Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

www.elsevier.com/locate/jcis

Frequency-dependent laminar electroosmotic flow in a closed-end

rectangular microchannel
Marcos,a C. Yang,a,∗ K.T. Ooi,a T.N. Wong,a and J.H. Masliyah b
a School of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Republic of Singapore 639798
b Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada T6G 2G6

Received 25 November 2003; accepted 4 March 2004

Available online 9 April 2004

Abstract
This article presents an analysis of the frequency- and time-dependent electroosmotic flow in a closed-end rectangular microchannel. An
exact solution to the modified Navier–Stokes equation governing the ac electroosmotic flow field is obtained by using the Green’s function
formulation in combination with a complex variable approach. An analytical expression for the induced backpressure gradient is derived.
With the Debye–Hückel approximation, the electrical double-layer potential distribution in the channel is obtained by analytically solving
the linearized two-dimensional Poisson–Boltzmann equation. Since the counterparts of the flow rate and the electrical current are shown to
be linearly proportional to the applied electric field and the pressure gradient, Onsager’s principle of reciprocity is demonstrated for transient
and ac electroosmotic flows. The time evolution of the electroosmotic flow and the effect of a frequency-dependent ac electric field on the
oscillating electroosmotic flow in a closed-end rectangular microchannel are examined. Specifically, the induced pressure gradient is analyzed
under effects of the channel dimension and the frequency of electric field. In addition, based on the Stokes second problem, the solution of
the slip velocity approximation is presented for comparison with the results obtained from the analytical scheme developed in this study.
 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Frequency-dependent electroosmosis; Closed-end rectangular microchannel; Onsager reciprocal relationship; Slip velocity approximation;
Green’s function method

1. Introduction accurately transport and manipulate the liquid samples in

Most solid surfaces would acquire a certain amount of
electric surface charge when in contact with polar liquids
such as electrolytes [1]. Due to electrostatic interactions, the
presence of such surface charge can cause the redistribution
of nearby counterions and co-ions in the liquid phase, lead-
ing to the formation of an electric double layer (EDL) [2].
In the diffuse layer of the EDL, the counterions predomi-
nate over the co-ions to neutralize the surface charge. Thus
the local net charge density is not zero. When an electric
field is applied tangentially along the charged surface, it will
exert a coulumbic force on the ions within the EDL. The
migration of the mobile ions will carry the adjacent liquid
phase by viscous shear stress, resulting in a bulk electroos-
motic flow (EOF) [2]. The pressure-building ability of the
electroosmosis has made it a powerful pumping means to
* Corresponding author. Fax: +65-6791-1859.
E-mail address: mcyang@ntu.edu.sg (C. Yang).
0021-9797/$ – see front matter  2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcis.2004.03.005
microfluidic devices for chemical analyses and biomedical
diagnoses [3,4]. The electroosmotic pumping system works
without need of movable mechanical parts, thus increasing
long-term stability. In addition, electroosmosis allows pump-
ing liquids over a wide range of conductivity, which is essen-
tial for biochemical applications [5].
Generally, use of electroosmosis involves direct current
(dc) electric field to generate a steady-state electroosmotic
flow. With an alternating current (ac) electric field, electroos-
mosis still occurs, but the electroosmotic flow becomes time
and frequency dependent. In recent years, ac electroosmo-
sis has drawn a great attention from researchers. In view of
the problem associated with electroosmosis in the conven-
tional dc microelectrophoretic method (e.g., the difficulty
in precisely locating the stationary level inside the micro-
electrophoretic cell), Minor et al. [6] proposed a new fast
method for measuring the electromobility of colloidal parti-
cles using ac electric field. They showed that it is possible
to apply an ac electric field with a specified frequency so
680 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698
that electroosmosis is suppressed, whereas particles are still
able to follow the field according to their dc mobility. Ramos
et al. [7] experimentally studied the forces acting on parti-
cles of macromolecular sizes in microelectrode arrays. They
performed calculations for various forces affecting the ac
electrokinetic behavior of particles. In a subsequent work,
Ramos et al. [8] presented a simple model describing the
frequency dependence of the ac electroosmotic flow veloc-
ity in planar microelectrodes. Barragán and Bauzá [9] stud-
ied the influence of an ac sinusoidal perturbation on the
electroosmotic flow through a cation-exchange membrane.
Their experimental results showed that the presence of the
ac perturbation affects the electroosmotic flow through the
frequency of the ac signal and the stirring condition. Con-
sidering that slow mixing processes occur in microfluidic de-
vices due to low Reynolds number-dominated laminar flows,
Oddy et al. [10] demonstrated an electrokinetic chaotic mi-
cromixer using fluctuating electric field. In their experiment,
instability of electroosmotic flow driven by sinusoidally al-
ternating electric fields was observed.
In the literature, several theoretical studies have been re-
ported on the ac electroosmotic flow in microcapillaries of
various geometrical domains. Using slip velocity approach,
Minor et al. [6] carried out an analysis of the dynamic as-
pects of electroosmosis and electrophoresis in a parallel slit.
Also in a parallel slit, Dutta and Beskok [11] presented an
analytical model for the time-periodic EOF, and compared
their analytical solution of electroosmotic flow field with the
Stokes second problem. The slip velocity model was first
proposed by Overbeek [12], who showed that for microchan-
nels with relatively thin EDL thickness, the flow field out-
side the EDL is an irrotational flow with a slip velocity
boundary condition determined by the well-known Smolu-
chowski equation. Recently, the problem associated with ac
electroosmotic flow in cylindrical microcapillaries was ad-
dressed by Reppert and Morgan [13], Kang et al. [14], and
Bhattacharrya et al. [15]. Reppert and Morgan [13] artifi-
cially divided the flow into two regimes: near-wall regime
and bulk-fluid regime. In the near-wall regime, their analy-
sis neglected the fluid inertial effect; while in the bulk-
fluid regime, the slip velocity approach was used. Using
the Green’s function method, Kang et al. [14] developed a
theoretical model for ac electroosmosis. They used an an-
alytical scheme to solve the complete Poisson–Boltzmann
equation without assuming the Debye–Hückel approxima-
tion and thin EDL. More recently, the ac laminar EOF in in-
Fig. 1. Geometry of the rectangular channel.
finitely extended rectangular microchannels has been analyt-
ically studied by Yang et al. [16], Erickson and Li [17], and
Marcos et al. [18]. Specifically, Marcos et al. [18] presented
a comparison of the results of ac electroosmosis between the
no-slip condition and the slip velocity approximation using
the Smoluchowski equation.
This paper presents an analysis of the frequency-depen-
dent ac electroosmotic flow in a closed-end rectangular mi-
crochannel, which not only is relevant to the development
of new microelectrophoretic methods [6], but also may pro-
vide insight into the development of novel electrokinetic
micropumps and microactuators [19]. Since the microchan-
nel is closed, the ac electroosmosis should have a differ-
ent frequency response due to the superposition of the vis-
cous waves generated by the electroosmotic flow and the
induced counterflow. Further, the underlying mathematical
modeling and solution pose more challenge and complex-
ity. The structure of the paper is organized as follows: Sec-
tion 2 presents the governing equations for ac electroosmo-
sis. The modified Navier–Stokes equation is solved analyti-
cally using the Green’s function formulation. The exact solu-
tions for the frequency responses of electroosmotic flow and
the induced pressure gradient are obtained. Section 3 pro-
vides the EDL potential distribution by solving the Poisson–
Boltzmann equation with the Debye–Hückel approximation.
In Sections 4 and 5, we derive an analytical expression for
the double integration and demonstrate the validity of On-
sager’s principle of reciprocity. Section 6 presents the results
and discussion. In Appendix A, the solution under a slip ve-
locity approximation based on the Stokes second problem is
also provided for comparison.
2. Dynamics of electroosmotic flow
Fig. 1 shows a rectangular microchannel of height 2a
and width 2b and a cartesian coordinate system for analysis
of the electroosmotic flow. The liquid in the microchannel
is assumed to be an incompressible, newtonian, symmetric
electrolyte of constant density, ρ, and viscosity, µ. The chan-
nel wall is uniformly charged with a zeta potential, ζ . Based
on the assumption of a laminar, fully developed flow, the mo-
tion of the electrolyte under the application of an external
time- and frequency-dependent electric field, E(t), through
the infinitely extended rectangular microchannel can be de-
scribed by a modified Navier–Stokes equation, which takes
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 681

the form [2] An analytical solution for the dynamic electroosmotic flow
in a closed-end rectangular microchannel under a time-
∂u(x, y, t) dP (t)
ρ =− + E(t)ρe (x, y) dependent electric field will be sought by using the Green’s
∂t dz function approach. According to the Green’s function meth-

2 
∂ u(x, y, t) ∂ 2 u(x, y, t) od [20], the solution of Eq. (5) subjected to the initial and
+µ + , (1)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 boundary conditions given in Eqs. (6a)–(6c) can be explic-
itly expressed as
where u(x, y, t) is the transient velocity field, P (t) is the in-
duced pressure to generate a backflow in a closed-end chan-   t¯  h a/D
b/D  h
nel, and ρe (x, y) is the local net charge density due to the ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = REAL − dτ G(X, Y, t¯|X , Y  , τ )
presence of the EDL. In combination with the Boltzmann
τ =0 X  =0 Y  =0
distribution, ρe (x, y) is expressed as [2] 


d P0 ωDh2 τ
ρe (x, y) = zv e0 (n+ − n− ) × exp i +φ

 dZ ν
zv e0

= −2zv e0 n0 sinh ψ(x, y) , (2) iωDh2 τ
kb T  
+ GE0 exp
ν
where zv is the electrolyte valence, e0 is the elementary  
charge, n0 is the ionic number concentration in the bulk
solution, kb is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute tem- × sinh Ψ (X , Y  ) dX dY  . (7)
perature, and ψ(x, y) is the local EDL potential.
The external sinusoidal electric field and the induced si- Here, the Green’s function G(X, Y, t¯|X , Y  , τ ) can be ob-
nusoidal backpressure can be expressed as tained by using the separation of variables method. The ex-
pression for G(X, Y, t¯|X , Y  , τ ) is given by [21,22]
E(t) = E0 eiωt , (3a)
P (t) = P0 e i(ωt +φ)
, (3b) G(X, Y, t¯|X , Y  , τ )
∞ ∞

2 2

D2 D π (2m − 1)2
where E0 is the amplitude of the applied electric field =4 h exp − h
strength, ω is the alternating frequency, i is the unit of the ab 4 b2
m=1 n=1
imaginary number, P0 is the magnitude of the pressure, and  
(2n − 1)2
φ is the phase lag due to fluid inertia. + (t¯ − τ )
a2
Introducing the dimensionless parameters

 

 
2m − 1 Dh 2m − 1 Dh 
u µ x y × cos πX cos πX
ū = , t¯ = t, X= , Y= , (4a) 2 b 2 b
U ρDh2 Dh Dh

 

 
2n − 1 Dh 2n − 1 Dh 
z P0 × cos πY cos πY .
Z= , P0 = , 0 = E0 Dh Re0 ,
E 2 a 2 a
Dh Re0 ρU 2 ζ
zv e0 ψ (8)
Ψ= ,  = 2zv e0 n0 ζ ,
G (4b)
kb T ρU 2 Substituting Eq. (8) into Eq. (7) and carrying out the integra-
tion, we can get the nondimensional fluid velocity distribu-
where U is the reference velocity, Dh = 4ab/(a + b) is the tion in the microchannel
hydraulic diameter of the rectangular channel, ν = µ/ρ is  ∞ ∞
the liquid kinematic viscosity, and Re0 = Dh U/ν is the ref- 64 d P0
erence Reynolds number. ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = REAL − (−1)m+n
π 2 Dh2 dZ m=1 n=1
Substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (1), we can obtain
 ωD 2 t¯   D2 


 exp i ν h + φ − exp − 4h Rmn t¯ + iφ
∂ ū ∂ 2 ū ∂ 2 ū d P0 ωDh2 t¯ × 
= + − exp i + φ (2m − 1)(2n − 1) Rmn + i 4ω
∂ t¯ ∂X2 ∂Y 2 dZ ν

 
ν

 2m − 1 Dh
2
iωDh t¯ × cos
−G E 0 exp sinh Ψ (X, Y ). (5) 2 b
πX
ν

 
2n − 1 Dh
The initial and boundary conditions applicable to Eq. (5) × cos πY
are 2 a
∞ ∞
 16  
ū(X, Y, t¯ )t¯=0 = 0, (6a) − G E0 Cmn
  ab
∂ ū  ∂ ū  m=1 n=1
= 0, = 0, (6b)  iωD 2   D2 
∂X  X=0 ∂Y  Y =0 exp ν h t¯ − exp − 4h Rmn t¯
× 
ū|X=b/Dh = 0, ū|Y =a/Dh = 0. (6c) Rmn + i 4ω
ν
682 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

 
2m − 1 Dh
× cos πX Hence, we can show the expression for the induced pressure
2 b gradient is


 
2n − 1 Dh d P0 E
π 2 Dh2 G 0
× cos πY , (9) =−
2 a dZ 4ab
  D2 
∞ ∞ m+n
1−exp − 4h Rmn t¯
where m=1 n=1 (−1) Cmn (2m−1)(2n−1)Rmn
×   D2  . (13)
 h a/D
b/D  h

  ∞ ∞ 1−exp − 4h Rmn t¯
2m − 1 Dh 
Cmn = cos πX m=1 n=1 (2m−1)2 (2n−1)2 Rmn
2 b  D2 
 
X =0 Y =0


  (i) For a small time elapsed, i.e., t¯  1, exp − 4h Rmn t¯
2n − 1 Dh D2 
× cos πY  ≈ 1 − 4h Rmn t¯ , the velocity distribution can therefore be
2 a expressed as
× sinh Ψ (X , Y ) dX dY  ,
 
(10a) ∞ ∞

 16 d P0 (−1)m+n
(2m − 1)2 (2n − 1)2 ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = − ¯
t
Rmn = π 2 + . (10b)
2
π dZ (2m − 1)(2n − 1)
m=1 n=1
b2 a2

 
2m − 1 Dh
Eq. (9) shows that the flow in a closed-end rectangular mi- × cos πX
2 b
crochannel actuated by an applied oscillating electric field

 
2n − 1 Dh
consists of simple linear superposition of two parts: (i) the × cos πY
2 a
flow due to the applied electric field, and (ii) the flow due to
2 ∞
∞
the induced backpressure gradient. In this study, two cases 4Dh
− E
G 0 t¯ Cmn
are being discussed: ab
m=1 n=1


 
2m − 1 Dh
Case 1: transient electroosmotic flow field under a dc × cos πX
2 b
electric field (ω = 0)

 
2n − 1 Dh
× cos πY , (14a)
In this case, the phase lag is also zero (φ = 0). Hence the 2 a
fluid velocity distribution is expressed as indicating that the velocity is proportional to time at an initial
moment. Also the corresponding pressure is
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ (−1)m+n Cmn
64 d P0 E 0
ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = − (−1)m+n d P0 π 2 Dh2 G m=1 n=1 (2m−1)(2n−1)
π 2 Dh2 dZ m=1 n=1 =− ∞ ∞ 1
. (14b)
dZ 4ab m=1 n=1 2 2
(2m−1) (2n−1)
 D2 
1 − exp − 4h Rmn t¯  D2 
× (ii) For a large time, i.e., t¯ → ∞, exp − 4h Rmn t¯ ≈ 0,
(2m − 1)(2n − 1)Rmn the velocity distribution becomes


 
2m − 1 Dh ∞ ∞
× cos πX 64 d P0 (−1)m+n
2 b ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = −


  π 2 Dh2 dZ m=1 n=1 (2m − 1)(2n − 1)Rmn
2n − 1 Dh

 
× cos πY 2m − 1 Dh
2 a × cos πX
 D2  2 b
∞ ∞

 
16   1 − exp − 4h Rmn t¯ 2n − 1 Dh
− GE 0 Cmn × cos πY
ab Rmn 2 a
m=1 n=1


  ∞ ∞
2m − 1 Dh 16   Cmn
× cos πX − G E0
2 b ab Rmn
m=1 n=1


 

 
2n − 1 Dh 2m − 1 Dh
× cos πY . (11) × cos πX
2 a 2 b


 
For a closed-end rectangular microchannel, the net flow rate 2n − 1 Dh
× cos πY , (15a)
equals zero. Mathematically, it fulfills the condition 2 a
and the corresponding induced pressure gradient becomes
 h
b/D  h
a/D
∞ ∞ (−1)m+nCmn
d P0 E
π 2 Dh2 G 0
ū(X, Y, t¯ ) dX dY = 0. (12) =−
m=1
∞ ∞
n=1 (2m−1)(2n−1)Rmn
. (15b)
dZ 4ab 1
−b/Dh −a/Dh m=1 n=1 2 2
(2m−1) (2n−1) Rmn
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 683

Eqs. (15a) and (15b), respectively, give the flow field and the
induced pressure gradient in a closed-end rectangular mi-
crochannel under the steady-state situation [22]. Also it is in-
teresting to note that the mathematical formulation given in
Eq. (15a) is identical to the steady-state velocity distribution
for pressure-driven liquid flow in a rectangular microchannel
under electroviscous effect [23,24]. For electrokinetic flows,
there is a link between streaming potential flow due to pres-
sure gradient and electroosmotic flow due to electric field,
and its discussion is presented later.
to convert the electrical energy, zv e0 n0 ζ into the fluid kinetic
energy, ρU 2 /2. Furthermore, it is interesting to discuss an-
other limiting situation that as ω → ∞, Eq. (18) is reduced
to Eq. (14b), suggesting the induced pressure gradient un-
der extremely high applied frequencies is identical to that at
the initial moment under a dc electric field because in both
cases, the flow occurs only within the EDL region.
3. Electrical potential distribution

Case 2: steadily oscillating electroosmotic flow field under Kang et al. [14] have shown that for microchannels with
an ac electric field fully developed electroosmotic flows under a time- and
frequency-dependent electric field, the EDL potential dis-
In this situation, the exponential term on the right-hand tribution can still be described by the well-known Poisson–
side of Eq. (9) decays, and hence Eq. (9) is reduced to Boltzmann equation provided that the frequency of the elec-
 tric field is not very high, say less than 1 MHz. The Poisson–
64 d P(t¯ ) Boltzmann equation in a rectangular domain is expressed as
ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = REAL −
π 2 Dh2 dZ

∂ 2ψ ∂ 2ψ 2zv e0 n0 zv e0 ψ
∞
∞ + = sinh . (19)
(−1)m+n ∂x 2 ∂y 2 εr ε0 kb T
×  
m=1 n=1
(2m − 1)(2n − 1) Rmn + i 4ων By using the previously defined dimensionless parameters,


  we can nondimensionalize Eq. (19) as
2m − 1 Dh
× cos πX
2 b ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ


  + = K 2 sinh Ψ, (20)
2n − 1 Dh ∂X2 ∂Y 2
× cos πY
2 a where κ = (2zv2 e02 n0 /εr ε0 kb T )1/2 is the Debye–Hückel pa-
∞ ∞
16   Cmn rameter (1/κ is normally referred to as the EDL thickness),
− G E(t¯ )   and K = κDh . Assuming that the zeta potential is small and
ab Rmn + i 4ω



m=1 n=1
 
ν using the Debye–Hückel linear approximation, sinh Ψ ≈ Ψ ,
2m − 1 Dh we can linearize Eq. (20) to
× cos πX
2 b


  ∂ 2Ψ ∂ 2Ψ
2n − 1 Dh + = K 2 Ψ. (21)
× cos πY , (16) ∂X2 ∂Y 2
2 a Eq. (21) is subjected to the following boundary conditions:
 
where ∂Ψ  ∂Ψ 


 = 0, = 0, (22a)
d P(t¯ ) d P0 ωDh2 t¯ ∂X X=0 ∂Y Y =0
= exp i +φ , (17a)
dZ dZ ν Ψ |X=b/Dh = ζ̄ , Ψ |Y =a/Dh = ζ̄ , (22b)


iωDh2 where ζ̄ is the nondimensional zeta potential, defined as ζ̄ =
 t¯ ) = E
E( 0 exp t¯ . (17b)
ν zv e0 ζ /kb T .
Using the separation of variables method, we can solve
The induced pressure gradient expression for a closed-end
Eq. (21), and the solution of Eq. (21) is expressed as [21–23]
system can be obtained as
d P(t¯ ) E(
π 2 Dh2 G  t¯ ) Ψ (X, Y )
=− ∞
 (2n−1)2 π 2 Dh2 1/2 
dZ 4ab (−1)n+1 cosh 1 + KY
∞ ∞ 4K 2 b2
= 4ζ̄ 
(−1)m+n Cmn
n=1 (2m−1)(2n−1)Rmn +i 4ω  (2n−1)2 π 2 Dh2 1/2 Ka 
m=1 n=1 (2n − 1)π cosh 1 +
× ∞ ∞ 1
ν
. (18)
 4K 2 b2 Dh
m=1 n=1 (2m−1)2 (2n−1)2 Rmn +i 4ω 
 (2n − 1)Dh
ν × cos πX
2b
Taking advantage of the exact solutions obtained in this 
∞ (2m−1)2 π 2 Dh2 1/2 
study, we examine Eqs. (13) and (18), and find that the in- (−1)m+1 cosh 1 + KX
4K 2 a 2
+ 4ζ̄ 
duced pressure gradient for both dc and ac electric fields is (2m−1)2 π 2 Dh2 1/2 Kb 
proportional to the strength of applied electric field and the m=1 (2m − 1)π cosh 1 +
4K 2 a 2 Dh
 According to the definition for

dimensionless parameter G. (2m − 1)Dh
 in Eq. (4b), G
G  physically denotes a measure of the ability × cos πY . (23)
2a
684 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

Certainly, the Debye–Hückel linear approximation used for The flow rate Q(t) in the microchannel can be obtained
solving the Poisson–Boltzmann equation is valid only when by
the zeta potential is small (usually less than 25 mV). How-
a b
ever, if one wants to study the flow behavior of a highly
charged system where only the outer region of the diffuse Q(t) = u(x, y, t) dx dy. (26a)
double layer is important, the linear approximation can give −a −b
a good prediction even when the zeta potential is as high as Because of the symmetry, the flow rate can be further ex-
100 mV [1], especially so when κDh  1. pressed in the form
 h b/D
a/D  h
4. Solving the double integration (Cmn ) Q(t) = 4U Dh2 ū(X, Y, t¯ ) dX dY. (26b)
0 0
Having obtained the electrical potential distribution,
Ψ (X, Y ), and using the Debye–Hückel linear approxima- Case 1: transient electroosmotic flow under dc electric
tion, sinh Ψ ≈ Ψ , we can carry out the double integration, field (ω = 0)
Cmn , in Eq. (10) analytically, and obtain
In the case of dc applied electric field, substituting
 h a/D
b/D  h

 
2m − 1 Dh  Eq. (11) into Eq. (26b), and making use of Eq. (4b) to con-
Cmn = cos πX vert the dimensionless pressure and electric field into the
2 b
 
X =0 Y =0


  dimensional ones, we can obtain the flow rate as
2n − 1 Dh  dP0
× cos πY Q(t) = L11 + L12 E0 , (27)
2 a dz
× Ψ (X , Y  ) dX dY  . (24) where the Onsager transport coefficients are
Substituting Eq. (23) into Eq. (24), we can show that ∞ ∞  D2 
1024ab 1 − exp − 4h Rmn t¯
2ζ̄ (−1)m+n b L11 = − 4 , (28a)
Cmn = π µ (2m − 1)2 (2n − 1)2 Rmn

 2
(2m−1)2 π 2 Dh  m=1 n=1
1+ K2  2n−1  Dh ∞ ∞
(2m − 1)πDh 4K 2 b2
 2n−1  Dh + 2 a π 512zv e0 n0 Dh2
2 a π L12 = − (−1)m+n Cmn
π 2µ
2ζ̄ (−1)m+n a m=1 n=1
+
 2 .  D2 
(2n−1)2 π 2 Dh
1+ K2  2m−1  Dh 1 − exp − 4h Rmn t¯
(2n − 1)πDh 4K 2 a 2
 2m−1  Dh + π × . (28b)
2 b π
2 b (2m − 1)(2n − 1)Rmn
(25) In general, the axial component of the electric current
density is expressed as [2]


5. Onsager’s principle of reciprocity ∂n+ ∂n−
iz (t) = uzv e0 (n+ − n− ) − zv e0 D+ + D−
∂z ∂z
Eq. (9) shows that the flow in a closed-end rectangu- + λ0 Ez , (29)
lar microchannel results from the applied electric field and
the induced backpressure gradient. Further examination of where λ0 is the electric conductivity of the fluid, and D±
Eq. (9) indicates the phenomenological relationships be- are the mass diffusivity of cations and anions, respectively.
tween the flow field and the driving electric field and the Since no ionic concentration gradient is built up along the
pressure gradient are linear, suggesting a possible constitu- axial direction during the flow, the second term on the right-
tion of the Onsager principle of reciprocity familiar in the hand of Eq. (29) drops off. The electric current across a
theory of nonequilibrium thermodynamics. In the literature, straight rectangular channel can be expressed as
the Onsager reciprocal relations for electrokinetic flows un- a b
der steady-state situation were demonstrated by Burgreen
I (t) = 4 ρe u(x, y, t) dx dy + 4abλ0E0 . (30)
and Nakache [25] for a parallel slit and by Rice and White-
head [26] and Levine et al. [27] for a cylindrical capillary. 0 0
Recently, Bhattacharrya et al. [15] and Yang et al. [16] also With the Debye–Hückel linear approximation, substituting
demonstrated the validity of Onsager reciprocal relations in Eq. (2) into Eq. (30) gives
oscillating laminar electrokinetic flow in circular and rectan-
 h b/D
a/D  h
gular microchannels, respectively. In the following, we show
the validity of the Onsager reciprocal relations for both tran- I (t) = −8zv e0 n0 U Dh2 Ψ (X, Y )ū(X, Y, t¯ ) dX dY
sient electroosmotic flow and ac oscillating electroosmotic 0 0
flow in a closed-end rectangular microchannel. + 4λ0 E0 ab. (31)
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 685

Recall that the velocity field, ū(X, Y, t¯ ), and the electri- From Eqs. (35) and (37), it can be noted that J12 = −J21 ,
cal potential distribution, Ψ (X, Y ), are given by Eqs. (11) which fulfills Onsager’s principle of reciprocity for oscil-
and (23), respectively. We then can show that the electric lating electroosmotic flow in a closed-end rectangular mi-
current can be written in the Onsager form by substituting crochannel.
Eqs. (11) and (23) into Eq. (31),
dP0
I (t) = L21 + L22 E0 , (32) 6. Results and discussion
dz
where the Onsager transport coefficients are
In all the calculations, NaCl solution with valence zv of
∞ ∞
512zv e0 n0 Dh2 unity is used as the electrolyte solution. The dielectric con-
L21 = (−1)m+n Cmn stant, εr , density, ρ, and viscosity, µ, of the electrolyte are
π 2µ
m=1 n=1 taken to be the same as those of water, and these are 80,
 D2  1000 kg/m3, and 9 × 10−4 N s/m2 , respectively. The tem-
1 − exp − 4h Rmn t¯
× , (33a) perature T of the electrolyte is taken as 293 K. The reference
(2m − 1)(2n − 1)Rmn
 D2  velocity U is chosen as 1 mm/s. The strength of the electric
∞ ∞
256zv2 e02 n20 Dh4 2 1 − exp − 4h Rmn t¯ field E0 is fixed at 10,000 V/m. The reference geometric
L22 = Cmn size of the channel is 2a × 2b, which is 40 × 100 µm.
abµ Rmn
m=1 n=1
+ 4λ0 ab. (33b) 6.1. Transient velocity profile under dc electric field
From Eqs. (28) and (33), it can be noted that L12 = −L21 ,
suggesting the validity of the Onsager principle of reci- Fig. 2 shows the time evolution of the EOF in a quarter of
procity for transient electroosmotic flow in a closed-end rec- the closed-end rectangular microchannel cross section under
tangular microchannel. a constant dc electric field. When time t¯ = 0, the fluid veloc-
ity anywhere in the channel is at rest, and hence the velocity
Case 2: oscillating electroosmotic flow under steadily equals zero.
alternating ac electric field According to the results shown in Fig. 2, it can be seen
that on application of the electric field, the flow begins to de-
Similarly for the sinusoidal alternating applied electric velop in the region close to the channel wall and the flow ve-
field, we can obtain the flow rate by substituting Eq. (16) locity increases rapidly from zero at the wall to its peak value
into Eq. (26b), within the EDL region. This scenario reveals the unique fea-
dP (t) ture of the electroosmotic flow; it is driven by the electrical
Q(t) = J11 + J12 E(t), (34) body force resulting from the interaction of the electric field
dz
and the net charge density. Such driving force exists only
where the Onsager transport coefficients are within the EDL region where the nonzero electrical charge
∞ ∞
1024ab 1 density is present. The flow outside the EDL region is due
J11 = −  , to viscous shear diffusion. However, different from the elec-
4
π µ (2m − 1)2 (2n − 1)2 Rmn + i 4ω
ν
m=1 n=1 troosmotic flow in an open-end microchannel, there exists a
(35a) reverse flow in the bulk liquid region in a closed-end mi-
512zv e0 n0 Dh2 crochannel. Such a reverse flow is generated by induced
J12 = −
π 2µ backpressure to counterbalance the electroosmotic flow so
∞ ∞ that the net flow rate is zero. Furthermore, Fig. 2 shows that it
(−1)m+n Cmn
×  , (35b) takes a unit dimensionless time, t¯ = 1, or dimensional time,
m=1 n=1
(2m − 1)(2n − 1) Rmn + i 4ω
ν tc = Dh2 /ν, for the flow to attain its steady state. Physically,
and the electrical current is given by the time tc denotes the time scale for viscous diffusion to
travel a distance of channel hydraulic diameter, Dh . Finally,
dP (t)
I (t) = J21 + J22 E(t), (36) at the steady state, the velocity profile at the bulk liquid re-
dz gion exhibits a parabolic profile due to the presence of the
where the Onsager transport coefficients are induced backpressure gradient. In addition, an important fea-
512zv e0 n0 Dh2 ture that can also be observed from Fig. 2 is the “corner
J21 = effect,” which is demonstrated during the early stage of the
π 2µ
∞ ∞
evolution of the EOF. The presence of such “corner effect”
(−1)m+n Cmn is due to the overlap of the two EDLs formed at the two ad-
×  , (37a)
m=1 n=1
(2m − 1)(2n − 1) Rmn + i 4ω
ν
jacent sides of the rectangular channel wall.
∞ ∞ As mentioned earlier, study of electroosmotic flow in
256zv2 e02 n20 Dh4 2
Cmn a closed-end microchannel is related to the development
J22 =   + 4λ0 ab. (37b)
abµ
m=1 n=1
Rmn + i 4ω
ν
of novel electrokinetic micropumps and microactuators. As
686 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

Fig. 2. Dimensionless transient velocity, u(x, y)/U under dc electric field versus dimensionless width, x/Dh and dimensionless height, y/Dh . The reference
velocity is taken as 1 mm/s, the channel size is 40 × 100 µm, concentration n0 = 10−5 M, and zeta potential ζ = 50 mV. Snapshots are presented at six
dimensionless times t¯ = 10−5 , 10−4 , 10−3 , 10−2 , 0.1, 1.
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698
(a)
(b)
Fig. 3. (a) Induced pressure gradient under dc electric field versus dimen-
sionless time t¯ = 10−5 , 10−4 , 10−3 , 10−2 , 0.1, 1. (b) Steady-state induced
pressure gradient under dc electric field versus dimensionless channel’s hy-
draulic diameter with respect to a reference diameter based on a geometric
size of 40 × 100 µm.
such, the capacity of pressure building up is also analyzed.
The induced pressure gradient over time is displayed in
Fig. 3a. It can be seen that the induced backpressure gra-
dient drops with time and reaches its minimum at the steady
state. The highest pressure gradient is generated at the ini-
tial state as soon as electric field is applied to the system (at
t = 0+ ). An analogy of static friction and dynamic friction
concept in a solid body can be drawn to illustrate this effect,
where it requires a stronger force to initiate the movement of
the body as compared with the force required to overcome
the friction when the body is on the move. The decrease in
the pressure gradient subsequently is due to the effect of the
fluid’s inertia. When the fluid begins to flow, it requires very
high pressure to overcome the inertia such that it can pro-
vide reverse flow. Once the fluid starts to flow, less pressure
is needed to maintain the reverse flow.
Fig. 3b presents the effect of rectangular channel size
(with fixed aspect ratio) on the induced pressure gradient un-
der steady state. The graph is plotted using log–log axis. The
horizontal axis is a ratio of the actual channel hydraulic di-
ameters to the reference hydraulic diameter of the rectangu-
lar channel of 2a × 2b = 40 × 100 µm. It is shown in Fig. 3b
that the pressure gradient monotonically decreases as the
687
channel size increases. This observation may be understood
as follows: According to the Smoluchowski equation, the
maximum magnitude of fluid velocity is independent of the
channel size; this is an important feature of electroosmotic
flow. However, hydrodynamic drag increases as channel size
decreases. Hence, to counterbalance the electroosmotic flow,
higher backpressure is required for smaller-sized microchan-
nels.
6.2. Oscillating velocity profile under a steadily alternating
ac electric field
For a rectangular channel cross section of 2a × 2b = 40 ×
100 µm, the characteristic time of the electroosmotic flow
can be estimated from Eq. (11), t ∗ = (4ρ/µπ 2 )a 2b2 /(a 2 +
b2 ) = 155.3 µs. The corresponding eigenfrequency of the
system is f ∗ = 1/t ∗ = 6.44 kHz. In this work, three differ-
ent frequencies of the applied electric field, 0.1f ∗ , f ∗ , and
10f ∗ (f = ω/2π ) are considered to study the characteris-
tics of the oscillating electroosmotic flow in a closed-end
channel. The results are summarized in Figs. 4A–4C which
present the steadily oscillating velocity distributions in a
symmetric quarter of the rectangular channel for five differ-
ent characteristic moments: ωt = 0, π/4, π/2, 3π/4, and π .
Further, the results of the electroosmotic flow field under the
slip velocity approximation are presented in Figs. 5A–5C
for comparison with the analytical method developed in this
study. The detailed mathematical derivation of the slip veloc-
ity approximation is presented in Appendix A. In addition, to
provide quantitative comparison of the characteristics of the
electroosmotic flow fields under the ac electric field of three
different frequencies, two-dimensional plots corresponding
to the cases presented in Figs. 4A–4C and 5A–5C are shown
in Figs. 6A–6C, in which the results obtained from both the
analytical scheme (represented by the solid lines) and the
slip velocity approximation (denoted by the dotted lines) are
compared.
As discussed earlier, when an electric field is applied, the
electroosmotic flow begins within the EDL region near the
charged channel wall. Because of the generation of the in-
duced backpressure gradient in the close-end channel, fluid
at the central region flows in the opposite direction of the
flow in the EDL region. When the frequency of the elec-
tric field is low (e.g., 0.1f ∗ as shown in Fig. 4A), the flow
extends through the entire channel and the changes in the
flow frequency follow closely those of the alternating elec-
tric field. As the applied frequency increases, the perturbed
flow region becomes smaller, and the flow response in the
central region of the channel lags behind that of the fast al-
ternating electric field (e.g., f ∗ as shown in Fig. 4B). While
at a high applied frequency (e.g., 10f ∗ as shown in Fig. 4C),
the flow in the central channel remains virtually motionless
regardless of the fast oscillating flow occurring within the
EDL region which is close to the channel wall. This phe-
nomenon is logically anticipated because as the frequency
goes very high, the electric field changes its direction so fast
688 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

(A)

Fig. 4. Steadily oscillating velocity distributions along the dimensionless channel width and height for three different aspect frequencies of the ac electric
field, 0.1f ∗ , f ∗ , and 10f ∗ , with channel size 40 × 100 µm, concentration n0 = 10−5 M, zeta potential ζ = 50 mV, and eigenfrequency f ∗ = 6.44 kHz.
Snapshots are presented at five different characteristic moments: ωt = 0, π/4, π/2, 3π/4, π . Reference velocity is taken as 1 mm/s. Results are obtained from
the analytical scheme developed in this study. (A) Low frequency of the external field, f = 0.1f ∗ . (B) Eigenfrequency of the external field, f = f ∗ . (C) High
frequency of the external field, f = 10f ∗ .
Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 689

(B)

Fig. 4. Continued.
690 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

(C)

Fig. 4. Continued.
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 691

(A)

Fig. 5. Steadily oscillating velocity distributions along the dimensionless channel width and height for three different aspect frequencies of the external field,
0.1f ∗ , f ∗ , and 10f ∗ , with channel size 40 × 100 µm, concentration n0 = 10−5 M, zeta potential ζ = 50 mV, and eigenfrequency f ∗ = 6.44 kHz. Snapshots
are presented at five different characteristic moments: ωt = 0, π/4, π/2, 3π/4, π . Reference velocity is taken as 1 mm/s. Results are obtained from the slip
velocity approximation based on the Stokes second problem. (A) Low frequency of the external field, f = 0.1f ∗ . (B) Eigenfrequency of the external field,
f = f ∗ . (C) High frequency of the external field, f = 10f ∗ .
692 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

(B)

Fig. 5. Continued.
Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 693

(C)

Fig. 5. Continued.
694 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

(A) (B)

(C)

Fig. 6. Two-dimensional plots of steadily oscillating velocity distributions along the dimensionless channel height (at x/Dh = 0) for three different aspect
frequencies of the external field, 0.1f ∗ , f ∗ , and 10f ∗ , with channel size 40 × 100 µm, concentration n0 = 10−5 M, zeta potential ζ = 50 mV, and eigenfre-
quency f ∗ = 6.44 kHz. Snapshots are presented at five different characteristic moments: ωt = 0, π/4, π/2, 3π/4, π . Reference velocity is taken as 1 mm/s.
Comparison with the results obtained from the slip velocity approximation represented by dashed lines. (A) Low frequency of the external field, f = 0.1f ∗ .
(B) Eigenfrequency of the external field, f = f ∗ . (C) High frequency of the external field, f = 10f ∗ .

that due to the inertia of the fluid, the fluid cannot response
fast enough to develop the flow across the entire channel.
To provide an insight into the observed scenario, we refer to
the frequency-dependent Stokes penetration depth, δs , rep-
resenting a typical length scale of the oscillatory laminar
viscous flows in response to a harmonic external excitation
(e.g., ac electric field or oscillating boundary). According to
Minor et al. [6], δs is defined as
 
µ µ
δs = = . (38)
ρω 2πρf
This equation clearly shows that the penetration depth
(i.e., perturbed flow region) is inversely proportional to the
square root of the frequency, f , of the alternating electric
field.
The slip velocity approximation is rooted in an analogy to
the Stokes second problem, i.e., the oscillating viscous flow
induced by a sinusoidally oscillating infinite flat plate [28].
It is demonstrated in Figs. 6A–6C that the velocity distri-
butions at the central region of the channel, given by both
the analytical scheme (developed in the present study) and
the slip velocity approximation method, are the same. How-
ever, in the region adjacent to the channel wall (i.e., the
EDL region), the two methods predict different velocity dis-
tributions. The discrepancy is due to the assumption of the
moving boundary condition applied in the slip velocity ap-
proximation, in which, the boundary velocity is assumed to
follow the Smoluchowski equation. In the analytical scheme
however, the boundary velocity is set as zero (i.e., no-slip
condition). The slip velocity approximation neglects the de-
tailed flow characteristics in the EDL region. However, as far
as the flow field in the central region of the channel is con-
cerned, the slip velocity approximation method gives a good
estimation when κDh  1.
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698
Fig. 7. Induced pressure gradient under ac electric field versus characteristic moments from 0 to 4π .
Fig. 8. Amplitude of induced pressure gradient under ac electric field versus
the ratio of applied frequency to characteristic frequency (f/f ∗ ).
The induced steadily oscillating pressure gradient in a
closed-end rectangular microchannel is shown in Fig. 7. It
can be noted that the induced pressure gradient response
is always behind the applied sinusoidal electric field. The
phase lag becomes larger as the frequency increases due to
the effect of fluid inertia. Moreover, in contrast to the de-
pendence of fluid velocity on frequency, high backpressure
is generated as the frequency goes up. This scenario is also
clearly demonstrated in Fig. 8 which presents the induced
backpressure gradient versus the frequency of applied elec-
tric field. It is interesting to observe that the amplitude of
the steadily oscillating pressure gradient remains almost a
constant value when the applied frequency is less than the
characteristic frequency, f ∗ . In this situation, the flow can
extend to the entire cross section of the channel, and the
induced backpressure gradient is insensitive to the applied
frequency. However, as the frequency becomes larger than
f ∗ , the amplitude of the oscillating backpressure gradient
increases significantly. The fast increase of the pressure gra-
dient with frequency is attributed to the compression of the
perturbed flow region in the channel. As discussed earlier,
695
when the frequency of applied electric field is large, the liq-
uid is excited only within a small region near the channel
wall while the liquid at a large portion of the channel cen-
tral region remains almost stationary. The compression of
the perturbed flow region with increasing frequency behaves
as the flow in a channel of reduced size. Hence, a high in-
duced backpressure gradient is needed to counterbalance the
electroosmotic flow, fulfilling the condition of zero flow rate
in closed-end microchannels.
7. Concluding remarks
The theory of ac electroosmotic flow in a closed-end
rectangular microchannel is presented. Onsager’s principle
of reciprocity for transient and ac electroosmotic flows is
demonstrated. The analyses show that the flow in a closed-
end channel is the superposition of the electroosmosis in
the EDL region and the reverse pressure-driven flow out-
side the EDL region (i.e., the bulk fluid region). The induced
pressure gradient monotonically decreases as time elapses
(on the application of a dc electric field) or the channel in-
creases. Moreover, it is shown that the ac electroosmotic
flow is strongly dependent on the frequency of the applied
sinusoidal electric field. It is identified that it is the fre-
quency of electric field that determines the thickness of the
Stokes penetration layer, and thus governs the extent of the
oscillating flow and the velocity distributions. There is al-
ways a phase lag for the oscillating backpressure gradient
built up in a closed-end channel due to fluid inertia. Fur-
ther, it is found that the induced backpressure is insensitive
to the frequency of electric field when the frequency is less
than the characteristic frequency of the fluid system, and
increases significantly with increasing the frequency of elec-
tric field when the frequency is larger than the characteristic
frequency of the fluid system. In addition, it is shown that
there is a similarity between the slip velocity approximation
and the present analytical scheme in the bulk fluid region,
696 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698

while in the EDL region, the discrepancy is observed. This with boundary conditions
leads to the applicability of the second Stokes solution to the  
oscillating electroosmotic flow by use of the instantaneous ∂v  ∂v 
= 0, = 0,
Smoluchowski velocity as appropriate slip boundary condi- ∂X X=0 ∂Y Y =0
tion when κDh  1.

iωDh2
¯ 
v(b/Dh , Y, t ) = U0 exp ¯
t ,
ν


iωDh2
Acknowledgments 0 exp
v(X, a/Dh , t¯ ) = U t¯ .
ν
Marcos acknowledges gratefully the Postgraduate Stu-



dent Scholarship from Nanyang Technological University. ∂ 2 w ∂ 2 w d P0 ωDh2 t¯ ∂w
Fruitful discussions with Mr. Y.J. Kang are greatly appreci- (II) + − exp i + φ = ,
∂X 2 ∂Y 2 dZ ν ∂ t¯
ated.
(A.4)
with boundary conditions
 
Appendix A. Slip velocity approximation ∂w  ∂w 
= 0, = 0,
∂X X=0 ∂Y Y =0
Conceptually, the steadily oscillating velocity profile in-
duced by the application of a sinusoidal alternating electric w(b/Dh , Y, t¯ ) = 0, w(X, a/Dh , t¯ ) = 0.
field is similar to the fluid flow induced by a mechanically Eq. (A.3) can be solved by using the separation of vari-
oscillating motion of the channel wall under the same fre- ables method, v = F1 (X)F2 (Y )H (t¯ ). Assuming H (t¯ ) =
quency. In the literature, the fluid flow induced by moving exp((iωDh2 /ν)t¯ ), we can show that
the boundary of the wall is referred to as the Stokes sec-
ond problem [28]. The idea of introducing the slip velocity v(X, Y, t¯ )
approximation is to neglect the thin EDL region such that  ∞  iωD 2 
the entire flow is driven by the hydrodynamic shear stresses 2Dh U0 (−1)m+1 exp ν h t¯ cos(αm X)
= REAL  2 
originating from the liquid viscosity. Here, the thin EDL b 2 + iωDh 1/2 a
m=1 αm cosh αm ν Dh
region can be regarded as an oscillating moving channel

 
wall. The outer slip boundary velocity is determined by the iωDh2 1/2
× cosh αm +2
Y
Smoluchowski equation, Us (t) = −ε0 εr ζ E0 eiωt /µ. Then ν
the oscillating velocity profile can be obtained by solving ∞  iωD 2 
the following transient Stokes equation, in a dimensionless 2Dh U0 (−1)n+1 exp ν h t¯ cos(βn Y )
+ 
form, a iωDh2 1/2 b 
n=1 βn cosh βn2 + ν Dh




1/2 
∂ ū ∂ 2 ū ∂ 2 ū d P0 ωDh2 t¯ iωDh 2
= + − exp i + φ , (A.1) × cosh βn2 +
∂ t¯ ∂X2 ∂Y 2 dZ ν ν
X , (A.5)

which is subjected to the boundary conditions

where αm = ((2m − 1)/2)(Dh /b)π , βn = ((2n − 1)/2) ×
 
∂ ū  ∂ ū  (Dh /a)π . i is the unit of imaginary number, and “REAL”
= 0, = 0, (A.2a)
∂X X=0 ∂Y Y =0 represents the real part of the solution.


 Using the Green’s function formulation, we can show that
b iωDh2
ū , Y, t¯ = U0 exp t¯ , (A.2b) the solution of Eq. (A.4) is
Dh ν 


 64 d P(t¯ )
a iωDh2 w(X, Y, t¯ ) = REAL −
ū X, ¯ 
, t = U0 exp ¯
t , (A.2c)
Dh ν π Dh2 dZ
2

∞
∞
where (−1)m+n cos(αm X) cos(βn Y )
×
(2m − 1)(2n − 1)
0 = − ε0 εr ζ E0 .
U m=1 n=1

µU 1
×  (2m−1)2 2  , (A.6)
Letting ū(X, Y, t¯ ) = v(X, Y, t¯ ) + w(X, Y, t¯ ), the solution π2 + (2n−1) + i 4ω
b2 a2 ν
of Eq. (A.1) can be obtained by solving the two new partial
differential equations of v and w as shown: where



∂v ∂ 2v ∂ 2v d P(t¯ ) d P0 ωDh2 t¯
(I) = + , (A.3) = exp i +φ .
∂ t¯ ∂X 2 ∂Y 2 dZ dZ ν
 Marcos et al. / Journal of Colloid and Interface Science 275 (2004) 679–698 697

Hence, the total solution of Eq. (A.1) is f Oscillation frequency of applied electric field (Hz)
f∗ Characteristic frequency (Hz)
ū(X, Y, t¯ ) Dh Hydraulic diameter of microchannel (m)
  iωD 2 
0
2Dh U
∞
(−1)m+1 exp ν h t¯ cos(αm X) ρ Density of the solution (kg m−3 )
= REAL  2  µ Dynamic viscosity of the solution (kg m−1 s−1 )
b 2 + iωDh 1/2 a
m=1 αm cosh αm ν Dh ν Kinematic viscosity of the solution (m2 s−1 )


  Re0 Reference Reynolds number
iωDh2 1/2
× cosh αm 2
+ Y E0 Amplitude of applied electric field strength (V m−1 )
ν kb Boltzmann’s constant (J mol−1 K−1 )
∞  iωD 2 
2Dh U0 (−1)n+1 exp ν h t¯ cos(βn Y ) T Absolute temperature (K)
+  zv
iωDh2 1/2 b 
Valence of electrolyte solution
a β cosh β 2 +
n=1 n n ν Dh n0 Bulk ionic concentration (m−3 )


  e0 Elementary charge (C)
iωDh2 1/2
× cosh βn2 + X ζ Zeta potential of the channel wall (V)
ν κ Debye–Hückel parameter (m−1 )
∞ ∞
64 d P(t¯ ) (−1)m+n cos(αm X) cos(βn Y ) Q Volumetric flow rate (m3 s−1 )
−
π 2 Dh2 dZ m=1 n=1 (2m − 1)(2n − 1) I Electric current (A)
 λ0 Electric conductivity of the fluid (−1 m−1 )
1 ψ Local EDL potential (V)
×  2  . (A.7)
π 2 (2m−1)
2
+ (2n−1) + i 4ω ρe Electric net charge density (C m−3 )
b2 a2 ν
εr Dielectric constant of the solution
For a closed-channel system, ū(X, Y, t¯ ) should fulfill the ε0 Permittivity of the vacuum (C V−1 m−1 )
condition
 h
b/D  h
a/D
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