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Bioactive compounds and pharmacological and

food applications of Syzygium cumini – a review
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Cite this: Food Funct., 2018, 9, 6096

Navnidhi Chhikara, a Ravinder Kaur,a Sundeep Jaglan, b

Paras Sharma,c
Yogesh Gata and Anil Panghal *a

Received 6th April 2018,
Accepted 6th October 2018
DOI: 10.1039/c8fo00654g
rsc.li/food-function
The present review explores the nutritional, phytochemical and pharmacological potential as well as
diverse food usages of Syzygium cumini. S. cumini is a traditional medicinal plant with various bioactive
compounds distributed in all parts of the plant. The major bioactive compounds present in the edible part
are myricetin, oxalic acid, gallic acid, citronellol, cyanidin diglucoside, hotrienol, phytosterols, flavonoids,
carotenoids and polyphenols as well as micronutrients, accounting for numerous health benefits. The
potential benefits of these bioactive compounds are to prevent/reduce metabolic abnormalities and
various diseases. The health protective effects and functional properties of the plant were proved by
different in vitro and in vivo pharmacological studies. All parts of the plant have good health benefits like
hypoglycemic, anti-inflammatory, antianemic, antibacterial, antioxidant, antiallergic, hepatoprotective,
hypolipidemic and antipyretic properties. The fruit of S. cumini can be consumed raw or processed in the
form of jam, jellies, wine, fermented beverages and many other value added food products.

1. Introduction microbial, anti-hypertensive, antioxidant and various other

Fruits are nature’s marvelous gift to the human kind as they
possess life-prolonging and -protecting components. Fruits
provide energy, vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals; their
regular consumption improves the physiological functions and
reduces the risk of various diseases.1 Syzygium cumini is an
underutilized fruit of tropical and subtropical regions and con-
tains a good amount of phyto-constituents e.g. anthocyanins,
flavonoids, steroids, phenolics etc. The nutritional and phyto-
chemical content of fruits depends on the maturity level of the
fruits, the variety, climate conditions, agricultural practices,
and post-harvest handling and processing. The presence of
anthocyanins provides purple to black color to the fruit and is
accountable for high antioxidant potential.1 In general,
different phytochemicals and antioxidants are unstable to pro-
cessing parameters like heat, pH and light. Thermal proces-
sing methods like boiling, steaming, and blanching at higher
temperature are the most prominent factors in the degradation
of these bioactive and antioxidant compounds. So there is a
need to explore the effect of various processing treatments on
the bioactive compounds’ stability. The fruit is well known for
its medicinal and therapeutic properties like anti-anemic, anti-
a
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition, Lovely Professional University,
Punjab, India. E-mail: anilpanghal@gmail.com
b
Division of Microbial Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine-CSIR,
India
c
National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad, India
properties. Different researchers have discussed about the
pharmacological applications in in vitro and in vivo studies,
but no comprehensive review is available for detailed infor-
mation of nutritional content, phytochemicals, the effect of
processing on different phytochemicals and as an ingredient
for functional food formulations.
Methodology: The major bibliometric information sources
utilized in the present study were Web of Science, Scopus,
Google Scholar and PubMed. Several keywords, like nutrition
value of S. cumini, pharmacological properties of S. cumini,
health benefit of S. cumini, traditional uses of S. cumini and
food applications of S. cumini, were chosen to obtain a large
range of papers to be analyzed. A final inventory of 173 scienti-
fic sources was made after sorting and classifying them accord-
ing to different usages and year of publication (2000 onwards).
Different literature sources, data sources, and research papers
were reviewed critically to find and discuss about the bioactive
compounds, pharmacological properties, nutritional pro-
perties, effects of processing on different phytochemicals and
food applications of S. cumini.
2. Historical background
Syzygium cumini L. belongs to the family Myrtaceae, which
includes 150 genera and 3600 species present all over the
world.2 The fruit is an oval shaped berry (Fig. 1) and has been
regarded as “Fruit of Gods” in Hindu mythology.3 It is native

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Table 1 Physiochemical composition of large seeded and small seeded

Syzygium cumini

Parameter Large seeded Small seeded

Weight (g) 9.50 3.30

Seed (%) 18.58 36.36
Edible portion (%) 81.42 63.64
Juice (%) 57.75 49.42
TSS (oB) 15.00 11.12
Acidity (%) 1.44 1.60
Total sugars (%) 13.16 8.40
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Total anthocyanins (mg per 100 g) 179.00 242.5

Total tannins (mg per 100 g) 297.5 428.75

Syzygium and species cumini.10 There are variations in fruit

size and quality depending on the variety and geographical
conditions. The fruit shows wide variation in weight
(4.8–17.6 g), diameter (1.66–3.04 cm), length (2.22–4.51 cm),
pulp content (68.75–86.59%) and seed weight (1.3–2.36 g).11
S. cumini has two varieties, small and big, depending on
fruit size; the smaller variety is round in shape and has sweet
flesh and large seed with high content of acids, tannins and
anthocyanins. The bigger variety is oval in shape and has
acidic flesh and small seed containing low content of acids,
tannins and anthocyanins (Table 1).12 The common type of
S. cumini grown in north India is ‘Ram Jamun’ or ‘Raja
Jamun,’ which has oblong fruit with dark purple color and
Fig. 1 Syzygium cumini tree and its parts. small seed, and another seedless variety is ‘Paras’ grown in
central India.13

to Indonesia, existing in both cultivated and wild forms,5 and

is available in India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Philippines,
Florida, Brazil, California, Algeria and Israel.6 Globally
S. cumini production is about 13.5 million tons per annum
(FAO 2009). The trees are large, evergreen with grayish thick
bark, leathery, glossy turpentine-smelling and with 5–12 cm
long pointed leaves oriented in the opposite direction. The
flowers are white to pink in color, usually present in bunch
form at the tips of the berries and survives for more than 100
years.7 The synonyms of S. cumini are S. jambolana Lam.,
Eugenia jambolana Lam, Eugenia cumini, Myrtus cumini Linn.
and Eugenia djouant Perr.8 Common names of S. cumini are
Jamun, Black plum, Jambu, Surabhipatra, Mahaphala, Raj
Jambu, Jambul, Jambolan, Palendera, Mahajambu, Indian
Blackberry, Jam, Kalajam, and Kalojum. Flowering starts in
March to April and the fruit develops in May or June and the
fruit is of green color initially, then turns pink and finally
purple color.9 However, soft texture, poor post-harvest manage-
ment practices and improper processing result in huge loss of
valuable nutrients.4
The plant belongs to kingdom Plantae (vegetal) and sub-
kingdom Tracheobionta (vascular plant), infra kingdom
Streptophyta (land plants), super division Spermatophyta (seed
plant), division Magnoliophyta (flowering plant) and infra divi-
sion Angiospermae (flowering plant), class Magnoliopsida
(dicotyledons) and subclass Rosidae, order Myrtales and super
order Rosane, family Myrtaceae (myrtle family), genus
3. Nutritional content of Syzygium
cumini
S. cumini contains various valuable nutrients, including carbo-
hydrates, vitamins, minerals, anthocyanins and antioxidants.
Fruits taste and color are affected by the amount of polyphe-
nols, tannins, and gallic acid.14
3.1 Nutritional composition of the fruit
The fruit is a good source of ( per 100 g basis) energy (60 kcal),
carbohydrates (14 g), protein (0.70–0.13 g), fat (0.15–0.30 g)
and fiber (0.30–0.90 g).15 The fruit contains ( per 100 g basis)
potassium (55–79 mg), sodium (14–26.20 mg), magnesium
(15–35 mg), calcium (8.3–19 mg), phosphorous (15–17 mg),
sulfur (13 mg), chlorine (7–8 mg), copper (0.23 mg), folic acid
(3.00 µg), iron (0.19–1.62 mg), zinc (0.28 mg), ascorbic acid
(5.70–18.00 mg), β-carotene (48 mg), choline (7 mg), cyanoco-
balamine (3 mg), thiamine (0.03–0.08 mg), riboflavin
(0.009–0.01 mg) and niacin (0.20–0.29 mg) and high anthocya-
nin content (731 mg per 100 g).5,6,9,15,16
3.2 Nutritional composition of the seed
The seed contains ( per 100 g) carbohydrates (41.4 g), protein
(6.3–8.5 g), fat (0.83–1.18 g), ash (2.04 g), fiber (2.3–16.9 g),
calcium (0.41 mg), phosphorus (0.17 mg), polyphenols
(361.40 mg) and tannins (168.24 mg).17 The fruit contains fatty

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oils including vernolic acid (3%), myristic (31.7%), lauric
(1.2%), linoleic (16.1%), stearic (6.5%), malvalic (1.2%), oleic
(32.2%), sterculic (1.8%) and palmitic (4.7%). The seed also
contains a traces of phytosterol (β-sitosterol) and oils contain-
ing 1-chlorooctadecane (33.2%), decahydro-8a-ethyl-1,1,4a,6-
tetramethylnaphthalene (8.02%), tetracontane (9.24%), 4-(2-2-
dimethyl-6-6-methylene-cyclohexyl) butanol (5.29%), octade-
cane (5.15%), octacisane (3.97%), heptacosane (1.72%) and
eicosane (1.71%).9,15–18
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3.3 Nutritional composition of leaf
The leaf contains protein (9.1 g), fat (4.3 g), crude fiber
(17.0 g), phosphorus (0.19 mg), calcium (1.3 mg) per 100 g and
essential oils contributing to its pleasant smell.16,19
4. Bioactive compounds
Bioactive compounds are a large group of biologically active
non-nutritive micronutrients and are observed to have protec-
tive and disease preventive health properties and also contrib-
ute to the flavor, color, texture and aroma of the plant.20
Carotenoids, flavonoids, sterols, phenolics, anthocyanins and
terpenes are the major phytochemicals present in the fruits,
stem, bark, leaves and seed (Table 2). About 30 different phyto-
chemical compounds have been reported in the pulp.
S. cumini fruit is rich in anthocyanins, gallic acid, ellagic acid,
glucoside, caffeic acid, ascorbic acid, coumaric acid, isoquerce-
tin, myricetin and kaempferol21 (Fig. 2). The bioactive com-
pound composition is dependent on the maturity level of the
fruit and the age of the plant and so the fruit’s color intensity
changes from green-yellow (immature) to dark-purple and
black (fully ripe fruit). Anthocyanins are found to be increase
throughout maturation whereas ellagitannins, flavonols, gallic
acid and ellagic acid decrease as the fruit ripens.22
4.1 Antioxidants
Antioxidants are the substances which scavenge free radicals,
and thus reduce or inhibit oxidative damage and stress.
Studies have reported that S. cumini seeds have greater anti-
oxidant capacity as well as phenolic content.23 Polyphenolics
are recognized as cardiometabolic agents which scavenge reac-
tive nitrogen or oxygen species and also stimulate antioxidant
defense. An alcoholic extract of seeds and pulp reveals its
potency to scavenge various free radicals such as superoxide,
hydroxyl, lipid-peroxide and nitric oxide, DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-
1-1picryhydrazyl hydrate) and LOO* (lipid peroxyl radicals) due
to the high content of anthocyanin. Methanolic extracts of the
stem, methanolic, formic acid, hydroethanolic and dichloro-
methane extracts of the leaves, and acetone extracts24 have
good free radical scavenging activity in the DPPH scavenging
assay and have higher antioxidant activity than ascorbic acid.
Recent studies showed that an acetate fraction from the metha-
nolic extract has stronger antioxidant activity than the
n-hexane and chloroform extracts.25 Ethanolic extracts from
the pulp, kernel, and seeds showed antioxidant activity and
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reduced the oxidative stress in pathogenesis.19 Ethanolic
(50%) extract of the seed showed maximum radical scavenging
activity.26
4.2 Flavonoids
Flavonoids are a group of water soluble polyphenolic low mole-
cular weight compounds synthesized by plants and are mainly
present as glycosides in plants.27 Major flavonoids present in
S. cumini fruit are quercetin, kaempferol and myricetin. The
flavonoids are reported to have anticancer, antiaging, antineur-
ological, neuro-protective, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic and
fibrocystic disease, and anti-analgesic as well as antimicrobial
activities against Gram negative and Gram positive bacteria.
Studies have shown that pretreatment with quercetin signifi-
cantly protects from gamma radiation induced DNA damage
and cancer through its antioxidant potential.28,29 Kaempferol
induces apoptosis in oral cancer cell lines by a caspase-3-
dependent pathway in human osteosarcoma cells, leading to
inhibition of tumor growth, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and
neoplastic transformation.30 Similarly, myricetin shows anti-
cancer effects, induces apoptosis and inhibits proliferation in
human leukemia cells. In hyperglycemia, flavonoids stimulate
insulin secretion in the blood and saponin inhibits glucagon
activity.31 Flavonoid leaf extract was found to be effective at
inhibiting the carbohydrate hydrolysing enzymes (α-amylase
and α-glucosidase) that are able to inhibit the key enzyme in
the polyol pathway, aldose reductase, and prevent the acute
gastroenteritis (AGEs) formation.32
4.3 Phenolic compounds
Phenolic compounds are the secondary metabolites syn-
thesized by plants, contributing to the unique sensory and
organoleptic properties such as color, astringency and taste of
the fruits and vegetables.33 Total phenolic content varies from
2133.50 to 2250 mg GAE per 100 g.34 S. cumini seed contains
corilagin, 3,6-hexahydroxydi-phenoylglucose, 1-galloylglucose
glucoside, 3-galloylglucose and 4,6-hexahydroxy-diphenoyl-
glucose; the stem and bark contain 3,3,4-tri-o-methyl ellagic acid,
3,3-di-o-methyl ellagic acid, ellagic acid and gallic acid; flowers
contain ellagic acid and pulp contains gallic and ellagic acid
(Table 3). Gallic acid inhibits promotion of papilloma and
carcinoma, radiation-induced damage and peroxidation to
DNA,35 induces apoptosis in human prostate LNCaP (cell line
of human cells) and DU145 cells (cell line of prostatic cancer
cells) and human melanoma cells, TPA (tissue plasminogen
activator) induced induction of epidermal ornithine decarboxy-
lase activity, hydroperoxide production and DNA synthesis.36
About 37 non-anthocyanin polyphenolic compounds were
identified and they were classified as gallotannins, ellagitan-
nins, flavonols and flavanonols.37
Phenolic compound extraction is a challenge for the food
industry. Thermal processing techniques such as steaming,
autoclaving, drying, roasting, and microwave heating are
widely used for extraction and a few of these techniques,
especially autoclaving, have shown the potential to increase
the extractability of phenolic compounds.38 On the other side,
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Table 2 Bioactive compound composition and biological activities157–159

Compound Composition Biological activities

Carotenoids (μg per g dry weight basis) Vision, apoptosis, skin health, antioxidant, hematopoiesis,
Lutein 0.39 anti-proliferation, anti-angiogenesis, bone metabolism,
Zeaxanthin 0.02 anti-inflammation, cell differentiation, immune modulation,
β-Cryptoxanthin 0.003 gap junction communication, embryonic development and
β-Carotene 0.23 reproduction157
Lycopene —

Total phenolic content (mg g−1) 59.60 Suppresses the deposition of triglycerides, serves as an
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Gallic acid (µg g−1) 0.87 antioxidant, reduces the incidence of the non-communicable
Catechin 0.11 diseases CVD, diabetes, cancer and stroke, and possesses
Chlorogenic acid 0.7 anti-inflammation and anti-allergic, anti-carcinogenic and
Ferulic acid 0.04 anti-mutagenic effects160
Ellagic acid 0.36
Anthocyanin Skin Pulp Displays anti-cancer, anti-inflammation, antimicrobial,
Total anthocyanins 246.04 6.43 anti-diabetes, anti-obesity, and neuroprotective activities,
(equivalents of malvidin 3,5-O-diglucoside) prevents cardiovascular disease, oxidation of LDL, and gout,
% Anthocyanin defends against sickle cell disease, enhances heart health,
Delphinidin-3,5-O-diglucoside 0.17 0.13 protects against colds, flu, and cancer, fosters eye health,
Cyanidin-3,5-O-diglucoside — — supports collagen161 and displays antimutagenicity162
Delphinidin-3-O-glucoside 23.31 23.93
Petunidin-3,5-O-diglucoside 0.69 0.59
Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside 0.37 0.19
Peonidin-3,5-O-diglucoside 33.27 30.29
Malvidin-3,5-O-diglucoside 1.59 1.14
Petunidin-3-O-glucoside 3.01 3.38
Malvidin-3-O-glucoside 37.61 40.39

Total flavonols (equivalents of myricetin 3-O- 70.19 4.31 Reduces the risk of chronic diseases, and provides protection
glucoside) against LDL cholesterol oxidation and a possible cancer
% Flavonols
Myricetin-3-O-glucuronide 8.00 2.50
Myricetin-3-O-galactoside 1.76 30.31
Myricetin-3-O-glucoside 64.40 10.64
Myricetin-3-O-rhamnoside 11.92 11.55
Myricetin-3-O-pentoside 3.21 5.00
Laricitrin-3-O-galactoside 1.62 5.82
Laricitrin-3-O-glucoside 5.04 17.74
Syringetin-3-O-galactoside 1.91 8.92
Syringetin-3-O-glucoside 2.13 4.31

Total flavanonols (equivalents of naringin) 167.68 6.37 Antibacterial and anti-androgen, antiviral effects, protect
% Flavanonols hepatic and intestinal microsomes, insulin-stimulated
Dihydroquercetin-dihexoside-1 0.67 0.61 glucose uptake, anti-cancer
Dihydroquercetin-dihexoside-2 5.48 —
Dihydroquercetin-dihexoside-3 0.72 —
Methyl-dihydroquercetin-dihexoside 11.66 13.89
Dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-1 6.57 10.81
Dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-2 10.66 9.49
Dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-3 1.18 0.53
Dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-4 8.83 17.95
Dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-5 9.94 8.39
Dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-6 16.38 17.37
Methyl-dihydrolmyricetin-dihexoside-1 2.17 0.48
Methyl-dihydrolmyricetin-dihexoside-2 5.17 3.68
Methyl-dihydrolmyricetin-dihexoside-3 0.40 —
Methyl-dihydrolmyricetin-dihexoside-4 8.29 10.61
Methyl-dihydrolmyricetin-dihexoside-5 2.27 2.93
Methyl-dihydrolmyricetin-dihexoside-6 1.74 3.25
Dimethyl-dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-1 1.11 —
Dimethyl-dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-2 2.31 —
Dimethyl-dihydromyricetin-dihexoside-3 3.25 —

extrusion cooking causes decomposition of heat-labile pheno-
lic compounds and thus decreases the extractable phenolic
content.39 The processing parameters and processes impact
the bioavailability of different bioactive compounds present in
S. cumini (Table 4).
Protein–phenolic acid interaction is confirmed by non-
covalent force interactions that include hydrogen bonding, van
der Waals forces, hydrophobic bridging and ionic inter-
actions,40,41 and irreversible interactions by covalent
bonding.42 The mechanism involved in the covalent bond for-

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Fig. 2 Bioactive compounds in Syzygium cumini.
mation is promoted by the ability of phenolic compounds to
produce quinone radicals.43 Irreversible protein phenolic com-
plexes might decrease immunoglobulin E (Ig E) binding of
allergens.44,45 Proteins protect the phenolic compounds from
oxidative degradations and are considered to be an excellent
vehicle for phenolic compound delivery through the intestinal
tract.46–48 Phenolic compounds are released during digestion
and are absorbed in the gut to impart the various nutraceutical
effects in the human system.49
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In addition to food proteins, polyphenols have been
reported to bind to the enzymes. Phenolic extracts were found
to be effective inhibitors of intestinal α-glucosidase/maltase
activity.50 Phenolic compounds positively interact with enzymes
such as α-amylase, trypsin, pepsin, lipase, and lysozyme by
changing their biocatalytic action.51,52 In the phenolic acid
starch model system, the interaction of phenolic acid with
starch contributes to the inhibitory effect of starch hydrolysis.53
The carboxyl and hydroxyl groups of phenolic acids are able to
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Table 3 Phytochemicals present in Syzygium cumini

Plant part Class Phyto-chemicals Pharmacological uses

Seed Flavonoids Quercetin, 3,5,7,4-tetrahydroxy flavanone and rutin Antimicrobial

Phenolic acid Caffeic acid, ferulic acids, gallic acid and ellagic acid Antioxidant
Tannins Corilagin, 3,6-hexahydroxydi-phenoylglucose, 1-galloylglucose Antilipidemic
glucoside, 3-galloylglucose and 4,6-hexahydroxy-diphenoylglucose,
β-pinene, β-terpinene, betulinic acid, eugenol
Terpenes Jambosine, chlorophyll, beta-sitoterol and α-terpineol, ellagitannins8 Hypoglycemic
CNS-stimulator
Anti-inflammatory
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Antihypertensive
Menorrhagia

Stem and bark Flavonoids Myricetin, quercetin, kaemferol. Anti-helmintic

Phenolic acid 3,3-di-O-methyl ellagic acid, 3,3,4-tri-O-methyl ellagic acid, and, Antioxidant
ellagic acid, gallic acid
Terpenes β-Sitosterol, friedelin and betulinic acid Anti-inflammatory
Gallotanin, ellagitannin, eugenin, resin, terpenoids, saponins, Antibacterial
phytosterols, epi-fridelanol and bergenins Antidermatophytic
Antidiarrheal
Anti-diabetic
Antifungal activity
Diuretic
Liver intoxication
Wound healing
Anti-HIV

Flowers Flavonoids Kaemferol, myricetin, dihydromyricetin, myricetin-3-L-arabinoside, Anti-diabetic

isoquercetin, quercetin, quercetin-3-D-galactoside
Phenolic acid Ellagic acid Anti-inflammatory
Oleanolic acid, eugenol. Anti mutagenic
Terpenes Erategolic acid (maslinic acid), eugenol-triterpenoid-B and Antiseptic
eugenol-triterpenoid-A Hepatoprotective
Hypotensive

Pulp Flavonoids Myricetin, myricetin deoxyhexoside Gastro-protective

Phenolic acid Gallic acid and ellagic acid Anti-ulcerative
Terpenes Citronellol, geraniol, hotrienol, nerol, β-phenylethanol, phenylpropanal Anti-scorbutic
HHDP-galloly glucose and trigalloylglucose Diuretic
Tannins Cyanidin, delphinidin, petudinin Carminative
Anthocyanins Citric acid, malic acid, malvidin-3-laminaribioside, cyanidin Stomachic
diglucoside, malvidin-diglucosides, flavonols, carotenoids, glucose, Anti-sterility
petunidin, malvidinand non-anthocyanins bioactive compounds are Liver stimulant
beta-carotene alpha-catoene, phyto-fluene, trans-lutein, cis-lutein
and delphinidin132,133

Leaf Flavonoids Catechin, kaempferol, myricetin, myricetin 3-O-β-D-glucuronopyranoside, Antibacterial

myricetin-4-methyl ether 3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside, myricetin 4″-O-acetate,
myricetin 4″-O-acetyl-2-O-gallate, myricitrin, quercetin-3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside
Phenolic acid Caffeic acid, chlorogenic, ellagic acid, ferulic acid and gallic acid and Anti-inflammatory
betulinic acid
Tannins Nilocetin Antioxidant
Terpenes α-Pinene, α-cadinol, pinocarvone, pinocarveol, α-terpeneol, myrtenol, Antifungal
eucarvone, myrtenal, cineole and geranyl acetone, beta-sitosterol,
betulinic acid, maslinic acid, mycaminose, n-heptocosane, n-nonacosane,
n-dotricontanol, noctacosanol, myricitrin, quercetin, n-hentriacontane,
esterase, triterpenoids, tannins, acylated flavonol glycosides, 3-O-4-acetyl-L-
rhamnopyranosides
Essential oils α-Terpeneol, myrenol, muurolol, α-myrtenal, α-geranyl acetone, Antiallergic
pinocarvane
Beta-sitosterol, crategolic acid, n-triacontanol Hypotensive
Antiviral activity
Skin wounds
Antidiarrheal
Hepatoprotective

Roots Isohamnetin-3-O-rutinside and flavonoid glycosides Antifungal

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Table 4 Bioavailability data of the bioactive compounds before and after processing154–156

Bioavailability Bioavailability after processing

before processing Lyophilization at different temperatures
Compound Processing method (molar ratio %) (dried products)
60 °C 70 °C 80 °C

3,5 diglucosylated anthocyanins Foam mat drying

Delphinidin-3,5-diglc ( juice powder) 27.62 27.28 26.31 25.76 26.49
Cyanidin-3,5-diglc 3.59 3.37 4.07 4.21 4.17
Petunidin-3,5-diglc 36.31 35.74 35.23 35.96 35.53
Peonidin-3,5-diglc 1.01 0.82 0.94 0.99 0.94
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Malvidin-3,5-diglc 30.97 32.37 32.67 32.37 32.24

3-Monoglucosylated anthocyanins
Delphinidin-3-glc 0.28 0.23 0.42 0.40 0.31
Cyanidin-3-glc 0.10 0.06 0.12 0.49 0.10
Malvidin-3-glc 0.14 0.13 0.27 0.23 0.25
Total anthocyanins (mg kg−1, dry basis) — 2297.90 2095.39 2207.33 1551.63

Total Flavonol (mg kg−1, dry basis) Foam mat drying — 62.58 54.39 58.10 38.39
Myricetin-3-glucuronide ( juice powder) 2.47 1.08 2.30 2.74 1.09
Myricetin-3-galactoside 1.86 1.68 1.41 1.58 0.64
Myricetin-3-glucoside 45.20 49.21 45.55 40.32 33.44
Myricetin-3-rhamnoside 6.20 7.35 6.76 6.13 2.16
Myricetin-3-pentoside 4.47 4.26 6.45 11.05 0.00
Laricitrin-3- galactoside 1.76 9.17 10.09 10.53 10.55
Laricitrin-3- glucoside 5.22 18.28 16.88 19.73 40.24
Syringetin-3- galactoside 1.75 5.82 4.78 4.36 5.38
Syringetin-3- glucoside 1.90 1.16 1.62 1.21 1.13
Free myricetin 27.62 1.09 1.47 0.86 1.76
Free laricitrin 0.92 0.59 1.52 0.85 2.51
Free syringetin 0.62 0.32 1.16 0.64 1.09

Hydrolysable tannins (mg kg−1, dry basis) Foam mat drying

Total gallotannins ( juice powder) — 344.44 181.86 196.23 191.81
Elagitannins
Total ellagic acid — 97.99 43.43 63.19 63.37
Total valoneic acid — 66.31 27.66 41.93 67.65
Total ellagitannin acids — 164.30 71.09 105.12 131.03

Total phenolic content Foam mat drying 1.63 2.92 2.43 2.28 2.31
(mg GAE per g or mL) ( juice powder)

Antioxidant activity Foam mat drying

FRAP (µmol of Ferric sulfate per g or mL) ( juice powder) 55.99 45.31 58.28 52.72 58.90
FRAP (μmol of Trolox per g or mL) 21.26 30.34 27.15 24.73 27.42
DPPH (μmol of Trolox per g or mL) 13.38 11.71 12.82 13.93 13.79

Bioavailability after processing at different

temperatures
Bioavailability
Compound Processing method before processing 40 °C 50 °C 60 °C 70 °C
−1
Total phenolic Microwave- convective 1Wg 14.45 (mg GAE per g, db) 23.38 35.29 34.93 31.52
content hot air drying 2 W g−1 33.94 31.5 33.74 37.16
3 W g−1 34.78 39.95 39.18 41.12
Vacuum drying 60 mmHg 27.24 31.7 30.44 —
160 mmHg 24.34 27.5 29.01 —
260 mmHg 20.89 25.68 30.2 —
Dehumidified air 1 m s−1 23.21 22.41 26.87 29.1
drying 1.5 m s−1 24.04 23.88 2.79 29.02
2 m s−1 25.59 25.38 27.35 28.21

Anthocyanin content Microwave- convective 1 W g−1 8.12 (M3G, mg g−1 db) 4.28 6.64 7.67 11.99
hot air drying 2 W g−1 (malvidin-3-glucoside) 10.5 8.34 9.16 8.04
3 W g−1 7.03 9.13 7.53 7.79
Vacuum drying 60 mmHg 5.27 6.91 8.7 —
160 mmHg 6.33 7.77 8.21 —
260 mmHg 4.82 7.18 7.6 —
Dehumidified air 1 m s−1 8.82 8.52 6.04 4.92
drying 1.5 m s−1 9.42 9.51 7.62 8.05
2 m s−1 8.13 10.03 8.18 10.86

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Table 4 (Contd.)

Bioavailability after processing at different

temperatures
Bioavailability
Compound Processing method before processing 40 °C 50 °C 60 °C 70 °C

Antioxidant activity Microwave- convective 1 W g−1 12.7 (mg BHA per g, db) 12.12 20.5 16.23 28.63
hot air drying 2 W g−1 18.52 18.22 18.08 23.09
3 W g−1 16.3 18.07 18.74 17.92
Vacuum drying 60 mmHg 19.04 4.05 19.83 —
160 mmHg 16.21 17.47 18.84 —
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260 mmHg 16.06 16.21 18.92 —

Dehumidified air drying 1 m s−1 17.26 16.38 19.94 20.75
1.5 m s−1 3.88 3.56 4.56 6.09
2 m s−1 17.32 18.73 19.08 18.16

Anthocyanins (% w/w) Extraction methods 30 °C 40 °C 60 °C 80 °C

Crude extract 60 45 40 32
Aqueous two phase extraction + osmotic membrane distillation 98 92 87 80
Aqueous two phase extraction + forward osmosis 98 92 88 85
Ultra filtration + forward osmosis 81 70 63 40
Thermal evaporation 73 50 45 25

bind to the starch through hydrogen bonds, chelation or
covalent bonds, forming bridges or cross-links. The enhanced
uptake of polyphenols was observed when the extract was
ingested along with carbohydrate rich food in a cellular study.54
4.4 Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are active constituents present in the fruits and
vegetables. A high amount of anthocyanin content
(126.54–185.35 mg per 100 g) has been reported in S. cumini.34
Major anthocyanins include delphidin 3,5-diglucoside
(256 mg), cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside (29 mg), malvidin 3,5-diglu-
coside (166 mg), petunidin 3,5-diglucoside (245 mg) and peo-
nidin 3,5-diglucoside (75 mg) per 100 g on dry weight basis.55
The anthocyanin composition is characterized by the presence
of 3,5-diglucoside aglycones.56 The purple color of S. cumini is
mainly due to the presence of anthocyanin pigment,57 whereas
tannins and gallic acid are responsible for its sour and astrin-
gent taste.58 Anthocyanin shows cancer protective effects;
studies have shown that petunidin inhibits apoptosis and
breast cancer in humans, and malvidin induces apoptosis in
cell lines and cell growth in humans and inhibits cAMP hydro-
lysis effectively. Similarly, ellagic acid protects yeast cells from
gamma-radiation induced damage by reducing DNA damage.
Color and other properties of anthocyanins present in the
fruit were found to be stable, but the fruit has very low color
intensity due to the glycosylation structure as diglucoside.
Color intensity can be increased by copigmentation with mole-
cules of caffeic acid, ferulic acid, sinapic acid and rosemary
polyphenolic extracts.59 During drying with different methods
like freezing drying, tray drying and spray drying, monomeric
anthocyanins was increased. Anthocyanin pigments from
S. cumini fruit peels were characterized by some researchers as
diglucosides of delphinidin, petunidin and malvidin and
found 94.4% inhibition of rat brain lipid peroxidation at
5.0 ppm concentration (1 ppm was equivalent to 3.5 µM
ascorbic acid, estimated by the reducing power assay).60 It was
almost equally active in all the biological models, except
human erythrocyte ghost cells, where it showed only 48% inhi-
bition at 5.0 ppm. The higher stability and relatively higher
antioxidant activity of the pigments make S. cumini a potential
source of natural colorant as well as antioxidants.
4.5 Carotenoids
Carotenoids are plant based bioactive compounds and belong
to the class of isoprenoid lipids accounting for red, yellow and
orange colors of the skin and flesh of the fruits. Carotenoids
quench the triplet state of chloroplast and thus scavenge the
reactive free radicals and oxygen species, stabilize the protein–
lipid complex and protect the plant from photo-induced
damages.33 Color formation mostly depends on their conjugate
carbon–carbon double bonds in the chemical structure. About
48 mg per 100 g β-carotenoid content have been reported in
S. cumini fruit.34 Although 700 types of carotenoids have been
isolated and discovered, the human body can absorb and
metabolize only 40–50 types of carotenoids. Carotenoids offer
numerous health benefits due to their unique physiological
functions as antioxidants in scavenging free radicals and
decreasing the risk of diseases, particularly cancer and age
related diseases. Several studies have shown that diets rich in
carotenoids are associated with the reduced risk of certain dis-
eases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and cataract61 and
are used as cosmeceutical and pharmaceutical compounds.62
4.6 Essential oils
S. cumini fruit and leaves contain various essential oils; 82% of
total essential oils (http://www.ayurtimes.com) are found in the
leaves. Aromadendrene, β-caryophyllene, α gurjeuene and
guaiol are the prominent components present in leaf essential
oil (Table 5). Pulp contains α-muurolol, terpeneol, eucarvone,
myrtenol, α-myrtenal, α-cadinol, geranyl acetone and pinocar-

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Table 5 Constituents of leaf essential oil from Syzygium cumini65,152,153 Table 6 Constituents of pulp essential oil from Syzygium cumini66

Constituents Amount (%) Constituents Amount (%)

Hexanal 0.21 Pinocarveol 15.1

α-Pinene 0.49 α-Terpineol 8.9
β-Pinene 0.16 Myrtenol 8.3
Camphene 0.09 Eucarvone 6.6
β-Myrcene 0.30 Muurolol 6.4
α-Terpinene 0.81 Myrtenal 5.8
o-Cymene 0.54 Geranyl acetone 5.6
DL-Lemonene 4.04 α-Cadinol 4.6
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cis-Ocimene 0.90 Pinocarvone 4.4

trans-Ocimene 0.50 trans-Pinane 3.8
γ-Terpinene 0.09 δ-Cadinol 3.5
δ-Elemene 0.44 para-Cymen-8-o1 2.7
α-Copaene 0.56 cis-Carveol 2.2
β-Elemene 0.31 Limonene oxide 1.8
β-Caryophyllene 6.96–16.00 Longipinene epoxide 1.6
γ-Elemene 0.24 Carvone 1.4
β-Guaiene 0.70 Bornyl acetate 1.2
Aromadendrene 6.62 Isopropyl formate 0.9
α-Caryophyllene 7.15–25.24 cis-3-Hexen-1-01 0.9
Germacrene-D 4.07 cis-3-Hexenyl acetate 0.9
Clovene 0.10 Dihydrocarvyl acetate 0.9
α-Selinene 5.20 Perilla alcohol 0.8
α-Gurjuene 38.35 α-Pinene 0.8
α-Amorphene 0.33 Fenchol 0.8
α-Muurolene 0.13 β-Terpineol 0.7
Cadinene 1.39 β-Pinene 0.7
Caryophyllenyl alcohol 0.11–3.90 Benzyl acetate 0.7
Guaiol 7.0 trans-β-Caryophyllene 0.6
δ-Eduesmol 0.40 Globulol 0.6
β-Eduesmene 0.35 cis-2-Heptenal 0.5
α-Eduesmol 0.40 Acetic acid 0.5
Bulnesol 1.41 Verbenol 0.4

vone essential oils (Table 6).9 β-Sitosterol is similar in structure
to cholesterol; it possess pharmacological activities including
anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial and hypo-lipidemic activi-
ties (lowers the blood lipid level/cholesterol level).19 It also
induces apoptosis in the HT116 human colon cancer cell by
stimulating Bax protein and the activation of caspases as well
as induces apoptosis by activating ERK (ERK pathway, also
known as the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway, is a chain of proteins
in the cell that communicates a signal from a receptor on the
surface of the cell to the DNA in the nucleus of the cell) and
downregulation of Akt (Akt, also known as protein kinase B, is
a serine/threonine-specific protein kinase that plays a key role
in multiple cellular processes such as glucose metabolism,
apoptosis, cell proliferation, transcription and cell migration)
in MCA-102 murine fibrosarcoma cells.63,64 β-Caryophyllene in
the essential oil accounts for its anti-inflammatory activity
while caryophyllene oxide possesses anti-mycobacterial
action.65 Essential oils can be used as excellent sources of anti-
oxidants in traditional remedies and cosmetics.66
4.7 Terpenes and tannins
Terpenes are hydrocarbons found in the essential oils of many
plants with isoprene as monomer units. Betulinic acid and
oleanolic acid are major terpenes present in S. cumini fruit.
Betulinic acid has anti-inflammatory, anti-HIV, anti-neoplastic,
anti-malarial and chemo-preventive activities and inhibits the
apoptosis through the changes in mitochondrial membrane,
inflammation, and immuno-modulator.19 The pulp contains
citronellol, geraniol, hotrienol, nerol, β-phenylethanol and
phenylpropanal in considerable amounts and the seed con-
tains ellagitannins. About 30 terpenoids, including 24 sesqui-
terpenoids and 6 triterpenoids, are present in the ethyl acetate
extract of Jambolan seeds, which displayed antimicrobial
activity against Staphylococcus aureus.67
Tannins are widespread in the plant kingdom, and are
found in the leaves, fruits, bark and wood. The bark of
S. cumini contains about 13.4% tannic acid, which exerted
gastro-protective and antiulcer effects.68 Tannic acid is a
polymer of glucose and gallic acid. Gallic acid and tannins
account for the astringency of the fruit.69 These compounds
are considered as nutritionally undesirable because they form
complexes with protein, starch and digestive enzymes and
cause a reduction in the nutritional value of food. Proteins
with tannins make insoluble complexes and enzymes are pro-
teinaceous in nature, thus resulting in inactivation of
enzymes. The reaction between tannins and proteins is com-
plete in two stages: first the binding and second the aggrega-
tion, resulting in the formation of the precipitate.70 The nutri-
tional significance of condensed tannins, particularly with
regard to the non-ruminants, has largely been associated with
their ability to form insoluble tannin protein complexes,
which reduce the dietary protein availability in vivo.

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Food & Function
5. Food processing, utilization and
products
The presence of highly valuable nutrients, soft texture and
shorter shelf life of S. cumini draws attention towards its pro-
cessing in different food formulations to minimize post-
harvest losses.71 Fruits are usually consumed as fresh and are
also processed into different fermented ( jambava: fermented
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brandy and distilled liquor, wine), non-fermented beverages
(sherbets, juice, syrups), jam, jellies, leather, chips, syrups,
spread, sauce, pickles and ice-creams, squash and RTS.72 The
pulp contains sufficient fermentable sugar that can be sub-
sequently used for alcohol fermentation and is also considered
to be a polyphenol rich species with its sodium and potassium
content more in the seed making it fit for incorporation into
baby foods as a supplement.73 The peel powder is also
employed as a natural food colorant in the food industry and
pharmaceuticals. Green consumerism requires fewer synthetic
additives and favors the natural additives used in the food
industry.74
The processing of raw fruits into more valuable processed
products improves their market value as well as the national
economy.75 S. cumini is used as a valuable ingredient for wine
preparation in different parts of the world. Wine is an alco-
holic beverage prepared from fruits by fermentation and with
the appropriate addition of enzymes, citric acid is processed
with suitable techniques. Koley et al.76 made an attempt to
prepare wine by fermentation for 6 days at 30 °C using yeast
culture inoculation. In another study, Lokesh et al.77 prepared
wine by aerobic fermentation for 24 hours and then anaerobic
fermentation for 7 to 21 days. Similarly, Dahal et al.78 and
Satkar et al.79 prepared wine using an equal ratio of pulp and
water. The method used was conventional, but with a little
modification that the total soluble solids were maintained by
sugar and fermented for 8 days. VenuGopal et al.80 made an
attempt to make wine by seed incorporation during vinifica-
tion and, subsequently, the wine was evaluated for chemical
and organoleptic properties. Wine prepared with AAV2 had
higher total phenolic content, flavonoid content and hydrolyz-
able tannins, which adds to its overall acceptability.
Ripe fruits can be processed into good quality juice, jam
and jellies. Ghosh et al.81 made an attempt to prepare juice by
using low temperature extraction (60 °C) and pectinase
enzyme. Good quality juice can be prepared by low tempera-
ture extraction of mature or ripe fruits with the addition of
pectinase enzyme, followed by incubation to inactivate the
enzyme.81,82 Sehwag83 made an attempt to prepare juice by
using S. cumini fruit pulp with the addition of pectolytic
enzyme, followed by a hydraulic press for microbial destruc-
tion. Quality juice can be used to prepare sherbet, squashes
and syrups and processed into bottle drinks with the addition
of preservatives such as sugar, citric acid and sodium benzo-
ate. S. cumini fruit can be preserved by converting it into
natural stiff jelly by boiling its pulp with sugar until desirable
consistency is attained and by the addition of 1% pectin.76
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Similarly, fruit leather is also made from S. cumini by proces-
sing its pulp with the addition of sodium benzoate followed by
drying up to 15% moisture content and storage at
12–15 °C.76,84
6. Functional importance of
Syzygium cumini
S. cumini have been prescribed in various complications,
including diabetes, diarrhea and other diseases in the tra-
ditional system of medicine. S. cumini fruit pulp, seed, bark
and leaves showed medicinal value and have been used in
various pharmaceutical formulations for the treatment of
various kinds of diseases due to therapeutic prospects. The
fruit showed antidiabetic (hypoglycemic), hypolipidemic,
cardioprotective, antidiarrheal, antiallergic, antifertility, anti-
pyretic (reduce fever), anti-clastogenic, anti-inflammatory, gas-
troprotective, antidermatophytic, antimicrobial, antiviral, anti-
anemic, carminative, antioxidant, anti-neoplastic, radioprotec-
tive, anti-HIV, diuretic, anticancer, anorexigenic, antiarthritic,
aphrodisiac, antiscorbutic and cytotoxic activities.85–87
6.1 Diabetes
Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disorder characterized by
high blood glucose levels due to a decreased ability or the
complete inability of the tissues to utilize carbohydrates,
accompanied by changes in the metabolism of fat, protein,
water and electrolytes. The disorder is due to a deficiency or
the diminished effectiveness of the hormone insulin produced
by beta-cells of the Islets of Langerhans of the pancreas. The
fruit, seed, stem and bark of S. cumini possess anti-hypoglyce-
mic activity88 (Table 7). Seed is the most effective part of the
plant used for diabetes due to the presence of a glycoside
named jamboline. Jamboline inhibits the conversion of starch
to glucose and thus raises insulin production from the β-cells
of the pancreas. Ellagic acid has the ability to check the con-
version of starch into sugar when the glucose level increases in
the blood. Dried alcoholic extract and lupeol, 12-oleanen-3-ol-
3β-acetate, stigmasterol, and β-sitosterol extracted from the
n-hexane fraction of S. cumini leaves reduce blood sugar, glyco-
suria,89 and possess anti-diabetic properties. In in vivo study,
rats were fed with ethanolic extract of seed and pulp; the
extract helped pancreatic cells to produce insulin and balance
blood sugar. A randomized double blind controlled trial of 99
diabetes and hypertension patients was performed; 5 g of seed
powder was given to patients before meals twice a day for three
months. The study proved that the seed powder lowered blood
pressure and exerted a hypoglycemic action.90
Kotowaroo et al.91 found no anti-diabetic activity with leaf
extract and the result was confirmed by Anandharajan et al.92
Several authors have reported about the common side effects
of S. cumini high doses in diabetic patients, for example,
gastrointestinal disturbances, nausea, red discoloration of the
urine, peculiar weakness in the lower legs and temporary
depression.93 Chakraborty et al.94 found that mycaminose,
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Table 7 Bioacessibility and bioavailability of Syzygium cumini bioactive compounds

Bio-accessibility
availability model Method Plant part/product Analytical chemistry

In vitro rat liver Radical scavenging activity and anti-lipid-per Seeds The heat treatment did not affected its anti-
oxidative activity of aqueous extracts by three oxidative property134
methods, DPPH free radical scavenging
assay, reducing power and lipid per
oxidation were evaluated
Swiss mice Oral administration of S. cumini inhibited Whole fruit Treatment with the S. cumini extract inhibited
paw edema induced by C48/80, a potent eosionophil accumulation in allergic pleurisy
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mast cell degranulator without significant change in mononuclear

cell135
Human subjects with Powder was given to the patients with Seed powder S. cumini seed powder was found in
type-II diabetes diabetes mellitus type-II and evaluated at improvement of lipid profile in patients with
baseline 30th, 60th and 90th day and seed diabetes90
powder significantly lowers the blood
pressure of patients. S. cumini fruit lowers
the sugar level in the body and control dia-
betes and it can be incorporated into treat-
ment protocol54
Human subjects with Patients suffering from type-II diabetes were Wine The blood glucose level was significantly
type-II diabetes given 200 ml wine for 21 days and it was elevated in diabetic subjects before therapy
observed that their blood glucose level and decrease in blood glucose level was
decreased significantly recorded after therapy136
Seven week old Triterpenoid, 2-o-cis-p-coumaroyl maslinic Triterpenoid enriched Administration increased AKT
C57BL/6 mice acid along with 13 triterpenoids were S. cumini fruit extract phosphorylation levels and Glut4 protein
isolated from fruit ethyl acetate extract and levels in skeletal muscles in mice137
triterpenoid enriched S. cumini fruit was
given to the mice and observed that the
blood glucose levels decreased and
improved the glucose intolerance with oral
gavage for 2 weeks
Wistar rats Anti-inflammatory activity of ethyl acetate Seed extract Significant predictive value for anti-
and methanol extracts of S. cumini seeds inflammatory agents was observed by
were evaluated at the dose level of inhibiting the mediators of acute
200 400 mg kg−1 oral administration inflammation138
Mice Anti-inflammatory activity was investigated Bark ethanolic extract Extract did not induce any gastric lesion in
in mice up to a dose of 10.125 g kg−1, simi- rats139
larly activity was observed in carrageenin
(acute), kaolin-carrageenin (sub-acute), for-
maldehyde (sub-acute) induced paw oedema
and cotton pellet granuloma (chronic) tests
in rats.
Alloxan-induced Anti-diabetic activity of 50% methanolic 50% methanolic seed Anti-hyperglycemic activity is through the
diabetic mice extract was investigated and significant anti- extract regeneration of cells of pancreas26
hyperglycemic activity was observed
Gram positive Phytochemical screening and anti-bacterial Methanol and aqueous Methanol extract was more active and
pathogenic and Gram activities were performed with methanol and extracts of leaf inhibition zone ranging from 6–22 mm in
negative bacteria aqueous extracts which confer anti- diameter140
microbial activity by using standard disc
method
In vitro pathogenic Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of Jambolan fruit 141
strains Jambolan fruit polyphenols evaluated polyphenols
against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin
resistant Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia
coli, Klebiella pneumonia and Candida
albicans minimum inhibitory concentration
ranges from 14.3–23.0 mm and 0.5–2.5 ml
mg−1
Rabbits Different doses of aqueous suspension viz, Dried seed kernels Seed kernels produced an significant
1 g, 2 g, 4 g and 6 g per kg body weight were decrease in the sugar level indicates an extra
given and maximum reduction in blood pancreatic site of action for the drug by
sugar was noted for all the doses after acting on the glycogen142
3 hours of administration
Male C57BI/6 mice Fruit extract was given for 10 days and mice Fruit extract BDL caused hepato-cellular injury as
had elevated serum ALT levels which were evidenced by increased serum ALT and
reduced to 60% pathological changes in liver143

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Table 7 (Contd.)

Bio-accessibility
availability model Method Plant part/product Analytical chemistry
144
In vitro Antimicrobial activity of leaves was evaluated Leaf extract
on four types of bacteria (Staphylococcus
aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas
aeruginosa and Bacillus subtilis) and two
types of fungi (Aspergillus Niger and Candida
albicans) by using different concentrations
(5%, 10% and 15%), 15% extract
concentration showed maximum activity144
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Human pathogens Antimicrobial activity was evaluated on Endophytic The causative agents of Aspergillosis in
human pathogens, a total of 8 isolates were actinomycetes from humans were evaluated by dual-culture
able to hydrolyse protein and solubilize roots, stem and leaf method145
chitin. tissues
Bacteria (Gram Antibacterial activity was evaluated in Methanol and ethanol Highest activity was evaluated in ethanol
positive and Gram methanol and ethanol by disc diffusion extract against Staphylococcus epidermidis146
negative) method
Albino mice Central nervous system activity of ethyl Ethyl acetate and Exhibited significant reduction of activity147
acetate and methanolic extract of seed were methanolic extract of
undergone in mice at dose level of 200 mg seed
kg−1 and 400 mg kg−1
Protozoa Anti-leishmanial activity of α-pinene was α-Pinene α-Pinene showed its efficiency with IC50 of
evaluated in protozoa against Leishmania 19.7 mg ml−1 (ref. 148)
amazonesis
Human Anti-diabetic activity of leaf powder was Leaf powder 149
evaluated by examining the patients on 7,
14, 21 and 28 days. 2.0 g of powder was
given to the patients to make 1L of tea for
whole day consumption
Rats Male Sprague Dawley rats were used to Fruit and seed ethanolic The results of instant research depicted that
evaluate hypoglycemic potential of S. cumini extracts both seed and fruit extracts reduce the blood
extracts, fruit and seed’s ethanolic extracts glucose level significantly and also regulate
based diets were provided to normal and the insulin levels in hyperglycemic rats150
high sucrose diet induced hyperglycemic/
diabetic rats for 60 days
Rats Wister albino rats were used to evaluate Seed methanolic extract Effect of seed methanolic extract on
diuretic activity of seed methanolic extract. prostaglandin was evaluated151
Extract was given orally to rats andrine
volume, urinary excretion, diuretic action,
diuretic activity, electrolyte levels in urine,
natriuretic, saluretic, and carbonic
anhydrase inhibitory activity, were measured
in of saline loaded rats at 5 and 24th hour

maslinic acid, valoneic acid, rubuphenol, and ellagic acid
lower the blood glucose by stimulating insulin secretion from
pancreatic β-cells and additionally function in the inhibition
of aldose reductase.
6.2 Hyperlipidemia and cardio-protective activity
Hyperlipidemia is an abnormal elevation of blood lipid(s). Any
disturbance in the lipid profile leads to heart diseases, which
may further result in stroke, myocardial infarction, athero-
sclerosis and CVD. Different parts of S. cumini have been inves-
tigated for their lipid-lowering activity. Studies show that the
flavonoid-enriched seed extract possesses anti-lipidemic pro-
perties, decreases the LDL levels and increases HDL levels in
rats.95 The extract of S. cumini also helps in reduction of serum
lipid levels.19 Aqueous seed extract has been discovered to
decrease triglyceride levels and LDL and to increase HDL
levels in alloxan (oxidation product of uric acid 2,4,5,6-pyrimi-
dinetetrone) treated mice.96 Cardiac ailments including coron-
ary heart disease, ischemia, stroke and peripheral vascular
disease are the underlying causes of one-third of all deaths
globally.97 S. cumini have been reported to have cardio-protec-
tive effects. Studies have revealed that the methanolic extract
of its seed possesses cardio-protective effects in isoproterenol-
induced myocardial infarction in rats. Oral feeding for thirty
days resulted in a concentration-dependent protection against
the myocardial infarction. Nahid et al.98 found that the metha-
nolic extract of S. cumini seeds possesses anti-hyperglycemic
and anti-hyperlipidemic activities and can also lead to recovery
from cardiac and liver damage in diabetic rats.
6.3 Antimicrobial
Various parts of S. cumini can be used as antimicrobial and
antibacterial agents, functional for human health (Table 7).
Seeds and leaves have been reported to be active against
Salmonella paratyphi, Proteus vulgaris, Bacillus cereus,
B. megaterium and other pathogenic microorganisms (Table 3).
Ethanolic extract of the bark, pulp, leaves and seeds have
shown potential antimicrobial activity against Gram negative

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(B. cereus and St. aureus) and Gram positive bacteria (Shigella
flexneri, Vibrio cholera). The diethyl extract of S. cumini showed
a high percentage inhibition against B. cereus and has a higher
percentage inhibitory potential than water, acetone and ethyl
acetone extracts.99 Comparison showed that its leaf and bark
extracts are more potent than those obtained from the pulp
and seed.100 The aqueous extract of the stem and leaf was
found to be active against St. aureus, St. saprophyticus,
Escherichia coli and other microorganisms and, similarly, its
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fruit extract was found to be active against Pseudomonas aerugi-
nosa. Maximum inhibition was recorded against Penicillium
chrysogenum and Candida albicans.
The root extract of S. cumini was found to be more effectual
against Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria. The ethano-
lic extract of its roots showed maximum inhibition against
St. aureus, St. epidermidis, and E. coli.101 Aqueous, chloroform,
petroleum ether, benzene, methanolic, ethanolic and n-hexane
extracts from the leaves, fruit, bark and steam have shown anti-
fungal activity and are effective against C. albicans and
C. krusei and inhibit the growth of dermatophytic fungi,
Trichophyton mentagrophytes and Microsporum gypsem.102,103
Methanolic, aqueous hydroalcholic and ethanol extracts of
S. cumini leaves have been reported to be active against E. coli,
P. aeruginosa, Kocuria rhizophila, Sh. flexneri, St. aureus and
V. cholera104 respectively, and also showed maximal antibacter-
ial activity. Similar to the leaves, methanolic, petroleum ether
and ethyl acetate extracts of its seeds have also been proved to
possess antibacterial effects with minimum bacterial concen-
tration (MBC) ranging from 0.125 to 4 mg ml−1 against
V. cholera, and 8–12 mg ml−1 against P. aeruginosa and
Solanum nigrum. Water extract of seed having concentration
from 1.75–8 mg ml−1 have shown strong activity against
B. subtilis, Enterococcus faecalis, E. coli, Pseudomonas, Sh. flex-
neri, St. aureus, Salmonella typhi, P. aeruginosa, Enterobacter
aerogenes and Gram positive bacteria. In addition to the water
extract of the seed, the acetone and ethanolic extracts of the
bark exhibit antibacterial activity against Sh. boydii and
Sh. Dysenteriae,105 and the essential oils obtained from leaf
extract are effective against schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis.106
6.4 Anticancer and radio-protective
Cancer is an abnormal division of cells and is of serious
concern due to its consequential high mortality rate.107
Different parts of S. cumini have been investigated for cytotoxic
activities in vitro. The crude extract of its skin was studied for
HeLa (HPV-18 positive) cells and SiHac (HPV-16 positive) cells
using an MTT assay. The extract was found to trigger its cyto-
toxic effects more proficiently in HeLa cells. Similarly, 50%
methanol extract showed apoptosis in HeLa cells. The freeze-
dried pulp extract was found to inhibit the cell proliferation
and growth of MCF-10A, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 breast
cancer cells. However, this extract was less effective in
MCF-10A cells as compared to MCF-7 cells and MDA-MB-231
breast cancer cells.108 S. cumini fruit extract has also been
reported to induce cytotoxic effects in HCT-116 colon cancer
cells by triggering DNA fragmentation.
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Food & Function
Radiotherapy is one of the broadly used treatments for
cancer but with the severe underlying side effects of damaging
healthy tissues. Studies have shown that S. cumini possesses
radio-protective effects and protects the normal cells from
damaging and deleterious effects.109 The radio-protective
activity of S. cumini was evaluated by treating human peri-
pheral blood lymphocytes with different concentrations of 1 : 1
DCM–MET (di-chloro-methane and methanol) leaf extract
before exposing them to the 3 Gy gamma radiation and this
resulted in a reduction of DNA damage. Both methanol and di-
chloromethane extracts were effective against the radiation-
induced DNA damage in human blood lymphocytes.
Treatment of mice for five days with hydroalcholic extract of
seeds before exposure to a supralethal dose of radiation pro-
tected them against the radiation and the best effect was
observed at 80 mg kg−1. A high antioxidant profile of the fruit
is associated with anti-mutagenicity activity: to inhibit the pro-
liferation and maturation of malignant cells. S. cumini gold
nanoparticles (ScAuNPs) exhibited excellent antioxidant pro-
perties and hence were beneficial in serving as antitumor
agents.
6.5 Anti-inflammatory
S. cumini bark is used in folk medicine for healing acute and
chronic inflammations.110 Anti-inflammatory activity was
observed in carrageen (acute), kaolin carrageenin (sub-acute),
formaldehyde (sub-acute) induced paw oedema and pellet
granuloma tests in rats. S. cumini showed anti-arthritis effects
(arthritis is a chronic variety of inflammatory diseases of
joints). Aqueous extract of seed was found to be effective
against human neutrophils.111 Similarly, flavonoid extract of
the fruit has been reported to alleviate inflammatory response
in human lymphocytes and monocytes against hepatitis B
vaccine.112
6.6 Gastroprotective and antidiarrheal activity
Ulcer is one of the common gastrointestinal ailments and con-
siderably affects the huge population. S. cumini shows gastro-
protective properties by altering the function of cells.
Preclinical studies showed that fruits exert gastroprotective
effects in both streptozotocin induced diabetic and normal
rats.113 Ramirez and Roa114 observed that rats treated with iso-
lated tannins from S. cumini had protection against HCl/
ethanol induced gastric ulceration. Tannin treatment offered
protection significantly by reducing the gastric mucosal
damage. In previous studies it was reported that ethanolic
extract of bark at a dose level of 400 mg kg−1 p.o. ( p.o. means
the medication is taken by mouth b.i.d. or twice a day)
reduced diarrhea by inhibiting the gastrointestinal motility
and induced enteropooling (accumulation of fluid in the small
intestine and colon).
Seed extract of S. cumini also produced an alteration in the
general behavior of the test animal such as a reduction in the
locomotion, aggressiveness and induced sleeping time in a
dose dependent fashion in a stress reducing study.
Researchers found a significant analgesic effect against acetic
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Food & Function
acid induced writhing movement and reduction in body temp-
erature. Similarly, S. cumini extract provided protection against
radiation induced bone marrow death in mice at 30 mg per kg
body weight.115,116 Diarrhea is the most common disease that
occurs in children mainly due to dietary errors and weaning
process; diarrhea may be regarded as a mild and inopportune
illness, and in its chronic state it may affect the absorption of
food, which leads to malnutrition. Administration of ethanolic
extract of bark was effective against diarrhea in prostaglandin
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(PGE2) induced enteropooling and castor oil induced diarrhea
in rats.103
6.7 Antianemic, anti-cariogenic and anti-clastogenic
Extract of S. cumini seeds help in increasing total hemoglobin
and prevents free radical formation in tissues. Dental caries is
one of the most general infections found in humans and can
cause severe masticatory disability. Studies have shown that
hydromethanolic, methanolic and aqueous extracts of
S. cumini are effective against cariogenic bacteria such as
Streptococcus mutans (facultative anaerobic Gram positive
coccus, found in the human oral cavity). Clastogens (clastogen
is a mutagenic agent giving rise to or inducing the disruption
or breakages of chromosomes) can damage to chromosome by
fragmentation. S. cumini shows anti-clastogenic activity which
protects disruption and mutagenesis in chromosomes. The
alcoholic seed extract decreased the hydroxyl radical induced
strand breaks in pBR322 DNA in vitro and aqueous extract was
found to trim down the chromosomal aberrations in mice.117
7. Traditional uses
Traditionally, all parts of the S. cumini tree have long medic-
inal history and contain taxonomically important constituents.
Medicinally the fruit is anti-sorbutic, stomachic, diuretic and
carminative (Table 3). It is used in Ayurvedic, Unani and
Siddha medicine. In Ayurvedic medicines, different parts are
used to treat mouth blister, cancer, colic, diarrhea, piles,
pimples, sore throat, asthma, thirst and ulcers due to its
astringent and digestive properties. In Unani medicine,
different parts are used for strengthening the teeth and gums,
for clarification of blood, for treating bed wetting in children,
as a liver tonic and for removing ringworm infection from
scalp.118 In southern Brazil and India, leaf extract with water is
used as a replacement for normal water and herbal tea from
leaves,119 the bark and seeds to cure diabetes,93 renal pro-
blems and dysentery, juice of leaves for insect bite, and juice
from seed for ulcers, sore throat, and gastric problems, and
juice from bark is given to women who have undergone mul-
tiple abortions.120
8. Nonfood usages
Other than food applications, it is also used in the production
of natural dyes. Colorants extracted from natural sources for
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Review
the development of colorful and multifunctional textiles have
become the most important focus of the textile and polymer
production industries.121 Seed extract inhibits mild steel cor-
rosion. The ecofriendly dye gives reddish, pale yellow, red and
golden yellow colors in alkaline, alcoholic, acidic and neutral
media. The dye has been found to have potential against
P. aeruginosa, P. fluorescens and St. aureus. The alkaline extract
of Jambolan dye has good activity against E. coli and
P. fluorescens and the acidic and alcoholic dye effectively inhib-
ited the growth of selected bacteria strains.122 Other than med-
icinal purposes, the bark, leaf powder, seed and leaf ash are
used as an adsorbent for chromium, cadmium, and hexavalent
chromium, in fluoride removal and biosorption of Ni(II) from
aqueous and tannery polluted water123–128 and as a corrosion
inhibitor for acid media.129 This effective technique can be
used to reduce toxic substances that minimize the pollution
load from the spent chrome liquor. Fruit extract is also used
for the development of multimodal nanoparticles as nanome-
dicinal diagnostic agents (theranostic nanoagents). The
inherent photoluminescence properties of the gold nano-
probes are suitable for diagnostic imaging and image-guided
delivery systems.130,131
9. Conclusion
Syzygium cumini L. contributes a number of valuable essential
nutrients and exclusive bioactive components. Anthocyanin is
responsible for the purple color of the fruit, and tannins and
gallic acid account for the sour taste and astringency. The pres-
ence of various phytochemicals causes various disease prevent-
ing characteristics viz. anticancer, anti-neoplastic, anti-anemic
etc. as proved by various in vitro studies. The fruit as a whole
or fruit parts are used in the conventional system for the treat-
ment of various pathological conditions. The highly perishable
nature of the fruit draws attention towards its processing into
different types of valuable products. The present review high-
lights its nutraceutical properties, phytochemistry and the util-
ization of all fruit parts in food processing and products.
Other than medicinal and food applications, it is also used in
the development of nanoparticles, natural dyes and adsorbents
for the removal of pollutants. This suggests that there is an
extensive need for research and industrial utilization to
increase its utilization in foods and to preserve the nutrients
in this valuable fruit.
Conflicts of interest
There are no conflicts to declare.
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