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Introduction

´ We have already learnt

ELECTROMAGNETIC ´ an electric current produces magnetic field

´ two current-carrying wires exert a magnetic force on each other

WAVES ´ a magnetic field changing with time gives rise to an electric field

´ Question is
Prepared by, ´ Is the converse also true? Does an electric field changing with time
Ritesh Agarwal ( B. Tech. IIT Mumbai ) give rise to a magnetic field?

Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)

Introduction Introduction
´ James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879), argued that – not only an electric
current but also a time-varying electric field generates magnetic field. ´ Hertz, in 1885, experimentally demonstrated the existence of
´ He noticed an inconsistency in the Ampere’s circuital law and suggested electromagnetic waves. The most important prediction to emerge
the existence of an additional current, called the displacement current
from Maxwell’s equations is the existence of electromagnetic
´ He formulated a set of equations involving electric and magnetic fields, waves, which are (coupled) time varying electric and magnetic
and their sources, the charge and current densities. These equations are
known as Maxwell’s equations. fields that propagate in space.
´ The most important prediction to emerge from Maxwell’s equations is the
existence of electromagnetic waves, which are (coupled) time varying
electric and magnetic fields that propagate in space. ´ Its technological use by Marconi and others led in due course to the
´ The speed of the waves, according to these equations, turned out to be revolution in communication that we are witnessing today.
very close to the speed of light (3 ×108 m/s), obtained from optical
measurements. This led to the remarkable conclusion that light is an
electromagnetic wave.
´ Maxwell’s work thus unified the domain of electricity, magnetism and light.

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DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
´ Consider the process of charging of a capacitor and apply
Ampere’s circuital law to find magnetic field at a point outside
the capacitor.
Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)
11/19/2019
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
´ Since the contradiction arises from our use of Ampere’s
circuital law, this law must be missing something.
´ We can actually guess the missing term by looking carefully at
figure.
´ Is there anything passing through the surface S
between the plates of the capacitor?
´ electric field! If the plates of the capacitor have
an area A, and a total charge Q, the magnitude
of the electric field E between the plates is
Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
´ The current carried by conductors due to flow of charges is called
conduction current.
´ The current, due to changing electric field (or electric displacement, an old
term still used sometimes) is called displacement current or Maxwell’s
displacement current.
´ Figure shows the electric and magnetic fields inside
the parallel plate capacitor discussed above.
´ The source of a magnetic field is not just the
conduction electric current due to flowing charges, but
also the time rate of change of electric field. More
precisely, the total current i is the sum of the
conduction current denoted by ic, and the displacement
current denoted by id
Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)
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DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
´ In explicit terms, this means that outside the capacitor plates, we have
only conduction current ic = i, and no displacement current, i.e., id = 0. On
the other hand, inside the capacitor, there is no conduction current, i.e., ic =
0, and there is only displacement current, so that id = i.
´ The generalized (and correct) Ampere’s circuital law is
and is known as Ampere-Maxwell law.
Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
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11/19/2019
More about Displacement Current
´ In all respects, the displacement current has the same physical effects as the
conduction current.
´ In some cases, for example, steady electric fields in a conducting wire, the
displacement current may be zero since the electric field E does not change with time.
´ In other cases, for example, the charging capacitor above, both conduction and
displacement currents may be present in different regions of space.
´ In most of the cases, they both may be present in the same region of space, as there
exist no perfectly conducting or perfectly insulating medium.
´ Using concept of displacement current , the laws of electricity and magnetism are now
more symmetrical.
´ A magnetic field, changing with time, gives rise to an electric field. Then, the fact that
an electric field changing with time gives rise to a magnetic field, is the symmetrical
counterpart. Thus, time-dependent electric and magnetic fields give rise to each other!
´ One very important consequence of this symmetry is the existence of electromagnetic
waves, which we discuss in this chapter.
Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
´ Sources of electromagnetic waves
´ stationary charges produces only electrostatic fields
´ charges in uniform motion (steady currents) produces magnetic fields
´ accelerated charges radiate electromagnetic waves
´ Consider a charge oscillating with some frequency. (An oscillating charge is
an example of accelerating charge.) This produces an oscillating electric field
in space, which produces an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn, is a
source of oscillating electric field, and so on.
´ The oscillating electric and magnetic fields thus regenerate each other, so to
speak, as the wave propagates through the space. The frequency of the
electromagnetic wave naturally equals the frequency of oscillation of the
charge.
´ The energy associated with the propagating wave comes at the expense of
the energy of the source – the accelerated charge.
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History of Electromagnetic Waves ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

´ It might appear easy to test the prediction that light is an electromagnetic ´ Nature of electromagnetic waves
wave. We might think that all we needed to do was to set up an ac circuit in
which the current oscillate at the frequency of visible light, say, yellow light. ´ The electric and magnetic fields in an
But, that is not possible. electromagnetic wave are perpendicular to
each other, and to the direction of
´ The frequency of yellow light is about 6 × 1014 Hz, while the frequency that we propagation.
get even with modern electronic circuits is hardly about 1011 Hz. This is why ´ Figure shows a typical example of a plane
the experimental demonstration of electromagnetic wave had to come in the electromagnetic wave propagating along the
low frequency region (the radio wave region), as in the Hertz’s experiment z direction (the fields are shown as a function
(1887) the wavelength of EM Waves produced was 6 m. of the z coordinate, at a given time t).
´ Seven years after Hertz, Jagdish Chandra Bose, working at Calcutta (now ´ The electric field Ex is along the x-axis, and varies sinusoidally with z, at a given time. The
Kolkata), succeeded in producing and observing electromagnetic waves of magnetic field By is along the y-axis, and again varies sinusoidally with z. The electric and
much shorter wavelength (25 mm to 5 mm). His experiment, like that of magnetic fields Ex and By are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction z of
Hertz’s, was confined to the laboratory.
propagation.
´ Around the same time, Guglielmo Marconi in Italy followed Hertz’s work and
succeeded in transmitting electromagnetic waves over distances of many ´ We can write Ex and By as follows:
kilometres. Marconi’s experiment marks the beginning of the field of where,
communication using electromagnetic waves.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

´ Features of electromagnetic waves
´ They are self-sustaining oscillations of
Speed of propagation = electric and magnetic fields in free space, or
vacuum.
´ no material medium is involved in the
vibrations of the electric and magnetic fields.
´ velocity of light in medium is

´ For Information
´ Hertz not only showed the existence of electromagnetic waves, but also demonstrated that
the waves, which had wavelength ten million times that of the light waves, could be diffracted,
refracted and polarised. Thus, he conclusively established the wave nature of the
´ He also produced stationary electromagnetic waves and obtained the speed of the wave
using the formula
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Energy and Momentum of EM Waves Energy Density of EM Waves

Energy
´ An electromagnetic wave (like other waves) carries energy and Energy Density =
momentum. Volume
´ Since it carries momentum, an electromagnetic wave also 1
In electric field ; U E = e 0 E 2
exerts pressure, called radiation pressure. 2
´ If the total energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, it can B2
be shown that the magnitude of the total momentum delivered In magnetic field ; U B =
2 m0
to this surface (for complete absorption) is,
Total energy density of electric and magnetic field in free space

1 B2
U = UE +UB = e0E2 +
2 2 m0

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Energy Density of EM Waves Intensity of EM Waves

Average Energy Density Energy
E0 B Intensity =
1
U avg = e 0 Erms
2 B2
+ rms where, Erms = and Brms = 0 Area ´ time
2 2 m0 2 2
Total energy contained in the cylinder
1 e E2 2
Brms B2
U E = e 0 Erms
2
= 0 and UB = =
2 4 2 m0 4 m 0
U = Avg. energy density ´ Volume
E0 B2 E02 m e E2 1
Q B0 = \ UB = = = 0 0 0 Qc =
c 4m0 4m0c 2 4m0 m 0e 0 1
=
e0E2 U = e 0 E02 ´ (cDt ) ´ A
4 2
Hence
U 1
UE = UB Intensity = = ce 0 E02
ADt 2
1
U avg = 2 U E = 2 U B = e 0 E02 = e 0 Erms
2
I = ce 0 Erms
2
2
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Momentum and pressure of EM Waves EM Waves Spectrum

E
E = mc 2
and p = mc =
c
\ Momentum carried by an e.m. wave
Energy of the wave U
p= =
speed of the wave c
U F U I
dp Dp U
Force = =
dt Dt
= c =
Dt c Dt
and Pressure = = =
A cD t ´ A c
Note: If r = 1, then
U 2U
pf = and Dp =
c c
2I
Pressure =
c
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EM Waves Frequency and Wavelength Visible Region Wavelengths

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EM Waves Production and Uses

Electromagnetic Waves Spectrum
Wavelength
Type Range Production Detection Uses
Radio Waves > 0.1 m Rapid acceleration and Receiver’s aerials In radio and TV communication systems. Also
decelerations of electrons in aerials in cellular phones.

Microwaves 0.1 m to Klystron valve or magnetron valve Point contact diodes Radar systems in aircraft navigation.

Thank You
1 mm Microwaves Oven

Infra-red Wave 1 mm to Vibration of atoms and molecules Thermopiles Infrared lamps are used in physical therapy.
(Heat Waves) 700 nm Bolometer, Infrared Maintaining earth's temperature through
photographic film greenhouse effect.
TV remotes

Light 700 nm to Electrons in atoms emit light when The eye, Photocells, Provides sensation of light.
(Visible Rays) 400 nm they move from one energy level to Photographic film
a lower energy level

Ultraviolet Rays 400 nm to Inner shell electrons in atoms Photocells, LASIK eye surgery.
1 nm moving from one energy level to a Photographic film UV lamps are used to kill germs in water
lower level purifiers.

X-rays 1 nm to X-ray tubes or inner shell electrons Photographic film, Diagnostic tool in medicine treatment for
10–3 nm Geiger tubes, certain forms of cancer.
Ionization chamber
Gamma rays < 10–3 nm Radioactive decay of the nucleus -do To destroy cancer cells.

Physics by Ritesh Agarwal (B. Tech. IIT Mumbai)