons.
Cyclic. Form closed ring system
 Introduction to Biomolecules Protein. Builds muscles, bones, structural support for cells.
Also useful in forms of enzymes and hormones.
Biomolecules. Organic compounds made by living
organisms. Amino acid. Simplest form of protein. Monomer of protein.

Four Categories of Biomolecules. Structure of amino acid:

Carbohydrates. Serve 2 main functions: NH2(CxHy)nCOOH

1. Source of chemical energy for cells in many
living things. Chains of amino acids are
2. Part of the structural material of plants called polypeptide chains.

Monosaccharide. Simplest form of carbohydrate (6-

Lipids. Fats and Oils
carbon). Monomer of carbohydrate.
Most lipids are made of just carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen. But unlike carbohydrates, fats are more complex
The following have the same formula: C6H12O6
& take much longer to break down. So, fats are high-
Type of Found in
energy molecules that plants and animals use to store
monosaccharide
energy in reserves for longer periods.
glucose food
galactose Milk Oil is liquid fat at room temperature.
fructose fruit
Structure of Lipids: Glycerol (orange) and fatty acid chain
Disaccharide. form when two monosaccharides join (yellow)
together via a dehydration reaction. Bonded via
glucosidic bond.

Type of disaccharide Found in components

maltose bread glucose + glucose
lactose Milk glucose + galactose
sucrose Table sugar glucose + fructose

Polysaccharides. A long chain of monosaccharides linked

by glycosidic bonds is known as a polysaccharide.
Examples are: starch, glycogen, chitin.
Saturated vs Unsaturated Fat. Nucleic Acid
n Largest & most complex biomolecule
n Saturated fats n Includes: DNA and RNA
– only single bonds in the carbon chain n Contain information that cells use to make proteins
– Most animal fats
– “bad” fats Structure of DNA
– Diets high in saturated fat are linked to heart n Twisted ladder or double helix
disease n The sides of the ladder are made of:
n Unsaturated fats – sugar molecules called deoxyribose
– one or more double bonds in the carbon – phosphate group
chain n The “rungs” of the ladder are made of:
– Most oils from plants – Nitrogen base
– “good” fats
4 Nitrogenous Bases
n Occur in matched sets:
– Adenine (A) to Cytosine (C)
– Thymine (T) to Guanine (G)
n The order of the bases in DNA is the way in which
DNA stores instructions for making proteins.
n Each of the 20 amino acids is represented by a
series of 3 DNA bases.

Cholesterol. another lipid in cell membranes

n It is also needed to make hormones like adrenaline
n Your body makes the cholesterol that it needs, but it
is also found in many foods that come from animals,
like meat and eggs.
n Although you need cholesterol, eating too much of
it can block arteries and lead to heart disease.