By:

Ritesh Agarwal,
B.Tech. IIT Mumbai
} The net magnetic flux through any closed surface
is zero.

} It is a reflection of the fact that isolated magnetic

poles (also called monopoles) are not known to
exist.
} We have seen charges in motion (as in a current) produce magnetic
fields. This is one source of magnetism.
} Another source is the electron itself. Electrons behave as if they were
tiny magnets.
} Every electron in an atom behaves as a magnet in two ways, each
having two magnetic dipole moments:
Spin magnetic dipole moment - due to the “rotation” of an electron.
Orbital magnetic dipole moment - due to the “revolution” of an
electron about the nucleus.

Note: Electrons are not actually little balls that rotate and revolve like planets, but imagining them this
way is useful when explaining magnetism without quantum mechanics.
} To understand spin it will be helpful to think of an electron as a
rotating sphere or planet.
} Imagine an electron as a ball smeared with negative charge
rotating about an axis.
} The spinning ball is like a little current loop flowing in the
direction opposite its rotation

μs
----
N

-
--- I S
} Consider an electron revolving around the nucleus like planets revolve
around the sun. Charge in motion once again produces a magnetic
field.
} Since an electron’s charge is negative, its orbit is like a current
loop in the opposite direction.

μorb N

S
- I
Ø Each electron in an atom has two magnetic dipole moments
associated with it, one for spin, and one for orbit. Each is a vector.
Ø These two dipole moments combine vectorially for each electron.
Ø The resultant vectors from each electron then combine for the
whole atom, often canceling each other out.
Ø For most materials the net dipole moment for each atom is about
zero.
Ø For some materials each atom has a nonzero dipole moment, but
because the atoms have all different orientations, the material as a
whole remains nonmagnetic.
Ø Ferromagnetic materials, like iron, are
comprised of atoms that each have net dipole Domains
moment. Furthermore, all the atoms have the
same alignment, at least within very tiny
regions called domains. The domains can have
different orientations, though, leaving the iron
nonmagnetic except when placed in an
external field.
Ø Permanent magnets are produced when the
domains in a ferromagnetic material are
aligned.
} Magnetization: It is a measure of how a material respond
when magnetic field is applied to it.

} Intensity of Magnetization (M): When a material is magnetized,

it develops a net magnetic moment. The magnetic moment
per unit volume is called intensity of magnetization.

Ø M is a vector with dimensions [L–1A] and is measured in a units

of A m–1.
} Consider a magnetic material producing a field Bm in an
external field B0. The total field is the vector sum of the
external field and the field generated by the material.

Ø We define

Ø So, Total field will be,

} Magnetic Intensity is defined as

Ø H has the same dimensions as M and is measured in

units of A m–1
Ø Thus, the total magnetic field B is written as
} For an air-filled long solenoid the magnetic field due to
the material itself (mostly air) is zero, i.e., M = 0. Hence:

} so that in this case the magnetic field strength for the

system is:
} or, as we should expect, the magnetic field strength is
derived entirely from the current in the wire coils.
} What if we fill the solenoid with some material other than
air?
} In this case H remains constant because it depends only
upon the current, but B increases due to the fact that M
is now non-zero.
} For paramagnetic and diamagnetic substances M is
linearly proportional to H in the form:
} The total magnetic field inside any sample has two parts:
} One, due to external factors such as the current in the
solenoid. This is represented by H.
} The other is due to the specific nature of the magnetic
material, namely M.
} M can be influenced by external factors. This influence is
mathematically expressed as

} where χ is a dimensionless constant known as magnetic

susceptibility.
} It is a measure of how a magnetic material responds to
an external field.

} It is small and positive for materials, which are called

paramagnetic.

} It is small and negative for materials, which are termed

diamagnetic.

} In diamagnetic substance M and H are opposite in

directions.
} We have seen that, net magnetic field is given by

} Where, μr = (1+χ) is a dimensionless quantity called the

relative magnetic permeability of the substance.
} Magnetic permeability of the substance is μ and it has
the same dimensions and units as μ0
} These substance have tendency to move from stronger to the
weaker part of the external magnetic field. In other words,
magnetic field would repel a diamagnetic substance.
} Examples : bismuth, copper, lead, silicon, nitrogen (at STP), water
and sodium chloride.

} The most exotic diamagnetic materials are superconductors.

These are metals, cooled to very low temperatures which exhibits
both perfect conductivity and perfect diamagnetism. Here the field
lines are completely expelled! χ = –1 and μr = 0.
} A superconductor repels a magnet and (by Newton’s third law) is
repelled by the magnet. The phenomenon of perfect
diamagnetism in superconductors is called the Meissner effect
} Electrons in an atom orbiting around nucleus possess orbital
angular momentum and are equivalent to current-carrying loop
and thus possess orbital magnetic moment. Diamagnetic
substances are the ones in which resultant magnetic moment in
an atom is zero.
-
} When magnetic field is applied, those electrons having orbital
magnetic moment in the same direction slow down and those in
the opposite direction speed up.
μorb
} This happens due to induced current in accordance with Lenz’s
law. Thus, the substance develops a net magnetic moment in
direction opposite to that of the applied field and hence repulsion.

} Diamagnetism is present in all the substances. However, the effect

I
is so weak in most cases that it gets shifted by other effects like
paramagnetism, ferromagnetism, etc.
} These substance get weakly magnetized when placed in an
external magnetic field. They have tendency to move from a
region of weak magnetic field to strong magnetic field, i.e., they
get weakly attracted to a magnet.
} Examples : aluminium, sodium, calcium, oxygen (at STP) and copper chloride.

} Experimentally, one finds that the magnetization of a

paramagnetic material is inversely proportional to the temperature

} This is known as Curie’s law. The constant C is called Curie’s

constant. χ and μr depend not only on the material, but also on the
temperature.
} As field is increased or temp. is lowered, the magnetization increases until it
reaches the saturation value, at which point all the dipoles are perfectly
aligned with the field. Beyond this, Curie’s law is no longer valid.
} The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) of a paramagnetic material
possess a permanent magnetic dipole moment of their own. On
account of the ceaseless random thermal motion of the atoms, no net
magnetization is seen.
} In the presence of an external field B0, which is strong enough, and at
low temperatures, the individual atomic dipole moment can be made
to align and point in the same direction as B0.
} When a bar of paramagnetic material is placed in an external field. The
field lines gets concentrated inside the material, and the field inside is
enhanced.
} In most cases, this enhancement is slight, being one part in 105.
} When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, the bar will tend to
move from weak field to strong.
} These substance gets strongly magnetized when placed in an external magnetic
field. They have strong tendency to move from a region of weak magnetic field to
strong magnetic field, i.e., they get strongly attracted to a magnet.
} Examples : iron, cobalt, nickel, gadolinium, etc.
} The relative magnetic permeability is >1000.
} The ferromagnetic property depends on temperature. At high enough temperature,
a ferromagnet becomes a paramagnet.
} The temperature of transition from ferromagnetic to paramagnetism is called the
Curie temperature Tc.
} The susceptibility above the Curie temperature, i.e., in the paramagnetic phase is
described by,
} The individual atoms (or ions or molecules) in a ferromagnetic
material possess a dipole moment as in a paramagnetic material.
However, they interact with one another in such a way that they
spontaneously align themselves in a common direction over a
macroscopic volume called domain.
} Each domain has a net magnetization.
} In the first instant, the magnetization varies randomly from
domain to domain and there is no bulk magnetization.
} When we apply an external magnetic field B0, the domains orient
themselves in the direction of B0 and simultaneously the domain
oriented in the direction of B0 grow in size.
} Thus, in a ferromagnetic material the field lines are highly
concentrated. In non-uniform magnetic field, the sample tends
to move towards the region of high field.
} Hard Ferromagnets : In some ferromagnetic material the magnetization persists
even after removal of external magnetic field. Such materials are called hard magnetic
materials or hard ferromagnets.

} Example : Alnico (an alloy of iron, aluminium, nickel, cobalt and copper), naturally
occurring lodestone

} Used to form permanent magnets

} Soft Ferromagnets : In some ferromagnetic material the magnetization disappears

on removal of external magnetic field. Such materials are called soft feromagnetic
materials.

} Example : Soft Iron

} Used to form temporary magnets like electromagnets

} Hysteresis of ferromagnetic materials refers to the lag
of magnetization behind the magnetizing field.
} A hysteresis loop is a curve showing the change in
magnetic induction of a ferromagnetic material with an
external field.

} When the external magnetic field is increased the magnetic induction

increases.
} Once magnetic saturation has been achieved, a decrease in the applied field
back to zero results in a macroscopically permanent or residual
magnetization, known as remanance, Mr. The corresponding induction, Br,
is called retentivity or remanent induction of the magnetic material. This
effect of retardation by material is called hysteresis.
} The magnetic field strength needed to bring the
induced magnetization to zero is termed as
coercivity, Hc. This must be applied anti-parallel to
the original field.
} A further increase in the field in the opposite direction results in a
maximum induction in the opposite direction. The field can once again be
reversed, and the field-magnetization loop can be closed, this loop is
known as hysteresis loop or B-H plot or M- H plot.
} Below the ferromagnetic Curie temperature ferromagnetic substances
exhibit hysteresis.
} Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through
a complete cycle of magnetization and this loss is represented by the area
enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
} Based on the area of the hysteresis loop the magnetic materials are
classified into two types

1. Hard magnetic materials 2. Soft magnetic materials

Hard Magnets Soft Magnets

} Substances which at room temperature retain their ferromagnetic property
for a long period of time are called permanent magnets.

} Permanent magnets can be made in a variety of ways. One can hold an iron
rod in the north-south direction and hammer it repeatedly.

} One can also hold a steel rod and stroke it with one end of a bar magnet a
large number of times, always in the same sense to make a permanent
magnet.

} An efficient way to make a permanent magnet is to place a ferromagnetic

rod in a solenoid and pass a current. The magnetic field of the solenoid
magnetizes the rod.
} Suitable material for permanent magnet should have high retentivity so that
the magnet is strong and high coercivity so that the magnetization is not
erased by stray magnetic fields, temperature fluctuations or minor
mechanical damage.

} Further, the material should have a high permeability.

} Steel is one-favoured choice. It has a slightly smaller retentivity than soft

iron but this is outweighed by the much smaller coercivity of soft iron.

} Other suitable materials for permanent magnets are alnico, cobalt steel and
ticonal.
} An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is produced by an
electric current. The magnetic field disappears when the current is turned off.
} Electromagnets usually consist of wire wound into a coil. Core of electromagnets are
made of ferromagnetic materials which have high permeability and low retentivity.
Soft iron is a suitable material for electromagnets.

} On placing a soft iron rod in a solenoid and passing a

current, we increase the magnetism of the solenoid by
a thousand fold. When we switch off the solenoid
current, the magnetism is effectively switched off
since the soft iron core has a low retentivity.
} Electromagnets are used in electric bells,
loudspeakers and telephone diaphragms.
} Giant electromagnets are used in cranes to lift
machinery, and bulk quantities of iron and steel.