Different magnetic interaction mechanisms

Diamagnetism is based on the interaction between electrons and the magnetic field. Since all
materials contain electrons, all materials are diamagnetic. Paramagnetism is due to permanent
magnetic moments of atoms. Not all types of atom have magnetic moments, so this mechanism
is not universal. Ferromagnetism arises when these permanent magnetic moments are strong
enough to interact and influence each other. This collective phenomenon is several orders of
magnitude stronger than the other magnetic interaction mechanisms, which are based on the
electronic charges or magnetic moments of individual atoms only.

Diamagnetism

According to Lenz's law, any current induced by a magnetic field gives rise to a magnetic field
opposing the original inducing field. This follows from the application of the right-hand rule
both on induction of a current by a field and vice versa. For this reason, diamagnetic
susceptibility is always negative, i.e. the density of B-field lines is reduced by diamagnetism.

In a semi-classical view of an atom (left figure), an electron can be regarded as orbiting the
nucleus at a fixed distance. If placed in a magnetic field, a precession of the vector linking the
electron with the nucleus around the field axis is observed. The frequency ω of that precession is
given by the Larmor theorem:
ω = e B/2me

where e and me are the electron's charge and mass, respectively. Given that a current is the
number of charges flowing through a point per unit time, the current II flowing in an atom due to
the Larmor precession is
I = - Ze (ω/2π) = (Ze2B/4πme)
where the factor −Z adds up all the electrons in the atom and acknowledges the fact that
electrons have a negative charge.
Given a current, we can determine the magnetic moment induced by it. For this purpose, it
helps comparing the Larmor current in the atom with a current flowing around a single wire loop
(right figure). The magnetic moment pm induced by a current II is proportional to the current and
the area enclosed by it, pm =AI (and pointing in the direction normal to that area). For a circular
loop, A = πr2, and

pm = πr2 I = - (Ze2B/4me) <r2>

where ⟨r2⟩ stands for the median distance of all the electrons from the field axis in the case of the
atom.
This fairly crude classical interpretation gives us a good estimate of the induced magnetic
moment in an atom due to the interaction of the material's electrons with the magnetic field.
Given the chemical composition and density (and hence electron density) of a material, we can
calculate its diamagnetic susceptibility. This simple model produces adequate results except in
the case of conduction electrons in metals. Since they are delocalised over many atoms within
the lattice, the idea of a Larmor current doesn't do them justice.

Paramagnetism

For paramagnetism, a quantum-mechanical analysis is needed. The magnetic moment, pm⃗, of an

atom depends on its total angular momentum, J⃗ . The two are linked by the gyromagnetic
ratio, γ, (in Hz/T), an element-specific material constant:

Pm⃗ = γℏJ⃗ 
Alternatively, we can express the link between pm⃗  and J⃗ in terms of multiples of the Bohr
magneton

μB := (eℏ/2me)
which is essentially the "quantum of magnetic moment" (measured in J/T). Using this formalism,
the magnetic moment is

pm⃗  = − gμB J⃗
The g-factor (dimensionless) depends on how the various spins and orbital angular momenta of
all the electrons in the atom couple. Its value can be calculated using the Landé equation:

g = 1 + ((J(J+1) + S(S+1) − L(L+1)) / 2J(J+1))

where S, L and J are the combined spin, orbital and total angular momentum quantum
numbers of the electrons in the atom. If the angular momenta combine in such a way that the g-
factor is zero, the material cannot be paramagnetic.
When an atom with a permanent magnetic moment is placed in a magnetic field, the
previously degenerate magnetic states split into sub-states with distinct energy, separated by the
energy of the magnetic interaction, 2pm B (left and right margins of the figure). This is analogous
to the Zeeman effect separating the energy levels of spin states of electrons, except that we
consider the total angular momentum (including spin and orbital components) of the atom as a
whole. The magnitude of the Zeeman splitting is:

Emgn = −pm⃗B⃗ =mJ g μB B

where the magnetic quantum number, mJ = −J, −J+1, ⋯, +J−1 , +J relates to the total angular
momentum.
The relative population of the individual levels is given by the Boltzmann distribution, which
compares the magnetic interaction energy pm B with the thermal energy kBT, i.e. for a two-level
system (J = 1/2)

In a two-level system, the magnetisation is proportional to the excess population in the lower
level, since only those excess moments aren't balanced by moments in the upper level, which
point in the opposite direction:
The bracket is equal to tanh(x), and as long as x ≪ 1 (i.e. if the magnetic interaction is much
smaller than the thermal energy, pm B ≪ kBT) tanh(x) ≈ x. This leaves:

This shows that the paramagnetic susceptibility χpara scales inversely with temperature. This
observation is known as the Curie law and the constant of proportionality is the Curie constant.
If J > 1/2, there will be more than two Zeeman levels. Since their energies are always distributed
symmetrically about the degenerate energy level at B=0, the analysis remains valid and there are
simply more Boltzmann terms to sum in the denominator when the relative populations are
calculated.

There are different scenarios by which spins and orbital angular momenta can combine to a total
angular momentum (the LS and JJ schemes), depending on the type of atom. Naturally, this will
affect the number of Zeeman states for the magnetic moment of the atom and thus the Curie
constant of a material containing this atom. To complicate matters, if some electrons are in
excited electronic states, this will also change J and thus affect the material's Curie constant.

Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such as iron)
form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics, several different types
of magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (along with the similar effect ferrimagnetism)
is the strongest type and is responsible for the common phenomenon of magnetism in magnets
encountered in everyday life.
Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of magnetism—
paramagnetism, diamagnetism, and antiferromagnetism—but the forces are usually so weak that
they can be detected only by sensitive instruments in a laboratory.
Permanent magnets (materials that can be magnetized by an external magnetic field and remain
magnetized after the external field is removed) are either ferromagnetic or ferromagnetic. Only a
few substances are ferromagnetic. The common ones are iron, cobalt, nickel and most of their
alloys, and some compounds of rare earth metals. Ferromagnetism is very important in industry
and modern technology, and is the basis for many electrical and electromechanical devices such
as electromagnets, electric motors, generators, transformers, and magnetic storage such as tape
recorders, and hard disks, and nondestructive testing of ferrous materials.