A Synopsis on 10 Pioneering Papers on

Nanoelectronics
Shadman Saquib
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology
Dhaka, Bangladesh
1906020@eee.buet.ac.bd

Abstract—This paper provides a comprehensive summary of

ten pioneering papers in the field of nanoelectronics. The selected
papers are chosen for their originality and profound impact
on the discipline leading to subsequent researches and practical
applications. Topics covered by these papers include resonant tun-
neling, single-electron transistor, molecular rectifiers, molecular
switching based nanoscale device, molecular electro-mechanical
amplifier, quantom-dot cells, quantum spin hall effect,carbon
nanotubes and nanorods.
Index Terms—Resonant tunneling, Quantum dots, Spin Orbital
Coupling, Rectifiers, Quantum logic gates, Carbon nanotube

I. I NTRODUCTION
Nanoelectronics refers to the application of nanotechnol-
ogy to create electronic components. These components are
extremely small, requiring thorough exploration of atomic
interactions and quantum mechanics. The electronics has been
the main driving force for all the technological advancement
taking place in the sciences. The research and development
industry has presently been relying on the silicon based tech-
nology which was working at micro scale. The miniaturization
of this technology is governed by the famous Moore’s law.
But silicon based technology has reached its maximum limits
of the reduction in size. Silicon encounters various physical
and interaction problems due to which it cannot be used at a
small scale of the order of nanometer. Hence this pushed the
electronics towards the research of nanomaterials which could
be used at nano level.
II. S ELECTED PAPERS
A. Resonant tunneling in semiconductor double barriers
(1974)
Authors: L. L. Chang, L. Esaki, and R. Tsu
Leroy L. Chang was an experimental physicist and solid-state
electronics researcher and engineer at IBM’s Thomas J. Wat-
son Research Center. Leo Esaki was a Japanese physicist who
won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1973 for his discovery of
electron tunneling phenomenon in semiconductors. R. Tsu, a
physicist at IBM, shared the APS (Americal Physical Society)
International Prize for New Materials with Esaki and Chang
for their work on superlattices.
Synopsis: This is the first paper that demonstrated the
resonant tunneling in double barrier heterostructure in semi-
conductor, a novel phenomenon in semiconductor physics at
Fig. 1. Current and conductance characteristics of a double barrier structure
of GaAs between two GaAlAs. Arrows in the curves indicate the observed
voltages of singularities corresponding to these resonant states.
the time experimentally. The structure consisted of AlGaAs
potential barriers with thin film of GaAs layer sandwiched
in between them. It was developed using molecular beam
epitaxy (MBE) which enabled the authors to grow ultrathin
film structures. MBE was a recently invented technology
(1968) at the time of this particular research. The tunneling
phenomenon was evident by observing peaks in the tunneling
current while applied voltage ensured the quasi-stationary state
of the double barrier. Figure 1 shows the conductance plot of
the double barrier heterostructure. Another conclusion drawn
from this experiment was that the peaks further increased
when the width of the potential well was reduced. Esaki’s
work stimulated further research in semiconductor physics
and device engineering. It inspired scientists and engineers to
explore the properties of quantum structures, such as quantum
wells and quantum dots, leading to the development of a wide
range of novel semiconductor devices and technologies.

Fig. 2. Schematic (a) cross section and (b) top view of the silicon transistor
with continuous upper gate and a gap in the lower gate.
B. The single-electron transistor (1992)
Author: M. A. Kastner
Kastner’s research group at MIT discovered the single electron
transistor in 1990.
Synopsis: In this paper, the author demonstrated a series of
experiments performed by his research group on mesoscopic
transistors. They presented the first ever model to describes the
behavior of electrons to understand the periodic conductance
property of sub-micron transistors as functions of electron
density. Whereas a conventional transistor turns on only once
when electrons are added to it, a very small transistor turns
on and off again every time an electron is added to it. The
oscillatory conductance results from the Coulomb interaction
between electrons on the transistor and the quantization of
charge, but in which the mechanics are entirely classical.
In Si transistors, conductance variations were observed due
to two-dimensional electron confinement at the Si-SiO2 in-
terface. GaAs transistors, with lower charge densities near
the semiconductor-insulator interface, were found suitable for
inducing potential barriers intentionally. Metal gates, con-
figured through electron-beam lithography, facilitate electron
confinement in narrow channels. Figure 2 shows the schematic
of the single electron transistor structure with Si substrate.
This paper is considered to be pioneering because the single
electron transistor (SET) represents a fundamental departure
from conventional transistor designs, as it is operated by
controlling the flow of single electrons, enabling precise
manipulation of charge at the nanoscale. This paper also
explained the Coulomb blockade phenomenon which is the
suppression of conductance at low bias voltages due to the
repulsive Coulomb interaction between electrons, was a pivotal
discovery in understanding electron transport in nanoscale
systems.
C. Molecular Rectifiers (1974)
Authors: Arieh Aviram, Mark A. Ratner The idea of
unimolecular rectifier was first proposed in 1974 by Arieh
(later Ari) Aviram, then at IBM, and Mark Ratner, then at
New York University.
Synopsis: In this paper, Aviram proposed the concept of a
molecular rectifier, which is a molecule capable of rectifying
electrical current, allowing it to conduct current preferentially
in one direction over the other. A theoretical framework for
understanding molecular rectification based on asymmetric
electron tunneling through a molecule with a donor-acceptor
structure is provided. The proposed molecular rectifier consists
of a molecule with a donor (electron-donating) group and an
acceptor (electron-accepting) group attached asymmetrically
to a central core. Electrons can tunnel through the molecule
from the donor to the acceptor or vice versa. However, due to
the asymmetry in the molecule’s structure, electron tunneling
is more favorable in one direction, leading to rectification of
the current. The rectification effect depends on the bias voltage
applied across the molecular junction. At low voltages, asym-
metric electron tunneling dominates, resulting in rectification,
while at higher voltages, the rectification effect may diminish
due to other transport mechanisms. Figure 3 show an example
of a molecular rectifier.
Fig. 3. An example of a rectifier molecule.
This paper is pioneering because it proposed the concept of
a molecular rectifier, which was a groundbreaking idea at the
time. It laid the foundation for the exploration and develop-
ment of molecular electronics, demonstrating the potential of
using individual molecules as electronic components.
D. A proposal of nanoscale devices based on atom/molecule
switching (1993)
Authors: Yasuo Wada; Tsuyoshi Uda; M. I. Lutwyche et
al
In 1993, Yasuo Wada et al. proposed a small switching
device, called atom relay, for the next decade, with dimensions
below 10 nm, and an operation speed of more than a terahertz
level.
Synopsis: This research proposed an atom relay, a tiny
switching device that would replace current metal-oxide-
semiconductor devices over the course of the next ten years.
The basic configuration of an atom relay consists of an atom
wire, a switching atom, and a switching gate. The switching
atom is moved by the electric field supplied from the switching
gate. The switching characteristics of the atom relay were
demonstrated by simulation, and were shown that the electron
wave fed from one end is successfully cut if a gap of about 0.4
nm is formed by the displacement of the switching atom in
the atom wire. Fundamental logic circuits such as NAND and
NOR gate constitutions are proposed based on the atom relay
characteristics. The self-relay structure, in which the switching
atom is displaced by the electric field from the atom wire
itself, enables a dynamic memory cell, and the functions are
ascertained by simulation. These logic and ‘memory circuits
can integrate a supercomputer into a 200 µm² square area, with
107 gates of logic circuit and 109 bits of memory, and operate
at more than 1012 Hz levels. Figure 4 shows the schematic
representaion of the atomic relay strucutre.
Fig. 4. Schematic examples of atom-wire structures: (A) simple structure,
(B) periodical structure, and (C) hexagonal structure.
Atom relays represent a pathway towards beyond-CMOS
(Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor) technologies.
As the limits of conventional silicon-based CMOS technology
are approached, atomically precise devices offer a promising
alternative for continuing the advancement of electronics be-
yond current limitations. Hence, this paper is deemed to be
pioneering.
E. A lateral-resonant-tunneling universal quantum-dot cell
(1993)
Author: J N Randall
In 1993, Randall et al. introduced a lateral-resonant-tunneling
quantum-dot cell that is configurable to cover the entire range
of three-input functions.
Synopsis: This paper described a novel computation ar-
chitecture with quantum dot cells by taking advantage of
resonant tunneling phenomenon. It proposed a realization
of nanoelectronic device based integrated circuit technology
capable of carrying out high speed computation. As device
dimensions shrink into the sub-tenth-micrometer regime, quan-
tum mechanics modify the permissible electronic states in
the confined structures. Quantum resonant-tunneling devices
(RTD) use quantum confined energy states in 2D, 1D, or
OD structures and control the flow of charge by changing
the alignment of these quantum states with other occupied
electronic states across a tunnel barrier. Their unique transport
properties permit more complex switching characteristics than
is with conventional devices. A quantum-dot diode is simply
an RTD where the lateral dimensions are sufficiently small to
impose additional confinement effects on the electron states
in the well. This paper described a cascading arrangement
of individual quantum-dot cells to implement cellular cas-
cades. It allows for the sequential or parallel operation of
multiple quantum-dot cells, enabling enhanced functionality,
performance, or scalability of the device. Figure 5 shows a
schematic representation of an universal quantum-dot cell.
Fig. 5. A universal quantum-dot cell. There are eight different three-dot gates
connected in parallel. The shaded dots are designed to be in resonance with
a ‘1’ input, the unshaded dots with a ’0’ input.
This paper is pioneering because the proposed universal
three-input quantum-dot cell demonstrates a specific example
of a resonant tunneling quantum-dot device that can accom-
plish general computation in an edge-fed, limited-interconnect
architecture. It represents a significant step in the evolution of
nanoelectronics based integrated circuit technology.
F. An electromechanical amplifier using a single molecule
(1997)
Authors: C. Joachim , J.K. Gimzewski
Synopsis: The paper introduced a groundbreaking advance-
ment in nanoscale electromechanical devices. The first single-
molecule electromechanical amplifier utilizing a fullerene
molecule (C60) was demonstrated. This novel device is based
on the modulation of virtual resonance tunneling through
the C60 molecule by electromechanical deformation of the
cage structure. It operates with forces in the nano-Newton
range generated by a metallic tip pressing on the adsorbed
molecule. The amplifier exhibits linear current-voltage charac-
teristics, making it suitable for applications such as pressure
sensing and signal amplification. Unlike previous nanoscale
devices, which included the Xe atomic switch and a nanoscale-
electromechanical relay, this amplifier demonstrated the ability
to achieve true nanoscale dimensions, with an active element
comprising just a single molecule. The structural configuration
of the amplifier circuit involves connecting the C60 molecule
between a metallic surface and a metallic tip, exploiting its
linear current-voltage behavior for signal amplification. Elec-
tromechanical gating of the molecule allows for output reading
across a load resistance. The pressure-sensitive resistance of
the C60 molecule is controlled by the input voltage and enable
precise modulation of the output signal. Experimental results
validated the device’s functionality and showcased its ability

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the electromechanical single-molecule amplifier.
to amplify mechanical displacements induced by gate voltage
variations. The experimental demonstrations presented in this
paper confirmed the feasibility of high gain molecular am-
plifier which amplified the potential for practical applications
in nanoelectronics and sensor technologies. The paper also
suggested possibilities for further miniaturization through the
use of piezoelectric polymers. Figure 6 provides the schematic
representation of the molecular amplifier.
The paper presented a novel approach to electromechanical
amplification at the molecular scale, offering insights into
the fundamental principles underlying molecular mechanical
deformation and its application in nanoscale devices. The
research contributeed to advancing the field of nanoelectronics
by demonstrating the feasibility of using individual molecules
as functional components in electromechanical devices. This
pioneering work opened up new avenues for the development
of highly sensitive and compact nanoscale sensors and am-
plifiers with potential applications in various fields, including
medical diagnostics, environmental monitoring, and commu-
nication technologies.
G. Demonstration of a Fundamental Quantum Logic Gate
(1995)
Authors: C. Monroe, D. M. Meekhof, B.E. King, W. M.
Itano, and D.J. Wineland
Synopsis: In quantum computing, quantum logic gates, similar
to classical logic gates in digital circuits, are fundamental
circuits that operate on a small number of qubits. They
serve as the basic building blocks of quantum circuits within
the quantum circuit model of computation. This innovative
paper demonstrated the operation of a two-bit ”controlled-
NOT” quantum logic gate, which, when combined with simple
single-bit operations, produces a universal quantum logic gate
for quantum computing. The two quantum bits are held in the
internal and external degrees of freedom of a single trapped
atom and they are laser cooled to zero energy. The process has
Fig. 7. Ramsey spectra of the controlled-NOT (CN) gate.
been recognized as having decoherence effects. Also, the idea
of expanding the system to include more qubits are expected
to be promising. Figure 7 provides the Ramsey spectra of
the designed NOT gate. Ramsey spectroscopy is a method
used in quantum physics to precisely measure the frequency
of electromagnetic radiation or the energy levels of atoms or
molecules.
This paper provided experimental evidence of a fundamental
quantum logic gate, specifically the controlled-NOT gate. The
successful demonstration of a fundamental quantum logic gate
represents a pioneering achievement in the field of quantum
computing. It showcases progress towards harnessing the
principles of quantum mechanics for practical computational
tasks. It also opens up new possibilities for solving complex
problems that are beyond the capabilities of classical comput-
ers.
H. Quantum Spin Hall Effect in Graphene (2005)
Authors: C. L. Kane and E. J. Mele
Synopsis: The paper presented a theoretical investigation
into the existence of the quantum spin Hall effect (QSHE)
in graphene, a two-dimensional honeycomb lattice of carbon
atoms. The authors utilized the honeycomb lattice structure of
graphene to explore the topological properties of its electronic
band structure. They proposed that in the presence of spin-
orbit coupling and a broken time-reversal symmetry due to a
magnetic field or other means, graphene can exhibit a band gap
in its electronic spectrum, leading to the emergence of edge
states with topologically protected spin-polarized currents.
These edge states arise due to the nontrivial topology of the
electronic band structure, characterized by Berry curvature and
Chern numbers, which indicate the presence of nontrivial topo-
logical phases. The authors also discussed the implications of
their findings for experimental realization and detection of the
QSHE in graphene. They proposed experimental signatures,
such as spin-resolved tunneling spectroscopy and transport
measurements, to confirm the existence of the QSHE in

Fig. 8. One-dimensional energy bands for a strip of graphene. The bands
crossing the gap are spin filtered edge states.
graphene. Figure 8 shows the one dimensional band structure
of a graphene strip.
Kane and Mele’s paper proposed the existence of the
quantum spin Hall effect (QSHE) in graphene, a previously
unrecognized phenomenon in condensed matter physics. This
prediction introduced a new paradigm in the field by suggest-
ing that graphene, a two-dimensional material, could exhibit
topological insulating behavior. Hence, it is recognized as a
pioneering paper in nanoelectronics.
I. Room-temperature transistor based on a single carbon
nanotube(1998)
Authors: Sander J. Tans, Alwin R. M. Verschueren & Cees
Dekker
Synopsis: The research around individual molecules as
functional electronic devices holds promise for revolutionizing
miniaturization strategies in the electronics and computer
industry. However, achieving practical single-molecule de-
vices has been challenging due to difficulties in establishing
electrical contacts with individual molecules. In this research
paper, the authors presented the fabrication of a field-effect
transistor—a three-terminal switching device—consisting of
a single semiconducting carbon nanotube connected to two
metal electrodes. By applying a voltage to a gate electrode,
the nanotube can transition from a conducting to an insulating
state. This paper presented the first successful demonstration of
the device operating at room temperature, making it more suit-
able for practical applications. Figure 9 shows an atomic force
microscopy (AFM) image of a single nanotube contacting
three Pt electrodes. The semiconducting Si substrate, covered
with a 300-nm layer of thermally grown SiO2, was used as
a back-gate. Figure 10 shows the electronic structure and
functioning of the TUBEFET (singlecarbon nanotube field-
effect transistor) device.
The paper contributed to the field of single-molecule elec-
tronics by showcasing the potential of carbon nanotubes
as building blocks for nanoscale electronic devices. Carbon
Fig. 9. Tapping-mode AFM image of an individual carbon nanotube on top
of three Pt electrodes
Fig. 10. Suggested band diagram of the device. The nanotube with a gap of
0.6 eV is connected to the leads with Fermi energy EF by tunnelling contacts,
indicated by the black vertical bars.
nanotubes offer unique properties such as high electrical con-
ductivity, mechanical strength, and chemical stability, making
them promising candidates for future electronic applications.
J. Nanorod-Superconductor Composites: A Pathway to Ma-
terials with High Critical Current Densities (1996)
Authors: Peidong Yang and Charles M. Lieber
Synopsis: The paper delved into the synthesis and character-
ization of semiconductor nanorod-superconductor composites
to elucidate the enhancement mechanism of critical current
densities in superconducting materials. The authors began
by synthesizing nanorod-superconductor composites using ad-
vanced fabrication techniques. Through transmission electron
microscopy (TEM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM),
they then analyzed the nanoscale structure and morphology
of the composites which confirmed the uniform dispersion of
semiconductor nanorods within the superconducting matrix.
Subsequently, the researchers employed a combination of elec-
trical transport measurements and magnetic field-dependent
studies to probe the superconducting properties of the com-
posites. They observed a significant enhancement in critical
current densities compared to pristine superconducting materi-
als, indicative of improved flux pinning capabilities. To explain
the underlying mechanisms responsible for this enhancement,
the authors used theoretical modeling and simulations based
on Ginzburg-Landau theory and London penetration depth
analysis. They attributed the enhanced critical current densities
to the presence of semiconductor nanorods, which acted as
effective pinning centers for magnetic flux vortices, impeding
 [4] Wada, Yasuo; Uda, Tsuyoshi; Lutwyche, Mark; Kondo, Seiichi;
Heike, Seiji (1993). A proposal of nanoscale devices based on
atom/molecule switching. Journal of Applied Physics, 74(12), 7321–.
doi:10.1063/1.354999.
[5] Randall, J N (1993). A lateral-resonant-tunneling universal quantum-dot
cell. Nanotechnology, 4(1), 41–48. doi:10.1088/0957-4484/4/1/003.
[6] C. Joachim; J.K. Gimzewski (1997). An electromechanical amplifier
using a single molecule. , 265(3-5), 353–357. doi:10.1016/s0009-
2614(97)00014-6.
[7] C. Monroe, D. M. Meekhof, B. E. King, W. M. Itano, and D. J.
Wineland, “Demonstration of a Fundamental Quantum Logic Gate,”
Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 75, no. 25, pp. 4714–4717, Dec. 1995, doi:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.75.4714.
[8] C. L. Kane and E. J. Mele, “Quantum Spin Hall Effect in Graphene,”
Phys. Rev. Lett., vol. 95, no. 22, p. 226801, Nov. 2005, doi:
10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.226801.
[9] S. J. Tans, A. R. M. Verschueren, and C. Dekker, “Room-temperature
transistor based on a single carbon nanotube,” Nature, vol. 393, no. 6680,
pp. 49–52, May 1998, doi: 10.1038/29954.
[10] P. Yang and C. M. Lieber, “Nanorod-Superconductor Composites: A
Fig. 11. Schematic diagram illustrating magnetic flux lines in an HTSC Pathway to Materials with High Critical Current Densities,” Science,
before and after the creation of columnar defects. The linear columnar defects vol. 273, no. 5283, pp. 1836–1840, Sep. 1996, doi: 10.1126/sci-
strongly trap or pin the flux lines in the superconductor. ence.273.5283.1836.

their motion and enhancing superconducting properties. Figure

11 shows mangetic flux lines in high-temperature copper oxide
superconductors (HTSC).
The paper introduced a novel approach to enhancing the
critical current densities of superconducting materials by in-
corporating semiconductor nanorods into them. The paper’s
findings have the potential to have a significant impact on
various fields, including energy, healthcare, and telecommu-
nications, where high-performance superconducting materials
are in demand.

III. C ONCLUSION

The journey of scientific discovery is often characterized by

moments of reflection and recognition, where we acknowledge
the foundational contributions that pave the way for future
breakthroughs. Pioneering works in the field of nanoelectron-
ics may not always receive immediate recognition for their
groundbreaking nature. It often takes years, if not decades,
for the true impact of such works to be fully appreciated. In
this paper, a through examination of ten heavily cited papers
in nanoelectronics has been performed. These works have not
only laid the groundwork for advancements in nanoelectronics
but have also inspired countless researchers to delve deeper
into the realms of nanotechnology. As we move forward, it
is imperative that we continue to honor the legacy of these
pioneering works by building upon their foundations and
pushing the boundaries of what is possible in nanoelectronics
research.

R EFERENCES

[1] Chang, L. L.; Esaki, L.; Tsu, R. (1974). Resonant tunneling in semicon-
ductor double barriers. , 24(12), 593–0. doi:10.1063/1.1655067.
[2] Kastner, M. (1992). The single-electron transistor. , 64(3), 849–858.
doi:10.1103/revmodphys.64.849.
[3] A. Aviram and M. A. Ratner, “Molecular rectifiers,” Chem. Phys. Lett.,
vol. 29, pp. 277–283, 1974.