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Endorsement Theory: How Consumers Relate to Celebrity Models

Article  in  Journal of Advertising Research · December 2008

DOI: 10.2501/S0021849908080550

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 Endorsement Theory:
How Consumers Relate to Celebrity Models

ROGER MARSHALL The relationship of image congruity and postpurchase dissonance has been reported
Auckland University of
in the advertising iiterature. The reiationship among dissonance, dissatisfaction, and
Technology
roger.nnarshall@aut.ac.nz repeat-purchase behavior is a familiar subject as well. But the juxtaposition of all
three constructs has yet to be fully explored, in this research, the incongruity between
WOONBONG NA
self-image and the image projected by an advertisement is found to correlate to
Kyunghee University,
South Korea postpurchase dissonance in the purchasers of lipstick. A follow-up study tracks
wbna@khu.ac.kr satisfaction and repeat purchase intentions, and through structural equation

GABRIEL STATE modeling, it is established that although satisfaction is not related directly to
Mediaring Ltd., dissonance, repeat purchase is dependent upon both satisfaction and dissonance.
Singapore
state_ga brie l@yahoo. com

SONALI DEUSKAR
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Nanyang Technological
It has long been posited that congruency between
University, Singapore
an individual's ideal self-image and the image of
spdeuskar@ntu.edu.sg
some consumer good will result in a motivation
to purchase {Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy, Johar, Samli, and
Claibome, 1991). Furthermore, it seems that it
does not matter if the gap between the actual
image and the desired image displayed in the
merchandise is large; aspirational advertising still
enhances the motivation to purchase (Hong and
Zinkhan, 1995).
This powerful motivation to purchase con-
vinces marketers to make frequent use of attrac-
tive spokespeople to promote a product or service
and, intuitively, act as role models for us—even
though there may not be a chance that any cus-
tomer will realize the portrayed image simply hy
using the promoted product. Makeovers fail, but
sales still grow.
Repeat purchase is central to the marketing
concept that, in turn, supports the practice of
celebrity endorsement. In most situations, it is not
enough to make a single sale. Beyond that pur-
chase, companies also try to build lasting relation-
ships with their customers that will resxolt in a
steady stream of revenue. Repeat-purchase behav-
ior usually is strongly related to satisfaction—a
factor that a number of assessable product and
service-related factors can easily measure.
Satisfaction/dissatisfaction is a function of gaps
between the expected and actual performance of
a purchased product. When the expectation/
performance gap is small, such discrepancies are
usually ignored or psychologically absorbed some-
how into the reality of the performance; but when
the size of the gap moves beyond that level, a
reaction takes place. At that point, dissatisfaction
may be strong enough to dissuade the customer
from repeating the original purchase choice.
Cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957,1999) also
is about gaps—in this case, the difference between
pairs of cognitions. Festinger originally defined
those cognitions as "any knowledge, opinion, or
belief about the environment, about oneself, or
about one's behavior" (Festinger, 1957, p. 3). One
of the initial (and still very influential) revisions
of this original theory was called the self-
consistency interpretation of dissonance (Aron-
son, 1968), This theory assumes that situations
evoking dissonance do so because they create
inconsistency between the self-concept and a be-
havior. For marketers, the insights complete a
kind of analytical circle: the purchase of consumer
products—cosmetics, clothing, and even motor cars

564 flDÜEeTISlOG RESEflnCH December 2 0 0 8 DOI: 10.2501/S0021849908080550

 ENDORSEMENT THEORY

Satisfaction/dissatisfaction is a function of gaps between purchase dissonance. To ascertain their

satisfaction and repeat-purchase inten-
the expected and actuai performance of a purchased tions, we followed up a few weeks later.
In the work that follows, we begin with a
product. When the expectation/performance gap is smaii, brief discussion of the latest marketing
ideas about self-image congruency and
such discrepancies are usuaiiy ignored or psychoiogicaiiy postpurchase dissonance. From that point,
we move into a detailed description of
absorbed somehow into the reaiity of the performance; the research method and findings.
The implicatior^s of this proposition are
but when the size of the gap moves beyond that levei, a far-reaching for marketers and advertis-
ers. If the primary intent of brand building
reaction takes piace. is that a strong customer relationship is de-
sired (rather than a single sale), more real-
istic models will present a more realistic
brand image. When the image portrayed
and houses—often are motivated primar- (see Figure 1). Although performance and in advertising is at least attainable, cus-
ily by the congruity between the image luxury criteria may influence the initial tomers will be encouraged to repeat their
promoted by the marketers of the prod- sale, the probable main motivation to buy purchase behavior as long as the physical
uct/service and the individual's ideal is related to a reluctance to give in to age product features are also satisfactory.
self-image. and a corresponding identification with
The central thesis in this article is that the youthful image of the car. Even if the THE SELF-REFERENCE THEORY AND
postpurchase dissonance may have little gap between actual self-image and the CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
to do with an expectation of product per- image projected by the car marketers is Rosenberg (1979) proposes a basic defini-
formance (which is more the domain of large, the sale may still take place. In that tion of self-concept as "the totality of the
satisfaction) and a great deal to do with event, some image congruity-driven dis- individual's thoughts and feelings having
prepurchase image congruency. More spe- sonance may set in after the sale; the next reference to himself as an object" (p. 7). In
cifically, image self-congruency is caus- car purchase may well be a more stan- other words, it is the way people look at
ally related to postpurchase dissonance, dard vehicle, with a more subdued image. themselves, and it serves as a reference
and repeat-purchase behavior is caused The second mechanism in operation for point when consumers relate themselves
by both low residual postpurchase disso- the older person buying a youthful car to other images or models.
nance and high satisfaction. is performance-based dissonance, which Similarly, Bumkrant and Unnava (1995)
If the purchaser's actual self-image is results in either satisfaction or dissatisfac- claim that self-concept refers to the pro-
close enough to the projected product im- tion. In this instance, no matter how ap- cessing of information by relating it to the
age, we believe the result will be a low propriate or personally satisfying the image self-structure, or aspects of it. Although
level of dissonance and, consequently, a of the new car may be, if it suffers me- this theory traditionally has had much
high chance of repurchase. Alternatively, chanical failure, dissatisfaction will occur— more importance in psychology than in
if the purchaser's actual self-image is far and, along with it, a powerful negative consumer behavior, its unpopularity may
removed from the projected product im- effect on the repurchase decision. The mal- have been reinforced by measurement dif-
age, but she or he is still motivated to functions may not be strong enough to ficulties, problems that now have been
purchase (Hong and Zinkhan, 1995), then push the buyer completely away from the largely resolved (Sirgy, 1982).
the opposite will happen: postpurchase sports-car category. But the driver may The basic premise of self-reference theory
dissonance will set in and repurchase is select a more reliable nameplate when the leads to the conclusion that if an image
unlikely. time comes for repurchase. portrayed by, say, a model in a cosmetics
For instance, when a senior citizen buys In our model (see Figure 1), we used a advertisement is congruent to the observ-
a luxury sports car, two mechanisms will longitudinal design: subjects were Erst sold er's ideal image, a high probability exists
drive a repurchase decision at a later date a product and we measured their post- of a positive attitude change . . . and, more

December 2 0 0 8 JDUeilfll OF HDöERTISinG RESEIIIICH 5 6 5

ENDORSEMENT THEORY
High Self-Congruency,
Self-image, and image
of Blitz
Point of
Purchase
Low
Postpurchase HI
Dissonance -*. Repurchase
Intention
High ^— -»•
H2
Satisfaction
Figure 1 The Proposed
Relationship between
Self-Congruency and Repeat
Purchase Behavior
to the point, of a positive purchase deci-
sion (Sirgy, 1982). Self-concept can also be
applied to promotional strategies: consum-
ers tend to hold more favorable attitudes
toward an advertisement if they feel it
presents an image that is close to their
self-concept or one which they aspire to
possess {Mehta, 1999). A model with an
appropriate image becomes identified with
the product he or she uses and transfers
the glamour to the product.
Image is based on generalizations, not
specific logic. An old, plain man who wears
a roll-neck jersey logically knows that no
one ever will mistake him for Sean Con-
nery, but he still gets a general, emotive
feeling that he looks "Sean Connery-ish."
Underlying consumption, in the self-
reference context, are two self-concept mo-
tives: self-consistency and self-esteem. To
preserve the stability of the self-concept,
the self<onsistency motive encourages con-
sumption of products that appeal to the
"actual" self. The conflicting self-esteem
motive drives consumption of products
that symbolize personal aspirations, the
"ideal" self. Constant exposure to highly
566 BOUEIITISIIIG RESEflflCH December 2 0 0 8
attractive models may have elevated
consumers' standard of ideal physical ap-
pearance and made them increasingly
dissatisfied with their own looks (Richins,
1991). When the self<oncept is far from
the glamorous product image, the over-
riding motive for consumption is lost.
Recent evidence (Hong and Zinkhan,
1995) shows that the self-esteem motive
has greater effect on purchase intention
than the self-consistency motive, regard-
less of the discrepancy between self-
concept and product image.
No matter how far the portrayed image
of the product differs from the self-image
of the consumer, advertising can still have
a positive effect on the consumer's atti-
tude {and purchase intention) as long as
the image is different along the dimen-
sion of some idea! image. This particular
aspect of self-reference theory provides
the rationale for using models of superla-
tive, unattainable beauty, who apparently
motivate lesser mortals to purchase some
product or service that may make us re-
semble them.
Dissonance or, "But I still don't iook like
Claudia Schiffer .. . \"
Fesünger (1957) introduced the concept
of cognitive dissonance more than 50 years
ago. Since then, the theory has been ap-
plied in such fields such as sociology,
psychology, organizational behavior, busi-
ness, and marketing.
A dissonant relationship exists between
two cognitive elements when "consider-
ing these two alone, the obverse of one
element would follow from the other . , .
X and y are dissonant if not-j: follows
from y" (Festinger, 1957, p. 10), It is psy-
chologically uncomfortable to be holding
two pieces of conflicting thought about
some important matter; dissonance will
drive one to action to reduce this discom-
fort and avoid situations and information
that might increase it.
Dissonance has been aptly described as
"a negative-toned affective state with drive-
like properties" (Gerald and White, 1983,
p. 111). Cognitive dissonance is said to
occur only after a decision has been
made—a purchase decision, in marketing—
because one needs to be aware of incon-
sistency before dissonance sets in (Loudon
and Delia Bitta, 1993).
Most people like to view themselves in a
positive light. They like to see themselves
as "competent, moral, and able to predict
their own behavior" (Aronson, 1999, p. 36).
Foolish or immoral behavior is dissonant
with their positive self-concept. The oppo-
site is true as well: people who have neg-
ative self-expectancies are uncomfortable
when confronted with their own successes
(Aronson and Carlsmith, 1962).
The link between image congruity and
postpurchase dissonance seems quite con-
gruent with the literature we have dis-
cussed above. If people still are motivated
to purchase products/services to make
them appear in a way that is actually
unattainable, marketers may expect to en-
counter postpurchase dissonance. Al-
though there is no direct research that
supports the corollary, it does follow quite
logically that repeat purchase intentions
could be heavily influenced by the exis-
tence of unresolved dissonance at the time
of repurchase.
This discussion gives rise to several hy-
potheses, designed to offer the opportu-
nity to test the relationships inherent to
the simple model in Figure 1.
HI: The greater the perceived gap be-
tween "actual" self and the ad-
vertising image (the "ideal" self),
the greater will be the postpur-
chase cognitive dissonance.
H2: Repurchase intention is depen-
dent upon both satisfaction and
postpurchase cognitive dissonance.

Postpurchase dissonance may have little to do with an
expectation of product performance and a great deal to
do with prepurchase image congruency. More specificaliy,
image self-congruency is causally related to postpurchase
dissonance, and repeat-purchase behavior is caused by
both low residual postpurchase dissonance and high
satisfaction.
RESEARCH METHOD
Overview
A tube of lipstick was sold to subjects in
the target market and their self-congruence
to an advertisement for the product was
recorded. Immediately after purchase, their
dissonance was measured. Some three
weeks later a follow-up interview deter-
mined the level of their satisfaction and
their repurchase intentions.
Sample
The lipstick was bought by 148 young
women in the lipstick marketer's target
market (middle- and upper-middle-class
single women). Of these 148, only 113
could be reached for the follow-up study;
the earlier data for the dropouts were
discarded. This sample is convenient and
not random. But it is realistic and has
external validity: it is drawn from the
target audience, who self-select to only
those who regularly use the product
category.
Stimulus
Lipstick was selected as an appropriate
product for several reasons. First, the prod-
uct represents a serious purchase decision
tor these young women: no matter how
much they pay for it, the product will still
help shape their public image. Second,
women buy lipstick reasonably frequently;
familiarity with the product, if not the
specific brand, is likely to create a post-
purchase dissonance situation. Finally,
because the product is closely allied to self-
image, it often features glamorous models
in its advertising. We selected "Diamond
Water Shine," a Maybelline new line, al-
though all brand names were replaced
with our own invented sticker name. The
lipstick is relatively innovative in its prod-
uct class, offering a shimmering coat at a
fairly low price point. By choosing an
innovative lipstick, we minimized consum-
ers' preconceptions because they had no
prior exposure to a lipstick that offered
these product attributes.
Because we were seeking feedback from
purchasers, potential customers expected
a deep discount. This brand normally sells
for around U.S.$7; it was sold to our re-
spondents for $2.50. The brand name was
disguised, both In the advertisement (de-
scribed below) and on the actual product.
We used "Blitz," a nonexistent brand name,
so that there would also be no preconcep-
tions about the product. Researchers did
explain, however, tbat the product was
from "a well-known international cos-
metic company."
December 2 0 0 8 JOUBOHL OFflDUeñTISIflGBESEflRCH 5 6 7
ENDORSEMENT THEORY
Materiais, image
A purpose-designed advertisement used
was created with the help of an advertis-
ing agency. The young woman depicted
in the advertisement is an appropriate
role model for the young women in the
target group, in terms of ethnicity and
age. But she most often is hired in sup-
port of highly sophisticated beauty prod-
ucts. It is to be expected that few of the
women in the target audience could ever
attain her level of beauty, and the chances
of dissonance therefore are high. The prod-
uct is pictured in the advertisement, with
the brand name strongly featured.
Scaies, phase 1
In the first phase of the survey, at the
point of purchase, the gap between the
subjects' self-image and the ideal image
was measured. Respondents were primed
by being asked to conjure personal adjec-
tives ("stylish," "classy," "sexy," and
"athletic") to describe the model in the
advertisement. They then were asked to
indicate how closely the advertising im-
age matches up with their own self-
image. The single item is phrased as a
Likert scale (i.e., "The image portrayed in
the advertisement is consistent with how
I see myself"). This method follows the
validated work of Sirgy (1982). Respon-
dents' social and ideal image congruency
similarly was measured with single items
(i.e., "The image portrayed in the adver-
tisement is consistent with how I would
like to see myself" and "The image por-
trayed in the advertisement is consistent
with how I would like others to see
me"). We also reversed the scale so that
a high number on this scale represents
high image congruity. Finally, the magni-
tude of postpurchase dissonance experi-
enced by the subjects was captured
using POSTDIS, another validated scale
(Montgomery and Barnes, 1993). On this
scale, a larger number indicates lower
ENDORSEMENT THEORY
dissonance. The researchers also collected
contact information from the respondents.
Scales, phase 2
Subjects' level of satisfaction with the prod-
uct was measured after a minimum of
three weeks and a maximum of four. The
scale used to measure satisfaction level
is a 7-point semantic differential scale
("strongly disagree," "slightly disagree,"
"disagree," "neutral," "agree," "slightly
agree," and "strongly agree"), similar to
the Delight-Terrible scale (Andrews and
Withey, 1976). During the second phase of
the study, subjects also were asked to rate
the likelihood of their repurchasing the
product. A 7-point Likert-style two-item
scale was used to measure repurchase in-
tention (at full price).
Procedure
For the sake of the research, the authors
used intercept techniques to find "clients"
in the target market from many different
walks of life and asked them to partici-
pate in a university survey. Although
approaches were only made to young,
smart-looking women, neither demograph-
ics not psychographics were considered
particularly relevant, as the respondents
self-selected through their willingness to
participate. It was made quite clear that
the survey was not being conducted with
or for any cosmetic company, and also
that they would have to buy the product.
It was also clearly stated from the begin-
ning that a second interview would be
conducted after at least three weeks of
using the lipstick.
Respondents who agreed to be in-
volved were shown the advertisement for
Blitz lipstick. We then administered the
short, simple phase 1 questionnaire. The
preliminary three questions concerned self-
image, social image, and ideal image. The
respondents then were shown five differ-
ent colors of the same line of lipstick and
568 December 2008
If the primary intent of brand buiiding is that a strong
customer relationship is desired (rather than a single
sale), more realistic models will present a more realistic
brand image. When the ¡mage portrayed in advertising is
at least attainable, customers will be encouraged to repeat
their purchase behavior as long as the physical product
features are also satisfactory.
were asked to select the color that best items are highly correlated and hold the
suited their taste and complexion. Imme- essence of satisfaction well.
diately after completion of the purchase The two items measuring repurchase
transaction, postpurchase dissonance was intention are highly correlated (r ^ 0.79,
measured on the 10-item POSTDIS scale. p < 0.001) and so were both retained.
Participants were not allowed to alter their
responses on the previous questionnaire. Testing the hypotheses
Finally, contact information was sought. The relationships in the conceptual model
After the three-week trial period was were tested by structural equation mod-
over, the phase 2 questionnaire was ad- eling, using AMOS, Version 5. The oper-
mirustered either through email or via ationaiized model is shown in Figure 2.
telephone (according to the preferences of First, a first-order confirmatory factor analy-
the respondent). During this phase, satis- sis was performed to establish the valid-
faction and repurchase intention (at the ity of the scales. The CFA model fit is not
full retail price) were gleaned. good, but satisfactory. The sample is rather
small for structural equation modeling,
ANALYSIS scale reHability and validity so, in spite of the disrepute into which
The lO-item POSTDIS scale was expected such significance testing has fallen, the
to perform well as it is a validated scale. fact that the x^ value of 62 only ap-
However, items 9 and 10 did not sit well proaches significance (p = 0.058) can be
in the scale, and a marginal increase in taken as indicative of a satisfactory fit
the Cronbach's alpha (to 0.83) was at- (i.e., no sigrüfícance difference between
tained when they were removed. As far the postulated model and the data). How-
as the authors know, the scale has not ever, this is not a statistic usually given
been validated in Asia. One item was also much credence in the face of the large
removed from the satisfaction scale, which samples usually used in this type of work.
improved the alpha from 0.57 to 0.84. The X^/df — 1.141; there is some dissension
deleted item is a reverse of the second about exactly what level of x^/^f is ap-
item, so the lack of a high item-total cor- propriate, but the level attained here is
relation may merely represent a negativ- very acceptable to most authors (Marsh
ity bias of some sort. The two remaining and Hocevar, 1985; Wheaton, Muthén,

Image
Congruity
PPDl
PPD2
PPD3
PPD4
PPD5
PPD6
PPD7
PPD8
Repeat Purchase
Intention
RPl
Figure 2 Operationalized Structural Equation Model
Alwin, and Summers, 1977). RMR - 0.058;
GFI - 0.922. The root-mean-square error
of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.056, be-
low the optimal upward limit of 0.08 sug-
gested by Browne and Cudeck (1993) and
CFI = 0.974. The factor loadings (shown
in Table 1) are strong for all the scales,
offering evidence of scale validity.
Hypothesis testing
Modi'l f'if for the structural model shown
in Figure 1 is very similar to that of the
CFA model (55 degrees of freedom, x'^ =
70.112, p - 0.082; x~/àf - 1.275; GFI =
0.905 and RMSEA - 0.050). The data in
Table 2 were obtained from the full struc-
tural equation model. The data offer sup-
port for both hypotheses. Repeat purchase
is indeed dependent upon both satisfac-
Satl
Sat3
RP2
tion (standardized regression coefficient =
0.755) and postpurchase dissonance (stan-
dardized regression coefficient = 0.216). It
is no surprise that satisfaction is the stron-
ger and more significant driver, but the
influence of low dissonance upon repeat
purchase intentions cannot be denied. Fur-
thermore, there is also a significant causal
relationship shown between image incon-
gruity and postpurchase dissonance, as
hypothesized (standardized regression co-
efficient — 0.431). The nonsignificance of
the path from image congruity to satisfac-
tion lends support to both the contention
that postpurchase dissonance and satisfac-
tion are separate (latent) constructs, with
different roots, and that it is postpurchase
dissonance and not satisfaction that is
driven by image congruency.
December 2 0 0 8 JOURIlflL OFflDOEflTISIflG(lESEIll CH 5 6 9
ENDORSEMENT THEORY
DISCUSSION
The relationship of image congruity to
cognitive dissonance has been investi-
gated before, so has that of postpurchase
cognitive dissonance to satisfaction and
(repeat purchase) behavior. The relation-
ships, however, have not previously been
juxtaposed in the present manner, nor em-
pirically supported with data from a sin-
gle study. In terms of theory building,
then, the study is more confirmatory and
integrative than exploratory, but the em-
pirical ramifications of the study do push
into new, more controversial territory and
contradict some current thought. Before
discussing the full implications of the ar-
ticle, the findings need further explication,
Understanding the relationships
The relationship identified between im-
age incongruity and cognitive dissonance,
although significant, seems low. In fact,
this is to expected, as those potential pur-
chasers with very high image congruity
had a low chance of purchasing (com-
pared to those who actually purchased)
and postpurchase dissonance would have
been subject to instant postpurchase re-
duction through {inter alia) attitude change
(Brehm, 1956; Harmon-Jones, 1999).
Satisfaction is also unrelated to postpur-
chase dissonance, and this at first appears
counterintuitive. It must be remembered,
though, that immediately after purchase
automatic psychological mechanisms can
be expected to come into play, where at-
titude will be bought into line with pur-
chase behavior (Aronson, 1999). Image
congruity and the psychological aspects
of purchase are not the only variables at
play here. Sirgy has shown that func-
tional performance also plays a role (Sirgy,
Johar, Samli, and Claiborne, 1991). In the
same article, as well as on a later occa-
sion, Sirgy also found that functional as-
pects have a more powerful effect upon
purchase intentions than does self-image
ENDORSEMENT THEORY

TABLE 1 ^'^ interesting aspect of this image main-

Maximum Likelihood Estimates, Regression Weights, *'"'"'*' ''*"'^''"' * ' '""'^^ "^ ^^^ "'*"''
_ _, . , , , and celebrities in advertisements. A quick
CFA Model , , ,. , ,
' scan ot almost any medium reveals that
Estimate SE GR P *^^ success of celebrity endorsers and stun-
ning models in inducing sales is held to
Q8 ^PPCD 0.537 0.113 4.741 *** u I- i. s. v,-
be high. Yet, this success rarely is mea-
Q7 t:I^.9P. .9:^.^? 9:^91 ?.-.^^.? *..*.*. sured in terms of repeat sales. It seems
QQ <_ ppcD 0.540 0.088 6.159 *** intuitively obvious that a young person
Q5 ^ PP¿D ^628 0^129 4^8^ -'* " ^ ^ " ' " ' ' P ^ * ' " ^ ' ' '°'"'^*^' " ^ ' ^ " " '
immediately morph into a Gisèle Bund-
9^ ^.PPCD 0.878 0.094 9.364 - * ,hen or Tom Brady and therefore may
Q3 *-PPCD ^-^^^ 0.094 7.630 *** become disillusioned with the product.
Q2 <-PPCD 0.870 0.104 8.365 *** Yet, the work that shows that even a
very high image congruity gap, in the
Ql <-PPCD 1.000 • / ^- - .„
I'lght direction, still acts as a very seduc-
|^5.[^2 Í-- PI ^:9.99. '^'^^ purchase motivator, as the evidence
REPl <- PI 1.057 0.088 11.954 *** '^^ ^° many advertisements proudly (and
^^r]"''']^]''^^ expensively) proclaim.
^ I ^ 0.783 0.085 9.230 *** Further directions
Note; SE = standard error: CR = critical ratio; SAT = satisfaction; PPCD = postpHrchase cognitive dissonance: REP = This research supports a number of re
repurchasc: PI = purcha^ intenUon. tionships between variables that already
have been established in marketing liter-
ature. It is only descriptive, though, in the
congruency (Sirgy and Su, 2001), as they peat purchasing behavior is crucial to sense that many variables have been as-
do here on repeat purchase intentions. building lasting relationships with them. sumed (e.g., the level of involvement of a
This related finding encourages the A satisfactory functional performance is lipstick purchase), subsumed into another
speculation that it seems likely that the basic to the ongoing relationship, as is a variable rather than being separately mea-
postpurchase dissonance being displayed widening of the relationship through sured and included into the model (e.g.,
in the present experiment stems mainly broader communications. functional congruity), or controlled rather
from image aspects and that the un- This research has added a footnote to than treated (e.g., gender).
related satisfaction/dissatisfaction ex- the effect that the image portrayed in the The very nature of postpurchase dis-
pressed later stems from perceived advertising presented by the marketing sonance is that it is known to dissipate
functional performance. company not only must be congruent to over time, so there is also the interesting
the ideal image, but also it must not be issue of the applicability of these findings
Impiicatlons for theory too far removed from the real image of to different product/service categories.
The major theoretical contribution of this the target market if a lasting relationship Lipstick is a frequently purchased item,
research lies not with simply replicating is to be sustained. and the likelihood of dissonance at the point
effects concerning image congruity, dis- of repurchase is distinctly possible. For in-
sonance, and satisfaction, but with re- implications for practitioners frequently purchased items, however, it
directing the academic spotlight toward As is so often the case, the major practical may well be that the dissonance dissipates
repurchase rather than first-time purchase. implications for business flow directly from by the time for repurchase. The opportu-
Modern marketing thought has moved the theoretical—we have noted the impor- nity to conduct deeper research—with more
past the concept of transaction selling to tance of advertising an appropriate brand variables and a larger, more random,
the development of relationship market- ¡mage, not too far removed from the real generalizable sample—remains an im-
ing. An understanding of customers' re- image of the target consumers. portant part of fully understanding the

570 OF flOUEflTiSlfIG DESEflRCH December 2 0 0 8

 ENDORSEMENT THEORY

2 ARONSON, ELLIOT. "Dissonance Theory: Progress

Maximum Likelihood Structural Model, Regression Estimates " " ^ Problems." in neones of cognitive consis-
tency: A Sourcebook, R. P Abelson, E. Aronson,
Estimate SE CR P W. J. McGuire, T. M. Newcomb, M. J. Rosen-

PPCDZ'SELF 0A35 0^038 1 ^ 3 * - berg, and E H. Tarmebaum. eds. Chicago: Rand

McNally, 1968.
Sat i- SELF 0.110 0.123 0.895 0.371

^.' ^ ^.^.9Jr!. ?-?9.f. 9:^.^?. ?-.^.?? ^.-99.? • "Dissonance, Hypocrisy, and Self-
Pi Í - Sat 0.808 0 097 8 332 *** Concept." In Cognitive Dissonance: Progress on a
Pivotal Theory in Social Psychology, Eddie
Q8 <- PPCD 1.000
Harmon-Jones and Judson Mills, eds. Washing-
97..t:,.[*i!i".9 .^.-.9?.^ 9.:?^^. ?.-^9?: !.*.*. ton- DC: American Psychological Association,
Q6<-PPCC3 0.960 0.238 4.028 *** 1^99.

Q5 <- PPCD 1.160 0.301 3.855 ***

, and J. MERRILL CARLSMITH. "Perfor-
Q4*-PPCD 1.741 0.367 4.747 *** c . i^. - . t ^ ^ ,
^- manee Expectancy as a Determinant of Actual
9.? *~ ^f!?.9 h^^^. 9:^^9. "* .^.?? *** Performance." journal of Abnortnal and Social
Q2 <- PPCD 1.782 0.389 4.577 *** Psychology 65,3 (1962): 178-^2.
Q l <- PPCD 1.769 0.381 4.643 ***
BREHM, JACK W. "Postdecision Changes in the
f^.^P2^_Pj .•^.•.99.9 Desirability of Alternatives." ¡ournal of Abnor-
REPl <-PI 1.064 0.094 11.336 *** mat and Social Psychology 52, 3 [1956): 384rS9.

SATl <-Sat 1.000

BROWNE, M . W . , and R. CUDECK. "Alternative
SAT3 <- S a t 0.815 0.089 9.203 *** ,., , . • K. ^ , c - . - . -r •• c.
Ways of Assessing Model Fit. In Test¡ng Struc-
Note: SE = standard errar; CR ~ critical ratio; SAT = satisßictioti; PPCD = poslpurchase cognitive dissonance: REP = tural Equation Models, K. A. Bollen a n d J. S.
n.r. PI = purchase intmtion; SELF = self-image congruency. Long, eds. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1993.

T, RoBERT E., and H. RAO UNNAVA.

relationship between products, spokes-
people, and consumers. Nevertheless, a
sound basis for conducting such work
has been provided and the results are
encouraging.
ROGER MARSHAU. is professof and chair of marketing
discipline at Auckland University of Technology, New
Zealand. He had a first career as a businessperson.
Dr. Marshall has wide research interests that embrace
ousiness-to-business marketing, advertising research,
and research methods.
WOONBOND NA is a professor of advertising and mar-
keting at Kyung Hee University in Seoul, Korea. Before
joining academia, he worked for 12 years as research
director for Daehong Communications, one of the
leading advertising agencies in Korea. Dr. Na's re-
search focuses on advertising, brand management,
and consumer attitude.
GABRIEL STATE is the marketing manager (Europe and
Africa) for Mediaring Ltd., a high-technology manufac-
turing engineering company based in Singapore. He
has prior FMCG marketing experience.
DEUSKAR is the director of marketing for the
CornelI-Nanyang Institute of Hospitality Management
at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
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