UNIT-1

(Electromagnetic Theory)

Department of Applied Sciences (Physics)

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DTC, Greater Noida
Electromagnetism

• Electricity and magnetism are different facets of

electromagnetism
• a moving electric charge produces magnetic
fields
• changing magnetic fields move electric
charges
• This connection first elucidated by Faraday, Maxwell

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Magnetic fields from electricity
• A static distribution of charges produces an electric field
• Charges in motion (an electrical current) produce a
magnetic field
• electric current is an example of charges (electrons) in motion

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Electromagnets
• Arranging wire in a coil and running a current through
produces a magnetic field that looks a lot like a bar magnet
• called an electromagnet
• putting a real magnet inside, can shove the magnet
back and forth depending on current direction: called a
solenoid

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Induced Current
• The next part of the story is that a changing magnetic field
produces an electric current in a loop surrounding the field
• called electromagnetic induction, or Faraday’s Law

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The Electromagnetic Connection

• A changing magnetic field produces an electric field, and a

changing electric field produces a magnetic field.
• Electric and Magnetic fields can produce forces on charges
• An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic waves
(radiation)
• Both electric and magnetic fields can transport energy
• Electric field energy used in electrical circuits, e.g., released
in lightning
• Magnetic field carries energy through transformer, for
example

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Electromagnetic Radiation

• Interrelated electric and magnetic fields traveling through space

• All electromagnetic radiation travels at c = 3108 m/s in vacuum
– the cosmic speed limit!
• real number is 299792458.0 m/s exactly

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields

• Electromagnetics is the study of the effect of charges

at rest and charges in motion.
• Some special cases of electromagnetics:
• Electrostatics: charges at rest
• Magnetostatics: charges in steady motion (DC)
• Electromagnetic waves: waves excited by charges in time-
varying motion

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 Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields

Fundamental laws of Maxwell’s

classical electromagnetics equations

Special Electro- Magneto- Electro- Geometric

cases statics statics magnetic Optics
waves


Statics: 0 Transmission
t
Line
Theory
Input from Circuit
other Theory Kirchoff’s
disciplines d  
Laws

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields

• A scalar is a quantity having only an amplitude

(and possibly phase).

Examples: voltage, current, charge, energy, temperature

• A vector is a quantity having direction in addition

to amplitude (and possibly phase).

Examples: velocity, acceleration, force

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SYMMETRY

A time varying magnetic field produces an electric

field.

A time varying electric field produces a magnetic

field.

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Introduction to Electromagnetic Fields

• Fundamental vector field quantities in

electromagnetics:
• Electric field intensity
E 
units = volts per meter (V/m = kg m/A/s3)
• Electric flux density (electric displacement)
D 
units = coulombs per square meter (C/m2 = A s /m2)
• Magnetic field intensity
H 
units = amps per meter (A/m)
• Magnetic flux density
B 
units = teslas = webers per square meter (T = Wb/ m2 )
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Constitutive Relationships: Material Properties and .

Homogeneous Media

J=E =electric conductivity

(like Ohm’s Law, V=IR)

B=H =magnetic permeability

D= 0(1+ ) E
0 =permittivity of free space
 =electric susceptibilty (to polarization)

f, f=frequency of time harmonic wave (next slides).

= 0(1+ ) + i= complex permittivity

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Relationship between frequency, speed and wavelength
f · = c
f is frequency,  is wavelength, c is speed of light
• Different frequencies of electromagnetic radiation are
better suited to different purposes
• The frequency of a radio wave determines its
propagation characteristics through various media

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Modifications to Ampère’s Law

Ampère’s Law is used to analyze magnetic fields

created by currents:
 
 Bds  μoI

But, this form is valid only if any electric fields present
are constant in time.
Maxwell modified the equation to include time-varying
electric fields.
Maxwell’s modification was to add a term.

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Modifications to Ampère’s Law, cont

The additional term included a factor called the displacement current, Id.
d E
Id  εo
dt

This term was then added to Ampère’s Law.

This showed that magnetic fields are produced both by conduction currents and by
time-varying electric fields.
The general form of Ampère’s Law is

  called Ampère-Maxwelld 
•Sometimes Law
B  ds   o (I  I d )   o I   
o o
dt
E

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Maxwell’s Equations
• Maxwell’s equations in integral form are the
fundamental postulates of classical electromagnetics -
all classical electromagnetic phenomena are
explained by these equations.
• Electromagnetic phenomena include electrostatics,
magnetostatics, electromagnetostatics and
electromagnetic wave propagation.
• The differential equations and boundary conditions
that we use to formulate and solve EM problems are
all derived from Maxwell’s equations in integral form.

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Maxwell’s Equations
In his unified theory of electromagnetism, Maxwell showed that electromagnetic
waves are a natural consequence of the fundamental laws expressed in these four
equations:
  q  
 E  dA  εo  B  dA  0
  d B   d E
 E  ds   dt  B  ds  μo I  μoεo dt

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Maxwell’s Equations
• Various equivalence principles consistent with
Maxwell’s equations allow us to replace more
complicated electric current and charge
distributions with equivalent magnetic sources.
• These equivalent magnetic sources can be treated
by a generalization of Maxwell’s equations.

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Maxwell’s Equation 1 – Gauss’
Law
The total electric flux through any closed surface
equals the net charge inside that surface divided
by eo
  q
 E  dA  εo

This relates an electric field to the charge

distribution that creates it.

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Maxwell’s Equation 2 – Gauss’
Law in Magnetism
The net magnetic flux through a closed surface is zero.
 
 B  dA  0
The number of magnetic field lines that enter a closed volume
must equal the number that leave that volume.
If this weren’t true, there would be magnetic monopoles
found in nature.
• There haven’t been any found

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Maxwell’s Equation 3 –
Faraday’s Law of Induction
Describes the creation of an electric field by a time-varying
magnetic field.
The emf, which is the line integral of the electric field around
any closed path, equals the rate of change of the magnetic
flux through
  any surface bounded by that path.
d B
 E  ds   dt

One consequence is the current induced in a conducting loop

placed in a time-varying magnetic field.

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Maxwell’s Equation 4 –
Ampère-Maxwell Law
Describes the creation of a magnetic field by a changing
electric field and by electric current.
The line integral of the magnetic field around any closed
path is the sum of mo times the net current through that
path and eomo times the rate of change of electric flux
through any surface bounded by that path.
  d E
B  ds  μo I  ε μ
o o
dt

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 Lorentz Force Law
Once the electric and magnetic fields are known at some point in
space, the force acting on a particle of charge q can be found.
   
F  qEequations
Maxwell’s  qv  B with the Lorentz Force Law completely
describe all classical electromagnetic interactions.

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Electromagnetic Waves
•Mechanical waves require the presence of a medium.
•Electromagnetic waves can propagate through empty space.
•Maxwell’s equations form the theoretical basis of all electromagnetic waves
that propagate through space at the speed of light.
•Hertz confirmed Maxwell’s prediction when he generated and detected
electromagnetic waves in 1887.
•Electromagnetic waves are generated by oscillating electric charges.
• The waves radiated from the oscillating charges can be detected at
great distances.
•Electromagnetic waves carry energy and momentum.
•Electromagnetic waves cover many frequencies.

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ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• E = Em sin(kx -  t)
• B = Bm sin(kx - t)

2 2
k   2 f 
 T

wave speed  c  f
k

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 Department of Applied Sciences (Physics)
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Uses of Electromagnetic Waves

• Communication systems
• One-way and two-way
• Radar
• Cooking (with microwaves)
• Medical Imaging (X rays)
• “Night Vision” (infrared)
• Astronomy (radio, wave, IR, visible, UV, gamma)

All that we experience through our eyes is conveyed by

electromagnetic radiation…

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Examples of Electromagnetic Radiation
• AM and FM radio waves (including TV signals)
• Cell phone communication links
• Microwaves
• Infrared radiation
• Light
• X-rays
• Gamma rays
• What distinguishes these from one another?

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ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
Maxwell's Equations in Free Space
q0 i0
d B
 E  dA  0  E  ds  
dt
d E
 B  dA  0  B  ds   0  0
dt
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ELECTROMAGNETIC
WAVES
E B B E
   0  0
x t x t
Em E
 c
Bm B
1
c  3.0  10 m/s 8

 0 0

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 Department of Applied Sciences (Physics)
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 Speed of Electromagnetic
Waves
In empty space, q = 0 and I = 0
The last two equations can be solved to show that the
speed at which electromagnetic waves travel is the speed
of light.
This result led Maxwell to predict that light waves were a
form of electromagnetic radiation.

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 Plane Electromagnetic Waves
We will assume that the vectors for the
electric and magnetic fields in an
electromagnetic wave have a specific
space-time behavior that is consistent
with Maxwell’s equations.
Assume an electromagnetic wave that 
travels in the x direction with E and
as B
shown.
The x-direction is the direction of
propagation.
The electric field is assumed to be in the
y direction and the magnetic field in the
z direction.

Department of Applied Sciences

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(Physics) DTC, Greater Noida
Plane Electromagnetic Waves,
cont.
Waves in which the electric and magnetic fields are restricted
to being parallel to a pair of perpendicular axes are said to be
linearly polarized waves.
We also assume that at any point in space, the magnitudes E
and B of the fields depend upon x and t only.

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Properties of em Waves
The solutions of Maxwell’s third and fourth equations are wave-like, with both E
and B satisfying a wave equation.
Electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light:
1
c
μoεo

• This comes from the solution of Maxwell’s equations.

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Properties of em Waves, 2
The components of the electric and
magnetic fields of plane
electromagnetic waves are
perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
• This can be summarized by
saying that electromagnetic
waves are transverse waves.
The figure represents a sinusoidal em
wave moving in the x direction with a
speed c.

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Properties of em Waves, 3
The magnitudes of the electric and magnetic fields in empty space are related by
the expression:

cE
B

• This comes from the solution of the partial differentials obtained from
Maxwell’s equations.
Electromagnetic waves obey the superposition principle.

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Derivation of Speed – Some
Details
From Maxwell’s equations applied to empty space, the following partial derivatives
can be found: 2
E2
E 2
B B
2
 μoεo 2 and  μo εo 2
x 2
t x 2
t

1
v  care
These  in the form of a general wave equation, with
μoεo

Substituting the values for μo and εo gives c = 2.99792 x 108 m/s

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E to B Ratio – Some Details
The simplest solution to the partial differential equations is a
sinusoidal wave:
• E = Emax cos (kx – ωt)
• B = Bmax cos (kx – ωt)
The angular wave number is k = 2π/λ
• λ is the wavelength
The angular frequency is ω = 2πƒ
• ƒ is the wave frequency

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E to B Ratio – Details, cont.
The speed of the electromagnetic wave is
ω 2π ƒ
  λƒ  c
k 2π λ

Taking partial derivations also gives

Emax ω E
  c
Bmax k B

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Poynting Vector

Electromagnetic waves carry energy.

As they propagate through space, they can transfer that
energy to objects in their path.
The rate of transfer
 of energy by an em wave is described by a
S
vector, , called the Poynting vector.

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 Poynting Vector, cont.
The Poynting vector is defined as

 1  
S  E B
Its direction
μo is the direction of
propagation.
This is time dependent.
• Its magnitude varies in time.
• Its magnitude reaches a
maximum at the same instant as
.

 
E and B

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Poynting Vector, final
The magnitude of the vector represents the rate at which
energy passes through a unit surface area perpendicular to
the direction of the wave propagation.
• Therefore, the magnitude represents the power per unit
area.
The SI units of the Poynting vector are J/(s.m2) = W/m2.

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Energy Density

The energy density, u, is the energy per unit volume.

For the electric field, uE= ½ εoE2
For the magnetic field, uB = ½ μoB2
Since B = E/c and
c 1 μoεo

1 B2
uB  uE  εo E 
2

2 2μo

The instantaneous energy density associated with the magnetic field of an em

wave equals the instantaneous energy density associated with the electric field.
• In a given volume, the energy is shared equally by the two fields.

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Energy Density, cont.
The total instantaneous energy density is the sum of the
energy densities associated with each field.
• u =uE + uB = εoE2 = B2 / μo
When this is averaged over one or more cycles, the total
average becomes
• uavg = εo(E2)avg = ½ εoE2max = B2max / 2μo
In terms of I, I = Savg = cuavg
• The intensity of an em wave equals the average energy
density multiplied by the speed of light.

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Pressure and Momentum

Pressure, P, is defined as the force per unit area

F 1 dp 1  dTER dt 
P  
A A dt c A

But the magnitude of the Poynting vector is (dTER/dt)/A and so P = S / c.

• For a perfectly absorbing surface
For a perfectly reflecting surface, p = 2TER /c and P = 2S/c
For a surface with a reflectivity somewhere between a perfect reflector and a
perfect absorber, the pressure delivered to the surface will be somewhere in
between S/c and 2S/c.
For direct sunlight, the radiation pressure is about 5 x 10-6 N/m2 .

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Momentum
Electromagnetic waves transport momentum as well as
energy.
As this momentum is absorbed by some surface, pressure is
exerted on the surface.
Assuming the wave transports a total energy TER to the
surface in a time interval Δt, the total momentum is p = TER / c
for complete absorption.

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