energies

Article
Partial Discharge Imaging Correlated with
Phase-Resolved Patterns in Non-Uniform Electric
Fields with Various Dielectric Barrier Materials
Marek Florkowski 1, * , Dariusz Krześniak 2 , Maciej Kuniewski 1 and Paweł Zydroń 1
1 Department of Electrical and Power Engineering, AGH University of Science and Technology, al.
Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland; maciek@agh.edu.pl (M.K.); pzydron@agh.edu.pl (P.Z.)
2 ABB Corporate Technology Center, ul. Starowiślna 13a, 31-038 Kraków, Poland;
dariusz.krzesniak@pl.abb.com
* Correspondence: marek.florkowski@agh.edu.pl




Received: 21 April 2020; Accepted: 22 May 2020; Published: 26 May 2020


Abstract: This paper describes a correlation of partial discharge phase-resolved patterns with an
optical imaging performed in a non-uniform electric field configuration. The influence of different
dielectric barrier materials, placed on the plane electrode, on the discharge propagation and surface
landing was investigated. The investigations were focused on the corona at positive polarity of
AC high voltage. It was found that the initial positive corona stage is similar for all cases whereas
the discharge propagation and surface landing strongly depends on the barrier material properties.
The observed streamer discharge modes have been described by the geometrical measures such as stem
length, stretch of a discharge profile on the dielectric barrier surface and an hemispherical envelope of
discharge filaments. Since various dielectrics reveal different properties of charge accumulation and
surface neutralization, the charge memory effect may be visible and can be related to the ability to
create and sustain of additional electric field component. It may refer to subsequent discharges as well
as to conditions faced at the voltage polarity reversal. The correspondence between different forms
of phase-resolved patterns have been associated with the modes of streamer discharges observed
by optical imaging. Presented methodology poses huge potential for both scientific investigations
on underlying discharge phenomena as well as on the application in future diagnostic systems of
HV insulation.

Keywords: partial discharges; imaging; corona discharges; non-uniform electric field

1. Introduction
The background of this research is related to further understanding the discharge propagation
mechanism. Air at atmospheric pressure is a very popular insulation medium in high voltage
equipment, which is becoming more and more compact and operates on lower margins compared to
the criteria in the past, due to our better understanding of the underlying mechanisms. This refers, for
example, to both overhead lines, switchgears, dry-type transformers, insulators where usually long
gaps are considered with a leader discharge mechanism as well as to micro distance or inclusions
where Townsend or streamer to spark discharges are observed. The required high reliability of HV
power equipment implies understanding of discharge inception, development and propagation in
a strongly non-uniform electric field. Enormous research progress has been achieved in the last
century since the first avalanche discharge theory (i.e., ionization process started by one electron)
was proposed by Townsend in 1915 [1] and further enhanced by Loeb, Rather, Meek, Craggs and
others [2–4]. The progress was related to introduced space charge and subsequent forms of discharges,
such as streamer and leader. If a sufficiently high voltage is applied between a point and a plate in

Energies 2020, 13, 2676; doi:10.3390/en13112676 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 2676 2 of 15

atmospheric air, a corona discharge is ignited, resulting in an ionic wind flowing between electrodes [5].
The corona effect and streamer propagation in the point to plane configuration are also subject of a
numerical modeling (e.g., [6,7]). To simulate a streamer propagation in air several aspects should
be considered, such as electron and ion transport as well as the effects of ionization, attachment,
recombination and photoionization. The comparative phase-resolved analysis of AC corona discharges
at very low frequency and power frequencies are shown in [8] and the effects under non-sinusoidal
voltage excitation in [9].
This paper presents discharge imaging phases in a strongly non-uniform electric field, represented
by a point-plane configuration. The arrangement is applicable to mimic both external discharges in an
insulation system and the internal ones caused by microblades in voids in solid insulation. The partial
discharges (PDs) have been acquired electrically in the phase-resolved mode and were simultaneously
observed optically, recording the corresponding discharge phases and streamer development [10,11].
Hence, the new aspect is related to the correlation of optical imaging with PD forms appearing in a
phase-resolved pattern. Electrons drifting to the anode under applied electrical field not only produce
new electrons by ionizing collisions, but also excite radiation and those photons lead to light emission
which can be externally recorded. Emission spectrum of partial discharges light is in the range
300–800 nm wavelength. The spectra of corona discharges show higher intensity in the 300–500 nm
range, whereas the spectrum of spark-type discharges shows its main intensity in the 370–400 nm
wave range [12–14].
The research was concentrated on the corona inception and development towards dielectric
barriers on the plane electrode side at positive polarity of high voltage. The influence of different
dielectric barrier materials on the discharge propagation and surface landing was investigated. Since
various dielectrics reveal different charge accumulation and surface neutralization properties the
corresponding set of materials was selected. The surface phenomena may have different origin such as
ionic drift, conduction along the barrier surface and recombination, or trapping into dielectric or bulk
conduction. In this context, the charge memory effect may visible and can be related to the ability to
create and sustain of additional electric field component [15–17]. It may refer to subsequent discharges
as well as to conditions faced at the voltage polarity reversal.
The correspondence between different forms of phase-resolved PD (PRPD) patterns have been
associated with the modes of streamer discharges observed by optical imaging. Presented methodology
poses huge potential for both scientific investigations on underlying discharge phenomena as well as
on the application in future diagnostic systems of HV insulation.

2. Partial Discharge Mechanism in Strongly Non-Uniform Electric Field

Discharges in a non-uniform electric field develop depending on the mechanism of their initiation
in the air or in the solid dielectrics. Thus, studies of the point-to-plane setup are related:

n in the first case, to various forms of discharge in the air at electrode distance from sub mm to
several dozen cm, and at large distances to strong corona discharges,
n in the second case, to discharges in the solid dielectrics (e.g., in polymers, developing according
to the electrical treeing mechanism).

Figure 1 presents model electrode arrangement with marked areas of strong electric field and
ionization zone Sj in air.
The partial discharge mechanism in strongly non-homogenous electric field is usually represented
by a point-plane electrode configuration, shown in Figure 1. In a strongly non-uniform electric field
breakdown in gases is always preceded by pre-breakdown in form of discharges, called corona.
The capacitance Cj represents the ionization zone, in the equivalent circuit in Figure 1, where the space
charge is formed by electron and ion clouds.
The original avalanche model proposed and elaborated by Townsend [1] has been extended for
streamer discharges, taking into account space charge, by Meek, Craggs and Rather [3,4]. The radius
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 3 of 15

rj of the ionization zone Sj is defined by electric field distribution so that the ionization coefficient
is bigger than the attachment one: α ≥ η. Discharge phases in strongly non-homogenous electric
fields in gas are initiated with a discharge around the tip of the electrode with high curvature, causing
ionization and creating a region of plasma around the electrode. When the gas close to the tip becomes
conductive, it has the effect of an apparent size increase of the conductor. The generated ions move in
the electric field or recombine to form neutral gas molecules radiating photons.
One can distinguish several phases during the discharge development process: an initial one
called glow, followed by a corona effect, referred to as single-electrode discharge as opposed to a
two-electrode discharge when bridging of the electrodes by an electric spark occurs. In the case
of a strong source supplying current, a spark will evolve into a continuous arc discharge. Corona
discharges can be formed when the electric field at the surface of the tip exceeds a critical value.
Usually the process is started when a neutral atom or molecule in the region of strong electric field
(electrode tip) is ionized by a natural environmental event such as an ultraviolet photon or cosmic
ray particle and in effect a positive ion and a free electron are created. Both particles receive kinetic
energy in electric field and are accelerated in opposite directions i.e., electrons toward anode and
positive ions towards cathode. The high electron versus ion mass asymmetry results in electron much
higher velocity, i.e., gaining energy allowing for ionization while hitting another atom and causing
chain reaction visualized as an avalanche process. Externally visible glow of the corona is caused by
electrons recombining with positive ions to form neutral atoms and release of photons of light. In turn,
the released photons may ionize other atoms, supporting the creation of electron avalanches. In case
the ions2020,
Energies reach
13, xthe
FORcathode, combine with electrons from the electrode, to become neutral atoms again.
PEER REVIEW 3 of 16

Figure 1.1.Discharges
Dischargesin in
non-uniform
non-uniformelectric field field
electric in a point-to-plane arrangement
in a point-to-plane in air, Sj —ionization
arrangement in air, Sj—
zone, C
ionization
a —part of a homogeneous dielectric, free from discharges,
zone, Ca—part of a homogeneous dielectric, free from C —capacitance of ionization
j discharges, Cj—capacitance zone,
of
C —capacitance
ionization
p of the remaining part of the air insulation system along the discharge path,
zone, Cp—capacitance of the remaining part of the air insulation system along the discharge a—distance
between
path, a—distance r—radius
electrodes,between of a tip of r—radius
electrodes, point electrode (r <<
of a tip of a), rj —radius
point of ionization
electrode (r << a), rzone.
j—radius of

ionization zone.
The discharge mechanism, i.e., movement of the charges depends strongly on the tip electrode
polarity,
Thethus one can
original distinguish
avalanche modelboth positive or
proposed and negative corona
elaborated bydischarges.
Townsend This effect
[1] has and
been asymmetry
extended for
results
streamer discharges, taking into account space charge, by Meek, Craggs and Rather [3,4]. and
from the great difference in mass between electrons and positively charged ions The in fact
radius
only the ionization
rj of the electron iszone
havingSj isthe abilityby
defined to electric
undergofieldsignificant energetic
distribution collisions.
so that The investigations
the ionization coefficient is
presented in this paper are focused on the positive corona which occurs when
bigger than the attachment one: α ≥ η. Discharge phases in strongly non-homogenous electric fields the point electrode has
ainpositive potential against a plane electrode and is initiated by an ionization
gas are initiated with a discharge around the tip of the electrode with high curvature, causing event in a region with
aionization
high potential gradient.a The
and creating region electrons
of plasmain a around
positive the corona are concentrated
electrode. When the close to the
gas close totip,
theintip
a
region of the high electric field strength, resulting in high electron energy.
becomes conductive, it has the effect of an apparent size increase of the conductor. The generated In this way, all electrons
are
ionsattracted
move in inward toward
the electric fieldthe positive electrode
or recombine to form and the gas
neutral ionsmolecules
are repelled outwards,
radiating towards the
photons.
cathode.
One can distinguish several phases during the discharge development process: anare
By undergoing collisions in the proximity of the tip electrode, further molecules ionized,
initial one
forming an electron avalanche. The electrons resulting from the ionization
called glow, followed by a corona effect, referred to as single-electrode discharge as opposed to of an air molecule area
then electrically
two-electrode attractedwhen
discharge backbridging
towardsof thethetipelectrodes
electrode.byDistribution of theoccurs.
an electric spark space In charge during
the case of a
discharge at positive polarity of the corona electrode is shown in Figure
strong source supplying current, a spark will evolve into a continuous arc discharge. Corona 2. The dotted line represents
the electric field
discharges can bewithout
formed space
when charge
the across
electricthe gapatwhile
field the solidofline
the surface theindicates the distorted
tip exceeds a criticalelectric
value.
field.
Usually Thethehigh field region
process is moving
is started when ain time further
neutral atom or into the gapin
molecule extending
the regiontheofregion
strongfor ionization.
electric field
(electrode tip) is ionized by a natural environmental event such as an ultraviolet photon or cosmic
ray particle and in effect a positive ion and a free electron are created. Both particles receive kinetic
energy in electric field and are accelerated in opposite directions i.e., electrons toward anode and
positive ions towards cathode. The high electron versus ion mass asymmetry results in electron much
higher velocity, i.e., gaining energy allowing for ionization while hitting another atom and causing
chain reaction visualized as an avalanche process. Externally visible glow of the corona is caused by
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 4 of 15
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16

The field
region forstrength at the
ionization. Thetipfield
of the space charge
strength mayofbe
at the tip high
the enough
space formay
charge the initiation of the cathode
be high enough for the
directed streamer
initiation whichdirected
of the cathode subsequently may
streamer lead to
which complete breakdown
subsequently [18].
may lead to complete breakdown [18].

Figure 2. Distributionof
2. Distribution ofthe
thespace
spacecharge
chargeduring
duringdischarge
dischargeat atpositive
positivepolarity
polarityofofthe
thecorona
coronaelectrode,
electrode,
(a) visualization of the
the space
space charge
chargeregion,
region,(b)
(b)electric
electricfield
fielddistribution,
distribution,(−(−represents
representselectrons and+
electronsand
+positive
positiveions).
ions).

The difference
The differencebetween
between positive
positiveandandnegative
negative coronas, in the in
coronas, matter
the of the generation
matter of secondary
of the generation of
electron avalanches, is that in a positive corona they are generated by
secondary electron avalanches, is that in a positive corona they are generated by the gas surrounding the gas surrounding the
plasma
the region—the
plasma region—the newnew secondary
secondary electrons travelling
electrons inward—whereas
travelling inward—whereas in a negative corona
in a negative they
corona
are generated at the tip of a point electrode itself—the new secondary
they are generated at the tip of a point electrode itself—the new secondary electrons are moving electrons are moving outward.
Thus, the rise
outward. Thus,time
theofrise
current
time pulse is related
of current pulsetoisavalanche
related toformation
avalancheand electronand
formation current, whereas
electron the
current,
falling slope
whereas of the pulse
the falling slope refers
of the to the ionization
pulse refers to the current [3,18,19].
ionization current [3,18,19].
At AC voltage, in the configuration presented above i.e., whenthe
At AC voltage, in the configuration presented above i.e., when thepoint
pointelectrode
electrodeis is
connected
connected to
a high
to voltage
a high (HV)(HV)
voltage source and plane
source and planeelectrode is grounded,
electrode is grounded,the corona starts usually
the corona starts first
usuallyat negative
first at
half period (around the phase angle 270 ◦ ) and while increasing the voltage the positive corona appears
negative half period (around the phase angle 270°) and while increasing the voltage the positive
aroundappears
corona the phase anglethe
around 90◦phase
, manifesting
angle 90°, higher discharge
manifesting magnitude,
higher discharge comparing
magnitude,to negative
comparing ones.
to
In the first
negative phase
ones. In of
thecorona development
first phase of corona the inception voltage
development is determined
the inception voltagebyisthe curvatureby
determined of the
the
electrode and
curvature only
of the in further
electrode andstages
only the influence
in further of the
stages theopposite
influence electrode materialelectrode
of the opposite will reveal. From
material
the engineering point of view the corona inception
will reveal. From the engineering point of view the corona inception electric field E0 was determined experimentally
electric field E0 was determined by
Frank William Peek
experimentally in 1929
by Frank in thePeek
William arrangement
in 1929 inof theconcentric
arrangement cylinders and cancylinders
of concentric be derived andfrom
canthe
be
following formula [20]:
derived from the following formula [20]: !
0.301
E0 = 21.6 1 + 0.301 √ (1)
= 21.6 1 + δr (1)
√δ
where: r—radius of the corona electrode, δ—relative density of air.
where: r—radius of the corona electrode, δ—relative density of air.
The electric field strength at the distance x from tip in the point-plane configuration gives the
The electric field strength at the distance x from tip in the point-plane configuration gives the
following equation [21]:
following equation [21]: 2U 1
E(x) =  × (2)
2
ln 4a
2x + 1r − x2
( )= r × a
4 (2)
ln ( ) 2 + −
where: U—applied voltage, a—distance between point and plane electrodes, r—radius of the point tip.
The relationship between the discharges’ repetition rate and voltage is influenced by the movement
where: U—applied voltage, a—distance between point and plane electrodes, r—radius of the point
of negative ions in the interelectrode space. The discharge current is determined by the movement
tip.
of negative ions toward the anode. In turn, the residence time of negative ions is the time from
The relationship between the discharges’ repetition rate and voltage is influenced by the
their formation in the area described by the distance x until they are neutralized at the anode.
movement of negative ions in the interelectrode space. The discharge current is determined by the
movement of negative ions toward the anode. In turn, the residence time of negative ions is the time
from their formation in the area described by the distance x until they are neutralized at the anode.
Thus, the residence time of negative ions tr in the space between the electrodes is approximately equal
to the following expression [21]:
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 5 of 15

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 16

Thus, the residence time of negative ions tr in the space between the electrodes is approximately equal
to the following expression [21]: 4
ln( 4a )
≅ a2 ln r (3)
tr  3 × (3)
3 U × ϑn
where: is the negative ion mobility.
where: ϑn is the negative ion mobility.
For example, oxygen ions formed from the connection of electrons have the mobility around 2 ×
For−1example, oxygen ions formed from the connection of electrons have the mobility around
10−4 m2−4
V s−12. The
−1 mobility of charge carriers is defined as the rate of flow of charged particles under
−1
2 × 10 m V s . The mobility of charge carriers is defined as the rate of flow of charged particles
the influence of electric field. Hence, for the electrode distance a = 20 mm, high voltage electrode
under the influence of electric field. Hence, for the electrode distance a = 20 mm, high voltage electrode
radius r = 86 μm, the residence time at inception voltage U0 will be equal to tr = 500 μs, which is in
radius r = 86 µm, the residence time at inception voltage U0 will be equal to tr = 500 µs, which is in
very good proximity to the measured value tr = 235 μs obtained for the same gap between electrodes
very good proximity to the measured value tr = 235 µs obtained for the same gap between electrodes
at voltage U = 15 kV and electrode radius r = 40 μm.
at voltage U = 15 kV and electrode radius r = 40 µm.
3.3.Experimental
ExperimentalSetup,
Setup,Instrumentation
Instrumentationand
andSpecimens
Specimens
Experiments
Experimentshave
havebeen
beenperformed
performed using thethe
using point-plane configuration
point-plane shown
configuration in Figure
shown 3. The3.
in Figure
research was concentrated on the corona inception and development towards dielectric
The research was concentrated on the corona inception and development towards dielectric barrier barrier at
positive polarity
at positive of the
polarity point
of the electrode.
point electrode.The
Theinfluence ofof
influence different
differentdielectric
dielectricmaterials
materialsononthe
theplane
plane
electrode
electrode on the discharge propagation was investigated. The electrodes were made by stainlesssteel.
on the discharge propagation was investigated. The electrodes were made by stainless steel.
The inter electrode air gap a was equal to 20 mm. The radius of a tip of a point electrode was
The inter electrode air gap a was equal to 20 mm. The radius of a tip of a point electrode was 40 µm. 40 μm.
The
Theexperiments
experimentswere
wereconducted
conducted atat atmospheric
atmospheric pressure
pressure 0.1
0.1 MPa
MPa at at room
room temperature.
temperature.

Experimentalsetup
Figure3.3.Experimental
Figure setupfor
forpartial
partialdischarge
dischargeimaging:
imaging:dielectric
dielectricbarrier
barrieron
onthe
theplane
planeelectrode.
electrode.

ThePD
The PDimaging
imagingandandcurrent
currentpulses
pulseswere
weremeasured
measuredin inaasetup
setuppresented
presentedin inFigure
Figure4. 4.The
Thepartial
partial
dischargepulses
discharge pulseswere
were recorded
recorded using
using anan ICM+
ICM+wideband
widebanddetection
detectionsystem,
system,connected
connectedtotoaa host
host
computer via a GPIB bus. The measurements were carried out in a phase-resolved
computer via a GPIB bus. The measurements were carried out in a phase-resolved mode resulting in mode resulting
Din(φ,
D (ϕ,
q, n)q,pattern
n) pattern acquisition
acquisition 8 ×× 16
(8 × (8 8 ×bit).
16 The
bit). measurement
The measurement time oftime of PRPD
PRPD pattern pattern
was 60wass.
60 s. Synchronously to electrical acquisition the coupled optical observations
Synchronously to electrical acquisition the coupled optical observations by iCCD camera were by iCCD camera were
performed.The
performed. Theimaging
imagingsystem
systemconsists
consistsofofan aniCCD
iCCDiSTAR
iSTARcamera
cameramodel
modelDH334
DH334(Andor,
(Andor,Oxford
Oxford
Instruments,Oxford,
Instruments, Oxford,UK)
UK)equipped
equippedwith withaamatrix
matrixCCD CCD10241024××1024
1024pixels
pixelsand
andan anintensifier
intensifierwith
with
spectral quantum efficiency in the range 200 ÷ 850 nm. The camera gain was set
spectral quantum efficiency in the range 200 ÷ 850 nm. The camera gain was set to 4000 and exposureto 4000 and exposure
time was
time was varying
varying up
up toto 55 ms.
ms. InInaddition
additionextension
extensionringsrings(adjustable
(adjustabletubes
tubesup uptoto1010mm)
mm) were
were
installedon
installed onthe
thelens
lensin
inorder
ordertotoobtain
obtainclear
clearfocus
focusat ataadischarge
dischargespot.
spot.The
Thehigh
highvoltage
voltagewaswasobtained
obtained
from a Model 20/20B HV amplifier (Trek Inc., New York, NY, USA) controlled
from a Model 20/20B HV amplifier (Trek Inc., New York, NY, USA) controlled by a programmable by a programmable
generator. The
generator. Thegenerator
generatorwas wasalso
alsoconnected
connectedtotoaadigital
digitaldelay
delayline
line (model
(model SRSR DG645,
DG645, Stanford
Stanford
Research, Sunnyvale, CA, USA), which triggered the camera. The predefined
Research, Sunnyvale, CA, USA), which triggered the camera. The predefined delay time, trimmed to delay time, trimmed
to the
the discharge
discharge capture,
capture, was was adjusted
adjusted with
with respect
respect totothe
thezero-crossing
zero-crossingofofhigh
highvoltage.
voltage.TheThepartial
partial
dischargeswere
discharges wereacquired
acquiredby byhigh
highfrequency
frequency current
current transformer
transformer CT1 CT1 terminated
terminated with
with 50 Ω.
50 Ω.
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 6 of 15
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

Figure 4.
Figure Experimental setup
4. Experimental setup for
for simultaneous
simultaneous PD
PD imaging
imaging and
and phase-resolved
phase-resolved acquisition.
acquisition.

The high
The high voltage
voltage was
wasobtained
obtainedfrom
fromthetheHV
HVcompensated
compensateddividerdivider(1:1000), denoted
(1:1000), denotedin in
Figure
Figure4 as
4
R and R
as1 R11 and . In this way the PD clusters acquired electrically in a phase-resolved mode
2 R22. In this way the PD clusters acquired electrically in a phase-resolved mode can be can be associated
with a corresponding
associated discharge image.
with a corresponding Theimage.
discharge adjusted
Thegate signal gate
adjusted triggers camera
signal recording.
triggers camera Exemplary
recording.
waveforms
Exemplary waveforms are shown in Figure 5, where the yellow trace represents thegreen
are shown in Figure 5, where the yellow trace represents the high voltage, the gate
high voltage,
signal,the
green blue thesignal,
gate camera window
blue and lilac
the camera windowthe PD
andpulses.
lilac theThe
PD snapshot
pulses. Theobtained
snapshotfrom the optical
obtained from
imaging refers to the individual discharge recorded within the shutter opening.
the optical imaging refers to the individual discharge recorded within the shutter opening. It wasIt was observed that
the recorded optical images are representative and repeatable for the distinctive
observed that the recorded optical images are representative and repeatable for the distinctive clusters in the PRPD
pattern,
clusters inof the
course
PRPD taking into account
pattern, of coursethe stochastic
taking character
into account theofstochastic
discharges.character of discharges.

Figure 5. Gate
Gate signal
signal (green)
(green) and camera window (blue) superimposed
superimposed with
with HV (yellow) and PD
pulses (lilac).

The experiments were performed

performed atat sinusoidal
sinusoidal voltage
voltage at frequency 50 50 Hz
Hz up
up to
to aa peak
peak voltage
voltage
of 20 kV. While increasing the voltage inception voltage occurs first at the negative polarity
of 20 kV. While increasing the voltage inception voltage occurs first at the negative polarity of the of tip,
the
tip, upon
upon further
further increasing
increasing the voltage
the voltage the discharges
the discharges also also
appearappear
at theattip
thewith
tip with positive
positive polarity.
polarity. The
The investigations
investigations presented
presented in paper
in this this paper are focused
are focused on positive
on positive corona corona and barrier
and barrier discharges.
discharges. The
The dielectric
dielectric barrier
barrier waswas located
located on on
thethe plane
plane electrode
electrode ononthe
theground
groundside. side.InInthe
the experiments
experiments the the
following dielectric
dielectric barrier
barrier materials
materials were
were investigated:
investigated:
• EPX9—Epoxterm thermosetting insulation, polyester foil impregnated in epoxy,
• GLASS—used as a reference material,
• XLPE—cross linked polyethylene,
• PVC—polyvinyl chloride,
• EPR—ethylene propylene rubber.
• GLASS—used as athermosetting
EPX9—Epoxterm reference material,
insulation, polyester foil impregnated in epoxy,
•• XLPE—cross linked
GLASS—used
EPX9—Epoxterm polyethylene,
as athermosetting
reference material,
insulation, polyester foil impregnated in epoxy,
• XLPE—cross linked
GLASS—used as a polyethylene,
reference material,
•• PVC—polyvinyl
XLPE—cross
GLASS—used as chloride,
linkeda polyethylene,
reference material,
• PVC—polyvinyl
XLPE—cross chloride,
linked polyethylene,
•• EPR—ethylene
PVC—polyvinyl
XLPE—cross propylene
chloride,
linked rubber.
polyethylene,
• PVC—polyvinyl chloride, rubber.
EPR—ethylene propylene
•• EPR—ethylene propylene rubber.
•
PVC—polyvinyl
EPR—ethylene
chloride,
The specimen specifications:
propylene electric permittivity εr, loss factor tgδ, surface resistivity ρs and
rubber.
The
•thickness specimen
EPR—ethylene specifications:
Energies 2020, 13, 2676
propylene electric permittivity εr, loss factor tgδ, surface resistivity ρs and 7 of 15
d measured
The specimen by the rubber.
specifications: authors
electricare presented εin
permittivity Table
r, loss 1. The
factor tgδ, measurements ρs and
of electric
surface resistivity
thickness d measured
The specimen
permittivity
by the authors
lossspecifications: electricare presented εin
permittivity Table
r, loss 1. The
factor tgδ, measurements
surface ρsWest
of electric
analyzerresistivity and
thickness d and
measured
The specimen factor
by were performed
the authors using a typein
arepermittivity
presented 1260A
Table impedance
1. The tgδ,measurements (Solartron,
of electric
ρsWest
permittivity
thickness d and lossspecifications:
measured factor
by were
the
electric
performed
authors are using a typeεin
presented
r, loss
1260A
Table
factor
impedance
1. The
surface
analyzer
measurements
resistivity
(Solartron,
of
and
electric
Sussex, UK)
permittivity
thicknessUK) andwith
loss
The
d measured a 1296A
factor
specimen were dielectric
performed
specifications:
by the dielectric
authors are interface
using a
electric
presented system,
type 1260A whereas
permittivity
in Table ε
impedance, for
loss the
analyzer
factor
1. Theformeasurements
r surface resistivity
(Solartron,
tgδ, surface
of West
resistivity
electric ρs and
Sussex,
permittivity andwith
loss afactor
1296A
were performed interface
using awithsystem,
type 1260A whereas
impedance the surface
analyzer resistivity
(Solartron, West
measurements
Sussex, UK) a Trek
with
thickness
permittivity and a
d 152-1
1296A
measured
loss factor instrument
were dielectric
by the was
authors
performed used,
interface
are a
presented
using with test
system,
a typea 1260A voltage
inwhereas
Table of
1.
impedance 100
for
The V.
the surface
measurements resistivity
of electric
analyzer (Solartron, West permittivity
measurements
Sussex, a Trek
UK) with a152-1
1296Ainstrument
dielectric wasinterface
used, test voltage
system, whereas of 100for V.the surface resistivity
measurements
Sussex, UK) aloss
andwithTrek a152-1
factor instrument
were
1296A performed
dielectric wasinterface
used,awith
using type a1260A
test voltage
system, impedance
whereas of 100 V.the surface
foranalyzer (Solartron, West Sussex, UK)
resistivity
measurements a Trek 152-1 instrument Table 1.was used, with
Specification a test
of the voltage of 100 V.
specimens.
with a 1296A dielectric
measurements a Trek 152-1 instrument interface
Table 1.was system, whereas
used, with
Specification a test
of the for the surface
voltage of 100 V.
specimens. resistivity measurements a Trek 152-1
instrument was used,Table with 1.
a Specification
test voltage of of the
100 specimens.
Ɛr 50V.
Table 1. Specification of the
Specimen Ɛr 50specimens.
tgδ 50 Hz ρs (Ω) d (mm)
Table 1. Specification of the
Specimen ƐHz specimens.
r 50 tgδ 50 Hz ρs (Ω) d (mm)
Specimen Hz
ƐHz
r 50
Table 1. Specification tgδ 50 Hz ρ
of the specimens.
s (Ω) d (mm)
Specimen ƐHz
r 50 tgδ 50 Hz ρs (Ω) d (mm)
Specimen tgδ 50 Hz ρs (Ω) d (mm)
Specimen Hz
r 50 Hz tgδ 50 Hz ρs (Ω) d (mm)
EPX9 1.95 0.0076 4.36 × 10 12 1.64
EPX9 1.95 0.0076 4.36 × 1012 1.64
EPX9 1.95 0.0076 4.36 × 1012 1.64
EPX9 1.95 0.0076 4.36 × 1012 1.64
EPX9 EPX9 1.951.95 0.0076
0.0076 4.36 × 104.36
12 12
1.64
× 10 1.64

GLASS 7.30 0.043 4.9 × 1011 3.16

GLASS 7.30 0.043 4.9 × 1011 3.16
GLASS 7.30 0.043 4.9 × 10 11 3.16
GLASS GLASS 7.307.30 0.0430.043 4.9 × 10114.9 × 10 11
3.16 3.16
GLASS 7.30 0.043 4.9 × 10 11 3.16

XLPE 2.35 0.0012 >2 × 1013 0.87

XLPE 2.35 0.0012 >2 × 1013 0.87
XLPE XLPE 2.352.35 0.0012
0.0012 >2 × 10 >2 × 10
13 13
0.87 0.87
XLPE 2.35 0.0012 >2 × 1013 0.87
XLPE 2.35 0.0012 >2 × 1013 0.87

PVC 2.24 0.0017 6 × 1012 1.65

PVC PVC 2.242.24 0.0017
0.0017 6 × 1012 12
6 × 101.65 1.65
PVC 2.24 0.0017 6 × 10 12 1.65
PVC 2.24 0.0017 6 × 1012 1.65
PVC 2.24 0.0017 6 × 1012 1.65

EPR EPR 3.303.30 0.0019

0.0019 >2 × 1013>2 × 10 13
0.80 0.80
EPR 3.30 0.0019 >2 × 1013 0.80
EPR 3.30 0.0019 >2 × 1013 0.80
EPR 3.30 0.0019 >2 × 1013 0.80
EPR 3.30 0.0019 >2 × 10 13 0.80

4. Imaging4.ofImaging CoronaofDischarges
Corona Discharges and Correspondence
and Correspondence with PD with PD Phase-Resolved
Phase-Resolved Patterns
Patterns in in
4. ImagingConfiguration
of Corona Discharges with Barrier and Barrier
Dielectric Correspondence with PD Phase-Resolved Patterns in
Configuration
4. Imaging of with Corona Dielectric
Discharges and Correspondence with PD Phase-Resolved Patterns in
Configuration
4. Imaging of with Corona Dielectric
DischargesBarrier and Correspondence with PD Phase-Resolved Patterns in
Configuration with Dielectric
Electrical Barrier
recording and
andfast imaging have been withimplemented to analyse thestages
discharge
4. Imaging
Electrical
Configuration
ofrecording
Corona
with Dielectric
Discharges
and fast imaging
Barrier
Correspondence
have been implemented PD Phase-Resolved
to analyse the discharge Patterns in stages in
in
Electrical recording
air recording
and the and fast
correspondence imaging have
between been implemented
phase-resolved to
patterns analyse
obtainedthe discharge stages in
Configuration
air Electrical
and the with Dielectric
correspondenceand fast Barrier
between
imaging havephase-resolved
been implemented patterns obtained
to analyse the electrically
electrically
discharge withwith
stages corresponding
in
air Electrical
and the correspondence
recording
discharge and
images fast between
imaging
recorded havephase-resolved
optically. been Inimplemented
the patterns
presented to obtained
analyse
experiments,the electrically
discharge
the main stageswith
focus inwas on the
corresponding
air and the discharge
correspondence
Electrical recording images
and recorded
between
fast imaging optically.
havephase-resolved In the
been implemented presented
patterns experiments,
obtained
to analyse the main
electrically
the discharge focus
stageswith
in
corresponding
air and discharge images recorded optically. In the presented experiments, the main focus
was on thethe
corresponding
air and the
correspondence
observations
observations
discharge
correspondence
and
and analysis
images
between
analysis of
recorded
between
phase-resolved
of discharges
discharges
optically. occurring
occurring
phase-resolved
patterns
in
inthe
In the presented
patterns
obtained
thepositive
positive half
experiments,
obtained
electrically
halfperiod.
period. PD
the mainPDpulses
electrically
with and optical
pulses
focus
with
was on the images
corresponding observations
discharge
were and
imagesanalysis ofrecorded
recorded discharges
optically. occurring
Ininception inphase
the presentedthe positive half period.
experiments, PD pulses
the (BD).
main focus
and
was optical
corresponding images
on the observations weresynchronously
discharge synchronously
and analysis
images of recorded
recorded discharges from
optically.from inception
occurring
In the phase
in the
presented
upuptotobreakdown
positive breakdown
half period.
experiments, the (BD).
PD pulses
main focus
and optical
was on images
Thewere synchronously recorded from inception phase upweak
to breakdown (BD).
and Thethe
was optical
on the
observations
discharge
images were
observations
and
discharge
phenomena analysis
beginsof
phenomena
synchronously
and analysis of
discharges
with begins
recorded
discharges
occurring
with
the propagation
from the
inception
occurring ofin
in
the
propagation
weak
phase
the
positive
of
emissions
positive
half
half
period.
emissions
from
up to breakdown period.
PD
from
the (BD).
HV
PD
pulses
the HV point-tip
point-
pulses
and The discharge
optical images phenomena
were
in theofform begins
synchronously
offilaments
tiny filaments with the
recorded
followed propagation
from inception of weak
phase emissions
up to from
breakdown the HV
(BD). point-
tip
andinin thedischarge
The
optical form
images tiny
phenomena
were followed
begins
synchronously with bythea by
recorded
a glowing
glowing
propagation
from inception
dot.
dot.of An An
weak
phase
exemplary
exemplary
emissions sequence
sequence
from
up to breakdown the of
of HV discharge
point- modes in
discharge
tip thedischarge
The form
a of tiny
point-plane filaments
phenomena setup followed
begins
with with
barrier bythe
is ashown
glowing
propagation
in dot.ofAn
Figure exemplary
weak
6. emissions
Depending sequence
on from
the theof(BD).
barrier discharge
HV point-
dielectric material,
modes
tip inThein aform
the point-plane
of tiny setup with
filaments barrier
followed is shown
bythe in Figure
a propagation
glowing dot.of 6. Depending
An exemplary on the
sequence barrierof HVdielectric
discharge
modes
tip in in discharge
the aform
the of
phenomena
point-plane
tiny
transition setup
filaments
between
begins
with followed
the
with
barrier is
dischargeby shown
a in Figure
glowing
modes is dot. 6. weak
An
observed,
emissions
Depending
exemplary
especially on from
the
sequence
the
the
barrier
of
discharge
point-
dielectric
discharge
landing profile and
material,
modes
tip in thein the
aform transition
point-plane between
setup with
of tiny filaments the discharge
barrier
followed isbyshownmodes
amodes in is
glowing observed,
Figure
dot. 6. especiallyon
AnDepending
exemplary the
thedischarge
sequence barrier landing
dielectric
of discharge
material,
modes in the
a transition
point-plane
span on between
setup with the discharge
barrier is shown in is observed,
Figure 6. especially
Depending on the
the discharge
barrier landing
dielectric
profile and
material,
modes in the span
a span on the
point-planethe surface.
transition surface.
between
setup with thebarrier
dischargeis shown modes in isFigure
observed, especiallyonthe
6. Depending thedischarge landing
barrier dielectric
profile
material, andthe on the
transition
The surface.
between
filaments the
start discharge
from the modes
point is observed,
tip and especially
propagate thetowards
in various discharge landing
directions towards plate.
profileThe
material, andfilaments
span on
the transition start
the from
surface.
between the thepoint tip
discharge and propagate
modes in
is observed,various directions
especially thetowards
discharge plate. The
landing
profileTheandfilaments
span
The on start
the
morphology from
surface. ofthe point tip and propagate in various directions plate. The
morphology
profileTheand of discharges
filaments
span onstart from
the surface. thedischarges
reveal various
point tip reveal
ofandthose various(Figure
modes
propagate of various
in those modes
6): Starting (Figure
withtowards
directions 6): Starting
a corona streamer
plate. with a corona
The
morphology of discharges
The filaments
streamer start
at a from
tip,reveal
the various
followed pointby ofand
tip those
tree-like modes (Figure
propagate
streamer 6): Starting
in various
with branching.directionswithtowards
There isaatcorona streamer
plate.
certain stageThecharacteristic
morphology of discharges
The filaments start from reveal
the various
point tip of and
those modes (Figure
propagate 6): Starting
in various withtowards
directions a coronaplate.streamer
The
morphologyformationof discharges revealThe
of a stem. various
stemofacts those as amodes (Figure 6):
prolongation of aStarting
tip andwith newastreamer
corona streamer
corona is observed
morphology of discharges reveal various of those modes (Figure 6): Starting with a corona streamer
at the stem forefront. [22]. In the following stage, while increasing the voltage, dielectric barrier
discharges (DBD) occur. The role of dielectric surface material was analyzed observing interactions
between filaments. When the streamer is reaching the surface of the barrier the filament channels
are spreading over the dielectric. The discharge landing foot reflects above mentioned properties of
 formation of a stem. The stem acts as a prolongation of a tip and new streamer corona is observed at
the stem forefront. [22]. In the following stage, while increasing the voltage, dielectric barrier
discharges (DBD) occur. The role of dielectric surface material was analyzed observing interactions
between filaments. When the streamer is reaching the surface of the barrier the filament channels are
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
spreading over the dielectric. The discharge landing foot reflects above mentioned properties of
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 8 of 15
atdielectric materials.
a tip, followed byThe bright,streamer
tree-like high conductive channel due
with branching. to the
There temperature
is at of plasma
certain stage between
characteristic
tip and barrier
formation wasThe
of a stem. created.
stem acts as a prolongation of a tip and new streamer corona is observed at
thedielectric materials.[22].
stem forefront. The bright,
In the high conductive
following stage,channel
while due to the temperature
increasing the voltage, of dielectric
plasma between
barriertip
and barrier was created.
discharges (DBD) occur. The role of dielectric surface material was analyzed observing interactions
between The observedWhen
filaments. streamer dischargeismodes
the streamer reachingcanthe
besurface
described andbarrier
of the distinguished by the
the filament geometrical
channels are
measuresover
spreading suchthe
as dielectric.
stem length l and
The discharge s of discharge
stretch landing profileabove
foot reflects on thementioned
dielectric barrier surface,
properties of
dielectric materials. The bright, high conductive channel due to the temperature of plasma between7a)
as graphically depicted in Figure 7. The envelope of discharge filaments can be established (Figure
tipinand
form of a semi
barrier was hemispherical
created. with defined radius re [23,24].

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 6. Various streamer modes in a point-plane arrangement: (a) corona streamers, (b) tip-
branched streamers, (c) short stem-branched streamers, (d) long stem-branched streamers.

The observed streamer discharge modes can be described and distinguished by the geometrical
measures(a)such as stem length l and (b)stretch s of discharge profile
(c) on the dielectric barrier (d) surface, as
graphically depicted in Figure 7. The envelope of discharge filaments can be established (Figure 7a)
Figure 6. Various streamer modes in a point-plane arrangement: (a) corona streamers, (b) tip-branched
in form of a semi hemispherical with defined radius re [23,24].
streamers,
Figure (c) short
6. Various stem-branched
streamer modes streamers, (d) longarrangement:
in a point-plane stem-branched(a)streamers.
corona streamers, (b) tip-
branched streamers, (c) short stem-branched streamers, (d) long stem-branched streamers.

The observed streamer discharge modes can be described and distinguished by the geometrical
measures such as stem length l and stretch s of discharge profile on the dielectric barrier surface, as
graphically depicted in Figure 7. The envelope of discharge filaments can be established (Figure 7a)
in form of a semi hemispherical with defined radius re [23,24].

Figure
Figure 7. Characterization
Characterization of
of streamer
streamer modes:
modes: (a)
(a)corona
coronainception
inceptionstage,
stage,(b)
(b)tip-branched
tip-branchedstreamers,
streamers,
(c) stem-branched streamers, l—stem length, s—surface stretch, ree—envelope of discharge filaments.

The synchronized
The synchronized camera
camera and and electrical
electrical observations
observations confirm
confirm that
that more
more than
than one
one streamer
streamer maymay
occur in
occur in the
the half
half period
period ofof AC
AC high
high voltage
voltage cycle. The proceeding
cycle. The proceeding streamer
streamer maymay thus
thus influence
influence the
the
subsequent ones, changing the ionization and discharge development environment.
subsequent ones, changing the ionization and discharge development environment. It can be in the It can be in the
form of
form of residual
residual charges
charges oror the
the gaseous
gaseous channels,
channels, which
which may
may have
have not
not enough
enoughtime timeto todissipate
dissipate[25].
[25].
Figure
In this
this way7. Characterization
the electrical of streamer
electrical field
field bemodes:
could be (a) corona
distorted inception
and further
further stage, (b)
influence thetip-branched
inception and streamers,
and propagation
In way the could distorted and influence the inception propagation
(c) stem-branched streamers, l—stem length, s—surface stretch, re—envelope of discharge filaments.
of subsequent
of subsequent discharges.
discharges. In In some
some cases,
cases, one
one may
may notice
notice the
the streamer
streamer initiated
initiated not
not from
from the the point
point tip
tip
but from
but from thethe point-side.
point-side. ItIt results
results from thethe effect of
of space
space charge
charge made by by previous streamers
streamers which
The synchronized camera and from electrical effect
observations confirm madethat moreprevious
than one streamer which may
didn’t
didn’t reach
reach the
the opposite
opposite plane electrode
plane [26,27].
electrode The
[26,27]. semi
The breakdown
semi is
breakdownobserved
is when
observed thewhen
discharge
the
occur in the half period of AC high voltage cycle. The proceeding streamer may thus influence the
has reached thereached
barrier the
on grounded plane electrode andelectrode
high conductive channel is formed in the
subsequent ones, changing the ionization and discharge development environment. It can be in the is
discharge has barrier on grounded plane and high conductive channel
inter-electrode
formed space. The barrier material
in the inter-electrode limitsmaterial
also the limits
short-circuit effect.
form of residual charges or the space.
gaseous The barrier
channels, which may have also
notthe short-circuit
enough time toeffect.
dissipate [25].
The real novelty of the presented methodology is in the correspondence between optically detected
In this way the electrical field could be distorted and further influence the inception and propagation
images coming from the radiation processes in a streamer and electrically acquired impulse discharge
of subsequent discharges. In some cases, one may notice the streamer initiated not from the point tip
current. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 8, first with a discharge phase-resolved pattern
but from the point-side. It results from the effect of space charge made by previous streamers which
with superimposed optical images of streamers with filaments, followed by the oscilloscope snapshot
didn’t reach the opposite plane electrode [26,27]. The semi breakdown is observed when the
(Figure 8b) with captured individual discharge (blue trace) within gate window (green trace). In the
discharge has reached the barrier on grounded plane electrode and high conductive channel is
phase resolved PD pattern there are denoted two discharge forms with corresponding times t1 and t2
formed in the inter-electrode space. The barrier material limits also the short-circuit effect.
 detected images coming from the radiation processes in a streamer and electrically acquired impulse
The real novelty of the presented methodology is in the correspondence between optically
discharge current. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 8, first with a discharge phase-resolved
detected images coming from the radiation processes in a streamer and electrically acquired impulse
pattern with superimposed optical images of streamers with filaments, followed by the oscilloscope
discharge current. This relationship is illustrated in Figure 8, first with a discharge phase-resolved
snapshot (Figure 8b) with captured individual discharge (blue trace) within gate window (green
pattern with superimposed optical images of streamers with filaments, followed by the oscilloscope
trace). 2020,
Energies In the
13,phase
2676 resolved PD pattern there are denoted two discharge forms with corresponding 9 of 15
snapshot (Figure 8b) with captured individual discharge (blue trace) within gate window (green
times t1 and t2 elapsing from zero crossing of high voltage. The correspondence between electrical
trace). In the phase resolved PD pattern there are denoted two discharge forms with corresponding
PRPD pattern and optical imaging observation is depicted as 1 and 2 in Figure 8a.
times t1 and
elapsing fromt2 zero
elapsing fromofzero
crossing highcrossing
voltage. of
Thehigh voltage. Thebetween
correspondence correspondence
electricalbetween electrical
PRPD pattern and
PRPD
opticalpattern
imaging and optical imaging
observation observation
is depicted as 1 andis2depicted
in Figureas8a.
1 and 2 in Figure 8a.

(a) (b)
Figure 8. (a) Discharge phase-resolved
(a) pattern with corresponding discharge(b) images with streamer
filaments, (b) snapshot of an individual discharge within a getting window. Notation: gate signal—
Figure 8.
Figure (a) Discharge
8. (a) Discharge phase-resolved
phase-resolved pattern
pattern with
with corresponding
corresponding discharge
discharge images
images with
with streamer
streamer
green, trigger of camera shutter—lilac, high voltage—yellow, PD pulses—blue.
filaments, (b) snapshot
filaments, snapshotofofananindividual discharge
individual within
discharge a getting
within window.
a getting Notation:
window. gate signal—green,
Notation: gate signal—
triggertrigger
green, of camera shutter—lilac,
of camera high voltage—yellow,
shutter—lilac, PD pulses—blue.
high voltage—yellow, PD pulses—blue.
The different dielectric materials acting as a barrier were subjected to the high voltage in point-
planeTheconfiguration.
different dielectricDepending onacting the material properties various discharge patterns recorded
The different dielectricmaterials
materials actingasas a barrier were
a barrier weresubjected
subjected to the
to high voltage
the high in point-plane
voltage in point-
optically by
configuration. fast imaging
Depending were observed.
on the material For certain
propertiespropertiesbarrier materials
various discharge such as GLASS, XLPE the
plane configuration. Depending on the material various patterns
dischargerecorded
patternsoptically
recorded by
positive
fast imagingstreamer channels
wereimaging
observed. develop
Forobserved. as tip-branched
certain barrier materials while
such asfor the PVC,
GLASS, such EPR
XLPEasthe the stem
positiveXLPEmode
streamer is
optically by fast were For certain barrier materials GLASS, the
observed. The
channelsstreamer streamer
develop as development
tip-branched while and landing surface pattern strongly depends on the barrier
positive channels develop as for the PVC, EPR
tip-branched while thefor
stem themodePVC,is EPRobserved.
the stem The mode
streameris
material. Thisand
development dependence
landing can be attributed
surface pattern to the material
strongly depends electric
on the permittivity,
barrier thickness
material. This and surface
dependence
observed. The streamer development and landing surface pattern strongly depends on the barrier
properties
can relatedtotothe
be attributed charge accumulation.
material The accumulated charges influence inception conditions
material. This dependence can beelectric
attributedpermittivity, thickness
to the material and permittivity,
electric surface properties related
thickness andtosurface
charge
for successive
accumulation. discharges
The as
accumulated well as the
charges availability
influence of seed
inception electrons
conditions and
for conditions
successive for discharge
discharges as
properties related to charge accumulation. The accumulated charges influence inception conditions
inception
well as the after polarityofreversal.
availability seed electrons and conditions for discharge inception after polarity reversal.
for successive discharges as well as the availability of seed electrons and conditions for discharge
The observed
The observed evolution
evolution of aa discharge
of discharge patternpattern in in point-to-plane
point-to-plane arrangement
arrangement for for positive
positive voltage
voltage
inception after polarity reversal.
polarity
polarity is
is graphically
graphically presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 9. At 9. At
coronacorona
onset onset
voltage voltage
(5 kV) (5
the kV) the
discharges discharges
are are
recorded
The observed evolution of a discharge pattern in point-to-plane arrangement for positive voltage
recorded
at the crest at of
thesinusoidal
crest of sinusoidal voltage waveform.
voltage waveform. While increasing thetovoltage to 10 kV, the
polarity is graphically presented in Figure 9. While increasing
At corona onset the voltage
voltage (5 kV) 10the
kV,discharges
the discharge
are
discharge
pattern is at pattern
drifting is drifting
toward toward
earlier phase earlier phase
angle waveform. angle
(zero crossing (zero
of high crossing of
voltage),the high voltage),
exhibiting exhibiting
recorded the crest of sinusoidal voltage While increasing voltagesimultaneously
to 10 kV, the
simultaneously
higher magnitudes. higher magnitudes. Further increase of appliedinvoltage results inof the appearance of
discharge pattern is Further
drifting increase of applied
toward earlier phase voltage
angleresults
(zero crossingthe appearance
of high voltage),second PD form
exhibiting
second PD form
distributed around distributed around
themagnitudes.
phase angle 90 the◦ phase
, preserving angle 90°, preserving the first form, which has drifted
simultaneously higher Further increasethe of first
appliedform, whichresults
voltage has drifted
in thefurther
appearancetowardsof
further
HV zero towards
crossing. HV Thezero crossing. of
magnitude Thethe magnitude
form 1 is of the form
usually much 1 issmaller
usuallythan much formsmaller
2, thanthe
except form
EPR 2,
second PD form distributed around the phase angle 90°, preserving the first form, which has drifted
except the
barrier EPR barrier
material, where material,
peak where the peakformsvalues of both forms where almost equal.
further towards HV zerothe
crossing. values of both
The magnitude where
of the formalmost equal.
1 is usually much smaller than form 2,
except the EPR barrier material, where the peak values of both forms where almost equal.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Evolution
Evolution of
of aa discharge
discharge pattern in aa point-to-plane
pattern in point-to-plane arrangement
arrangement (only
(only positive
positive voltage
voltage
polarity is considered).
polarity is considered).
Figure 9. Evolution of a discharge pattern in a point-to-plane arrangement (only positive voltage
polarity is considered).
The coupled phase-resolved PD patterns and optical imaging obtained at 13 kV in point-plane
configuration with various barrier materials: GLASS, XLPE, PCV, EPR are shown in Figure 10. Thanks
to synchronization with phase resolved electrical recording the visible streamers can be associated
with the discharge pattern in the positive AC half period. In this way two forms can be distinguished,
denoted as form 1 and form 2, respectively.
 The coupled phase-resolved PD patterns and optical imaging obtained at 13 kV in point-plane
configuration with various barrier materials: GLASS, XLPE, PCV, EPR are shown in Figure 10.
Thanks to synchronization with phase resolved electrical recording the visible streamers can be
associated
Energies 2020, with the discharge pattern in the positive AC half period. In this way two forms can
13, 2676 10 ofbe
15
distinguished, denoted as form 1 and form 2, respectively.

10. Phase-resolved PD patterns (upper row) and optical imaging (below) obtained at voltage
Figure 10.
13
13 kV in point-plane
kV in point-plane configuration
configuration with
with various
various barrier materials: (from left to right) GLASS, XLPE,
PCV,
PCV, EPR (point and plane electrodes aremarked
EPR (point and plane electrodes are markedininwhite).
white).

Form
Form 11 refers
refers toto the
the early
early corona
corona streamers,
streamers, while
while form
form 22 is
is activated
activated around
around thethe crest
crest voltage
voltage of of
the
the sinusoidal
sinusoidalwaveform.
waveform.Form Form 2 corresponds
2 corresponds alsoalso
to the
tobreakdown
the breakdownchannel. The corona
channel. onset (form1)
The corona onset
is present
(form1) is in all cases
present in and is triggered
all cases at t1 = 0.95
and is triggered at÷t11.0 ms after
= 0.95 ÷ 1.0 high voltage
ms after highzero crossing,
voltage zero while the
crossing,
form occurs at t = 4.4 ÷
while the form 2 2occurs at t2 = 4.4 ÷ 5 ms, only for PCV and EPR barrier material at this voltage level.1
2 5 ms, only for PCV and EPR barrier material at this voltage level. The form
streamer
The form mode is tip-branched,
1 streamer except EPRexcept
mode is tip-branched, material
EPR where individual
material channel is channel
where individual visible, reflecting
is visible,
origin
reflecting origin of stem-branched mode, gradually changing into branch type at the surface.
of stem-branched mode, gradually changing into branch type at the barrier In the
barrier surface.
next
In thesections, the coupled
next sections, phase-resolved
the coupled PD patterns
phase-resolved and optical
PD patterns images
and optical are shown,
images measured
are shown, with
measured
various
with various barrier materials in a function of applied voltage from inception to the breakdown. first
barrier materials in a function of applied voltage from inception to the breakdown. The The
example
Energies presented
2020,
first example x FOR in
13, presented Figure
PEER REVIEW
in 11 refers
Figure to a glass
11 refers plate.plate.
to a glass 11 of 16

Figure 11.
11. Phase-resolved
Phase-resolved PDPDpatterns (upper
patterns row)
(upper and and
row) optical imaging
optical (below)
imaging obtained
(below) in a point-
obtained in a
plane configuration
point-plane with glass
configuration barrier
with glass materials
barrier for AC
materials forvoltages (from(from
AC voltages left to right)
left 5 kV,5 kV,
to right) 10 kV, 15
10 kV,
kV,kV,
15 20 20
kVkV(point and
(point plane
and electrodes
plane areare
electrodes marked
markedin in
white).
white).

Form 1, corresponding to the onset of positive corona starts at voltage 5 kV at the peak (t1 = 5
ms). At 10 kV the pattern has moved towards earlier phase angle (t1 = 1.6 ms) and is present also at
15 kV and 20 kV, moving ahead with t1 = 0.7 ms and t1 = 0.38 ms, respectively. For the last two voltage
values the individual streamer channels are reaching the plane electrode. Strong form 2 is visible at
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 11 of 15

Form 1, corresponding to the onset of positive corona starts at voltage 5 kV at the peak (t1 = 5 ms).
At 10 kV the pattern has moved towards earlier phase angle (t1 = 1.6 ms) and is present also at 15 kV
and 20 kV, moving ahead with t1 = 0.7 ms and t1 = 0.38 ms, respectively. For the last two voltage values
the individual streamer channels are reaching the plane electrode. Strong form 2 is visible at 15 kV
and 20 kV. At 15 kV the discharge mode is a combination of long stem-branched and tip-branched,
with broad stretch at the glass barrier surface. At 20 kV the single, compact breakdown channel can be
noticed, with narrow surface foot. The form 2 mode is triggered at t2 = 3.7 ms at 15 kV and t2 = 3 ms at
20 kV.
The next example presented in Figure 12 refers to XLPE barrier material. Up to the voltage 20
kV only form 1 is visible. At 20 kV form 2 appears as a very strong tip-branched breakdown with
a very strong main vertical plasma channel. The time is moving from t1 = 5 ms for 5 kV, through
0.7 ms for 15 kV up to HV zero crossing at 20 kV. The form 2 at 20 kV occurs at time t2 = 3.8 ms,
moving towards the main cluster at positive voltage peak. The phase-resolved PD pattern is in this case
vertically blurred and corresponds to the branched breakdown channels, whereas in the case of glass
barrier the PRPD pattern was much broader in phase, however resulted in very narrow breakdown
channel. The streamer mode is in general tip-branched. The breakdown mode has stretched and stable
multipoint
Energies 2020, foot. ThePEER
13, x FOR glow at the point tip is very strong and bright.
REVIEW 12 of 16

Figure Phase-resolvedPD
Figure 12. Phase-resolved PD patterns
patterns (upper
(upper row)row)
andand optical
optical imaging
imaging (below)
(below) obtained
obtained in a
in a point-
point-plane configuration
plane configuration with XLPE
with XLPE barrier
barrier materials
materials for ACforvoltages
AC voltages
(from(from leftright)
left to to right) 5 kV,
5 kV, 10 kV,
10 kV, 15
15
kV,kV,
2020
kVkV (point
(point andand plane
plane electrodes
electrodes are
are marked
marked inin white).
white).

The
The following
following example
example presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 13 13 exhibits
exhibits PVC
PVC barrier
barrier material.
material. FormForm 11 has
has its
its
inception
inception asas in
in other
other cases
cases atat 55 kV
kV and
and is is moving
moving towards
towards voltage
voltage zero
zero crossing
crossing while
while increasing
increasing thethe
voltage
voltage to
to 10,
10, 15
15 and
and 20 20 kV with tt11 time
kV with time 1.5,
1.5, 0.70
0.70 and
and 0.55
0.55 ms
ms respectively.
respectively. TheThe form
form 22 starts
starts with
with PVC
PVC
barrier
barrier already
already atat 10
10 kV
kV asas aa tiny
tiny glowing
glowing dot dot visible
visible in
in imaging
imaging and and blurred
blurred around
around peakpeak voltage
voltage of of
the PRPD pattern. The mode 2 is first tip-branched at 15 kV and is switching
the PRPD pattern. The mode 2 is first tip-branched at 15 kV and is switching to long stem-branched to long stem-branched at
20 kV.kV.
at 20 The surface
The surface stretch of of
stretch discharge
discharge foot is is
foot very
verybroad.
broad.The timingt2t2of
Thetiming ofform
form22 is is equal
equal toto 4.7 ms,
4.7 ms,
4.4
4.4 ms
ms and
and 3.5
3.5 ms
ms for
for voltage
voltage 10,10, 15
15 and
and 20 20 kV,
kV,respectively.
respectively.
The correspondence of discharge
The correspondence of discharge imaging and imaging andPRPD
PRPD forfor
EPREPR barrier
barrier is shown
is shown in Figure
in Figure 14.
14. The
The onset voltage for form 1 is at 5 kV with individual streamer. At 10 kV
onset voltage for form 1 is at 5 kV with individual streamer. At 10 kV both forms 1 and 2 are active. both forms 1 and 2 are
active. Whilethe
While rising rising the applied
applied voltagevoltage
to 10, 15 to 10,
and1520andkV,20 kV,form
the the form 1 is moving
1 is moving towards
towards voltage
voltage zero
zero crossing with reduced time t in a following sequence 2.1, 0.95 and 0.22
crossing with reduced time t1 in a 1following sequence 2.1, 0.95 and 0.22 ms. The form 2 starts already ms. The form 2 starts
already
at 5 kV,athowever
5 kV, however
it was itnotwas not captured
captured optically.
optically. With theWithEPRthe barrier
EPR barrier
alreadyalready
at 10atkV10strong
kV strong
tip-
tip-branched streamers are reaching
branched streamers are reaching the plane side. the plane side.
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 16

Energies 2020, 13, 2676 12 of 15

At 15 kV the form 2 transforms into stem-branched discharges, with few plasma channels. In that
context, interesting observation refers to form 1 triggered at t1 = 0.95 ms at 15 kV and having scythe
like shape, with high magnitude, reaching the level of form 2. In this way scissors-like tip-branched
discharges are observed, revealed previously at 10 kV as form 2. At 20 kV the discharge form represents
a mix of tip-branched mode, consisting of stem-branched filaments. The surface stretch of discharge
foot is very intensive comparing to glass or PVC cases. The timing t2 of form 2 is equal to 4.0 ms, 3.3 ms
and 4.05 ms for voltages of 10, 15 and 20 kV.
The observation of the EPX9 barrier illustrated in Figure 15 reveals a different behavior. The corona
onset voltage for a form 1 is equal to 5 kV (t1 = 5 ms) and is moving at 10 kV to t1 = 1.7 ms and
further for 15 kV and 20 kV to t1 = 0.7 ms and t1 = 0.38 ms, respectively. The discharge intensity is
relatively low compared to the previous dialectic materials and resembles the glass case also in respect
to the streamer forms. The form 2 starts at 15 kV (t2 = 4.2 ms) with a narrow plasma channel and tiny
branches.
FigureThis individual streamer
12. Phase-resolved PD patterns channel,
(upperoriginating at time
row) and optical t1 = 0.38
imaging (below)ms,obtained
is visiblein as form 1 at
a point-
20 kVplane
and configuration
is transformed to form
with XLPE2barrier
starting before for
materials peakACvoltage
voltages t2 = 3.55
at(from ms.
left to The5form
right) 2 is
kV, 10 kV,recorded
15
in this case as a tiny filament between point tip
kV, 20 kV (point and plane electrodes are marked in white).and EPX9 barrier. The stem like branches are released
mostly just above the plasma foot towards dielectric surface.
Parameters
The following of streamer
example modes
presented recorded
in Figurefor various
13 exhibitsbarrier
PVC materials are presented
barrier material. Formin1 Table
has its2.
The classification has been performed with respect to the radius of an envelope
inception as in other cases at 5 kV and is moving towards voltage zero crossinge while increasing the r , stretch of discharge
voltages to
profile measured
10, 15 andon20 thekV
plane
withbarrier
t1 timesurface
1.5, 0.70and a stem
and 0.55 mslength l. All above
respectively. Theparameters
form 2 startsare with
expressed
PVC
in arbitrary
barrier units.
already In kV
at 10 addition,
as a tiny two time parameters
glowing dot visible are considered,
in imaging and i.e., the time
blurred around from zerovoltage
peak crossing of
to
thethe
PRPD appearance
pattern. Theof the
modeform 2 is1 first
and tip-branched
form 2, measured at 15 kV in and
milliseconds
is switching andtodenoted as t1 and t2 .
long stem-branched
Those parameters
at 20 kV. The surface arestretch
measured at the voltage
of discharge foot isinvery
the range
broad.5The kV to 20 kV.
timing t2 of form 2 is equal to 4.7 ms,
4.4 msFrom
and the
3.5 imaging profiles
ms for voltage 10,and
15 andresults listed
20 kV, in Table 2 several conclusions can be drawn with
respectively.
regards
Thetocorrespondence
discharge development
of dischargein theimaging
arrangement containing
and PRPD for EPRdielectric
barrierbarriers
is shown placed on the
in Figure 14.plane
The
electrode
onset voltagein a for form a1 =
distance is 20
at mm
5 kVfrom with the high voltage
individual pointAt
streamer. electrode.
10 kV both At forms
the corona1 andonset
2 arevoltage
active.
equal
While to 5 kVthe
rising the applied
outreachvoltage
of streamers,
to 10, 15 measured
and 20 kV, fromthe theform
tip as1 aisradius
moving of an envelope
towards re , iszero
voltage in a
range from
crossing with0.81 (EPX9) time
reduced to 1.03 (PVC).
t1 in Rising the
a following voltage2.1,
sequence to 0.95
10 kV andresults
0.22 in
ms.theTheextension of thatalready
form 2 starts radius
for
at 5GLASS,
kV, howeverXLPE and EPX9
it was notmaterial,
captured but also shortening
optically. With the in EPR
the case of PVC
barrier and EPR.
already at 10Further
kV strongvoltage
tip-
increase
branchedtostreamers
15 kV, yields the prolongation
are reaching the planeofside.the radius for form 1 for all investigated materials.

Figure 13.
13. Phase-resolved
Phase-resolvedPDPDpatterns (upper
patterns row)
(upper and and
row) optical imaging
optical (below)
imaging obtained
(below) in a point-
obtained in a
plane configuration
point-plane with PVC
configuration withbarrier materials
PVC barrier for ACfor
materials voltages (from left
AC voltages to right)
(from left to5right)
kV, 105kV,
kV, 15
10kV,
kV,
15
20 kV, 20 kV (point
kV (point and electrodes
and plane plane electrodes are marked
are marked in white).
in white).
that context, interesting observation refers to form 1 triggered at t1 = 0.95 ms at 15 kV and having
scythe like shape, with high magnitude, reaching the level of form 2. In this way scissors-like tip-
branched discharges are observed, revealed previously at 10 kV as form 2. At 20 kV the discharge
form represents a mix of tip-branched mode, consisting of stem-branched filaments. The surface
stretch2020,
Energies of discharge
13, 2676 foot is very intensive comparing to glass or PVC cases. The timing t2 of form 2 15
13 of is
equal to 4.0 ms, 3.3 ms and 4.05 ms for voltages of 10, 15 and 20 kV.

Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15

1 at 20 kV and
Figure 14.
is transformed
14. Phase-resolved
Phase-resolvedPDPD
to form
patterns
2(upper
patterns
starting
row)
(upper
before
and and
row)
peak
optical
voltage
imaging
optical
at t2 (below)
(below)
imaging
= 3.55 ms.
obtained
The form
in a point-
obtained in a
2 is
recorded in this case
plane configuration
point-plane as a tiny
with EPR
configuration filament
withbarrier between
materials
EPR barrier point
for ACfor
materials tip and
voltages EPX9 barrier.
(from left
AC voltages The
to right)
(from stem
left to5 right) like
kV, 105kV,
kV,15branches
10kV,
kV,
are released
15
20 kV, mostly just
20 kV (point
kV (point above the
and electrodes
and plane plasma
plane electrodes foot towards
are marked
are marked dielectric
in white).
in white). surface.

The observation of the EPX9 barrier illustrated in Figure 15 reveals a different behavior. The
corona onset voltage for a form 1 is equal to 5 kV (t1 = 5 ms) and is moving at 10 kV to t1 = 1.7 ms and
further for 15 kV and 20 kV to t1 = 0.7 ms and t1 = 0.38 ms, respectively. The discharge intensity is
relatively low compared to the previous dialectic materials and resembles the glass case also in
respect to the streamer forms. The form 2 starts at 15 kV (t2 = 4.2 ms) with a narrow plasma channel
and tiny branches. This individual streamer channel, originating at time t1 = 0.38 ms, is visible as form
1 at 20 kV and is transformed to form 2 starting before peak voltage at t2 = 3.55 ms. The form 2 is
recorded in this case as a tiny filament between point tip and EPX9 barrier. The stem like branches
are released mostly just above the plasma foot towards dielectric surface.

Figure 15.
15. Phase-resolved
Phase-resolved PDPDpatterns (upper
patterns row)row)
(upper and and
optical imaging
optical (below)
imaging obtained
(below) in a point-
obtained in a
plane configuration
point-plane with EPX9
configuration barrier
with EPX9 materials
barrier for AC
materials forvoltages (from(from
AC voltages left to right)
left 5 kV,5 10
to right) kV,kV, 15
10 kV,
kV, 20 20
15 kV, kVkV(point and
(point plane
and electrodes
plane areare
electrodes marked
markedin in
white).
white).

The stretch of
Parameters ofthe discharge
streamer profile
modes measured
recorded for on the barrier
various barriersurface can beare
materials observed
presented in fact at 15 kV.
in Table 2.
At 10 kV only in case of EPR the breakdown of the inter electrode gap occurs and
The classification has been performed with respect to the radius of an envelope re, stretch of discharge the stretch could be
measured.
profile There is also
s measured on substantial span between
the plane barrier surfacethose
and values,
a stem i.e., rather
length broad
l. All for GLASS
above and PVC.
parameters are
At the 20 kV,
expressed when strong
in arbitrary plasma
units. channel
In addition, is created
two GLASS, XLPE
time parameters (form 1) and
are considered, PVC
i.e., the manifest
time fromratherzero
narrow footprint,
crossing whereas EPR,
to the appearance of theEPX9
formand1 andXLPE
form(form 2) exhibit
2, measured inbroader spot. and
milliseconds The denoted
low stretchas tvalue
1 and

tcorresponds to the direct

2. Those parameters vertical channel
are measured withoutinbranching
at the voltage the rangeon 5 kVthetosurface.
20 kV.
The discharge mode containing stem is present almost in all cases except XLPE. Most prominent
are however theTable cases2.ofParameters
PVC and EPR barriermodes
of streamer materials. Thefor
recorded stem is visible
various mainly
barrier below 20 kV, where
materials.
mostly strongStem plasma channel
Length l
is dominating.
Stretch of Discharge Profiles Radius of Envelope re
Depending on the surface and dielectric properties the dielectric barrierForm
has1 impact
t1 (ms) on Form
the2 charge
t2 (ms)
Barrier (a.u.) (a.u.) (a.u.)
accumulation
Material 15effect and
20 in response modulation of the
10 (kV) 15 (kV) 20 (kV)
5 streamer
10 development through the space
15 (kV) 15 (kV) 20 (kV) 15 (kV)
20
(kV) (kV) (kV) (kV)
charge. In this way one could observe the tip-branched discharges or formation of a stem. The surface (kV)
2.0
GLASS 0.39 - - F2 = 2.4 F2 = 0.35 0.92 1.28 0.7 0.38 3.7 3.0
BD
F1 = 0.37 F2
XLPE - 0.43 - F1 = 0.26 0.84 1.25 1.69 0.7 0.06 - 3.0
= 2.86
PVC 0.37 0.84 - F2 = 2.55 F2 = 1.78 1.03 0.69 1.21 0.7 0.55 4.4 3.5
F1 = 0.63 2.0
EPR 0.65 0.42 F2 1.63 F2 = 3.51 0.89 0.72 0.95 0.40 3.3 4.1
F2 = 1.44 BD
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 14 of 15

conductivity determines also stretch of the discharges around the discharge footprint, leading to local
electric field attenuation or enhancement. The charge deposition is likewise controlled by the polar
properties of the dielectric material. Hence, the effects observed at positive corona can be modulated by
the charges deposited at the negative half period, creating the modified initial conditions. In this way
surface discharge behavior, i.e., landing and sliding and interplay of individual filaments is influenced.

Table 2. Parameters of streamer modes recorded for various barrier materials.

Barrier Stem Length l (a.u.) Stretch of Discharge Profiles (a.u.) Radius of Envelope re (a.u.) Form 1 t1 (ms) Form 2 t2 (ms)
Material 15 (kV) 20 (kV) 10 (kV) 15 (kV) 20 (kV) 5 (kV) 10 (kV) 15 (kV) 15 (kV) 20 (kV) 15 (kV) 20 (kV)
GLASS 0.39 - - F2 = 2.4 F2 = 0.35 0.92 1.28 2.0 BD 0.7 0.38 3.7 3.0
F1 = 0.37
XLPE - 0.43 - F1 = 0.26 0.84 1.25 1.69 0.7 0.06 - 3.0
F2 = 2.86
PVC 0.37 0.84 - F2 = 2.55 F2 = 1.78 1.03 0.69 1.21 0.7 0.55 4.4 3.5
F1 = 0.63
EPR 0.65 0.42 F2 1.63 F2 = 3.51 0.89 0.72 2.0 BD 0.95 0.40 3.3 4.1
F2 = 1.44
EPX9 0.38 - - 1.94 0.70 0.81 0.92 1.4 0.7 0.38 4.2 3.6

BD—breakdown, F1—form 1, F2—form 2.

From all above cases one can see that the corona onset voltage level is independent of the barrier
material and is determined by the electric field and radius of the tip of the point electrode. The distance
to the grounded electrode and barrier materials are influencing in turn the streamer development
modes and breakdown phase.

5. Conclusions
This paper reports a correlation of partial discharge phase-resolved patterns with an optical imaging
performed in a non-uniform electric field configuration with a dielectric barrier. The synchronous
measuring technique between PRPD patterns and optical images was shown. The influence of different
dielectric barrier materials, in terms of inherent polarity, electric permittivity and surface resistivity on
discharge propagation and landing was compared. Depending on the surface charge accumulation
properties the various vertical as well as surface landing streamer modes were observed, whereas the
initial positive corona stage was similar for all cases. In order to compare and assess the streamer
modes the geometrical factors were introduced describing the discharge profiles. The tip-branched
and stem-branched profiles were introduced in a vertical space and in the horizontal one, the stretch of
discharge footprint. The observations revealed clear influence of dielectric barrier materials on the
discharge channel and surface charge dynamics, which can be attributed to the memory effects and
dielectric repolarization, in the case of polar materials.
In this way, a novel approach to the association of the PD form or sub cluster in a phase-resolved
pattern with corresponding optical mode was studied. The presented methodology and synchronous
PD acquisition techniques may be used both for understanding underlying discharge physics and
towards future diagnostics observations.

Author Contributions: M.F., D.K., M.K. and P.Z. cooperated at all stages of the presented research. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Townsend, J.S. Electricity in Gases; Clarendon Press: Oxford, UK, 1915.
2. Loeb, L. Fundamental Processes of Electrical Discharge in Gases; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 1947.
3. Raether, H. Electron Avalanches and Breakdown in Gases; Butterworth: London, UK, 1964.
4. Meek, J.M.; Craggs, J.D. Electrical Breakdown of Gases; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 1978.
5. Moreaua, E.; Audier, P.; Orriere, T.; Benard, N. Electrohydrodynamic gas flow in a positive corona discharge.
J. Appl. Phys. 2019, 125, 133303. [CrossRef]
Energies 2020, 13, 2676 15 of 15

6. Morrow, R.; Lowke, J.J. Streamer propagation in air. J. Phys. D Appl. Phys. 1997, 30, 614–627. [CrossRef]
7. Marode, E. The mechanism of spark breakdown in air at atmospheric pressure between a positive point and
plane. II. Theoretical: Computer simulation of the streamer track. J. Appl. Phys. 1975, 46, 2016. [CrossRef]
8. Morsalin, S.; Phung, B.T. Comparative phase-resolved analysis of AC corona discharges at very low frequency
and power frequencies. In Proceedings of the International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and
Power System, Bali, Indonesia, 2–5 October 2017; pp. 165–169.
9. Morsalin, S.; Phung, B.T. Corona discharge under non-sinusoidal voltage excitation at very low frequency.
In Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on the Properties and Applications of Dielectric Materials
(ICPADM), Xi’an, China, 20–24 May 2018; pp. 653–656.
10. Van Brunt, R.J.; Kulkarni, S.V. Method for measuring the stochastic properties of corona and partial—Discharge
pulses. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 1989, 60, 3012–3023. [CrossRef]
11. Wu, Z.; Zhang, Q.; Pei, Z.; Ni, H. Correspondence between phase resolved partial discharge patterns and
corona discharge modes. IEEE Trans. Dielec. Electr. Insul. 2019, 26, 898–903. [CrossRef]
12. Fuji, K.; Yamada, M.; Tanaka, A.; Kurosawa, K. Emission spectrum of partial discharge light in SF6
gas. In Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, Baltimore, MD, USA,
7–10 June 1992; pp. 332–335.
13. Ren, M.; Dong, M.; Liu, J. Statistical analysis of partial discharges in SF6 gas via optical detection in various
spectral ranges. Energies 2016, 9, 152. [CrossRef]
14. Kozioł, M.; Nagi, Ł.; Kunicki, M.; Urbaniec, I. Radiation in the optical and UHF range emitted by partial
discharges. Energies 2019, 12, 4334. [CrossRef]
15. Pan, C.; Wu, K.; Meng, Y.; Cheng, Y.; Tang, J. The effect of discharge area variation on stochastic characters of
PD magnitude. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 217–226. [CrossRef]
16. Florkowski, M.; Florkowska, B.; Zydron, P. Partial discharge echo obtained by chopped sequence. IEEE Trans.
Dielect. Electr. Insul. 2016, 23, 1294–1302. [CrossRef]
17. Florkowski, M.; Florkowska, B.; Kuniewski, M.; Zydroń, P. Mapping of discharge channels in void creating
effective partial discharge area. IEEE Trans. Dielect. Electr. Insul. 2018, 25, 2220–2228. [CrossRef]
18. Kuffel, E.; Zaengl, W.S.; Kuffel, J. High Voltage Engineering—Fundamentals, 2nd ed.; Elsevier: Oxford, UK,
2000.
19. Florkowski, M.; Florkowska, B. Phase-resolved rise time based discrimination of partial discharges. IET Gener.
Transm. Distrib. 2009, 3, 115–124. [CrossRef]
20. Peek, F.W. Dielectric Phenomena in High Voltage Engineering; McGraw-Hill Book Company: New York, NY,
USA, 1915.
21. Florkowska, B.; Włodek, R. Pulse height analysis of partial discharges in air. IEEE Trans. Electr. Insul. 1993,
28, 932–940. [CrossRef]
22. Seeger, M.; Votteler, T.; Ekeberg, J.; Pancheshnyi, S.; Sanchez, L. Streamer and leader breakdown in air at
atmospheric pressure in strong non-uniform fields in gaps less than one meter. IEEE Trans. Dielec. Electr. Insul.
2018, 25, 2147–2155. [CrossRef]
23. Ceccato, P.H.; Guaitella, O.; Gloahec, M.R.L.; Rousseau, A. Time resolved nanosecond imaging of the
propagation of a corona-like plasma discharge in water at positive applied voltage polarity. J. Appl. Phys. D
2010, 43, 17502. [CrossRef]
24. Celestin, S.; Canes-Boussard, G.; Guaitella, O.; Bourdon, A.; Rousseau, A. Influence of the charges deposition
on the spatial-temporal self-organization of streamers in a DBD. J. Appl. Phys. D 2008, 41, 1–10. [CrossRef]
25. Huang, Y.M.; Liu, Q.; Wang, Z.D. Effects of temperature on partial discharges and streamers in an ester
liquid under AC stress. IEEE Trans. Dielect. Electr. Insul. 2019, 26, 1512–1519. [CrossRef]
26. Kojima, H.; Hotta, K.; Iwata, T.; Hayakawa, N.; Yanagita, N.; Kato, T.; Rokunohe, T.; Okubo, H. Influence of
gap length on discharge channel propagation and breakdown mechanism in air. In Proceedings of the 17th
International Symposium on High Voltage Engineering, Hannover, Germany, 22–26 August 2011.
27. Wang, D.; Du, L.; Yao, C. Statistical study on space charge effects and stage characteristics of needle-plate
corona discharge under DC voltage. Energies 2019, 12, 2732. [CrossRef]

© 2020 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).