Five Different types of Magnetic Materials

Di-magnetic Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Antiferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic

Distinction between these can be achieved by suspending the

magnetic material in one of the arms of sensitive balance and
allowed to reach into an inhomogeneous magnetic filed.
Figure 1 : Measurement of the
magnetic susceptibility in an
inhomogeneous magnetic field. The
electromagnet is driven by an
electric current, which flows through
the helical windings of a long-
insulated wire called a solenoid. The
magnetic flux lines (dashed) follow
the iron core.
Diamagnetic materials are
expelled from
inhomogeneous field.

Para-, ferro-, antiferro-, and

ferrimagnetic materials are
attracted to inhomogeneous
magnetic field in different
degrees.
• The force on the sample 𝐹 exerted by the magnetic field 𝐻 is given by
𝑑𝐻
𝐹= 𝑉𝜒𝜇0 𝐻
𝑑𝑥
Where,
V : Volume of the sample
𝜇𝑜 : Permeability of free space (1.257 × 10−6 𝐻Τ𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑉𝑠/𝐴𝑚)
𝜒: Susceptibility
𝑑𝐻
: Change of the magnetic field strength 𝐻 in 𝑥 direction
𝑑𝑥

• 𝜒 tells us how responsive a material is to an applied magnetic field.

Mangetic Field Strength(𝑯)
• The magnetic field strength 𝐻 (applied magnetic field) of electromagnet is proportional
to current 𝐼, which flows through the coil of electromagnet and number of windings
(turns) 𝑛 that have been used to make the coil.
• The magnetic field strength 𝐻 of electromagnet is inversely proportional to the length 𝐿
, of the solenoid. Thus, 𝐻 is given by
𝐼𝑛
𝐻=
𝐿
• 𝐻 is measured in (SI) Ampere turns per meter or 𝐴/𝑚.
Permeability(𝜇)
• Magnetic permeability represents the ease with which a material allows magnetic force of
lines to pass through it. It is denoted as 𝜇.
• It is the product of the permeability of free space (𝜇0 ) and relative permeability (𝜇𝑟 ) i.e., 𝜇 =
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
• Its SI unit is Henry/meter 𝑜𝑟 𝐻/𝑚
Magnetic Induction or Magnetic Flux Density (𝐵)
• The magnetic field strength within the material.
• Magnetic flux per unit area.
• SI unit is Tesla (T)
Relation between 𝐻 and 𝐵: 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝜇𝑟 𝜇0 𝐻
Relation between 𝜒 and 𝜇𝑟 ∶ 𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒
• For empty space(In absence of any
material medium) also for air, 𝜒 = 0 and
𝜇𝑟 = 1 .
Inside Magnetic Materials:

• Diamagnetic material • Ferro and ferrimagnetic material

• 𝜒 : Small and negative • 𝜒 : Small and positive
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly < 1 • 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly > 1
• Para and antiferromagnetic
material
• 𝜒 : Small and positive
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly > 1
• In free(empty) space
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 [∵ 𝜇𝑟 = 1]
• Inside Magnetic Material
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝜇0 𝑀
Where,
𝜇0 𝑀 : Magnetic field due to presence of matter
𝑀 : Magnetization of the material
• Magnetization of the material is given by
𝑀
𝑀 = 𝜒𝐻 ⇒ 𝜒 =
𝐻
• 𝑯 , 𝑩 and 𝑴 are vectors. However, we will use their magnitudes only.
Magnetic Flux (𝝓)
• Magnetic flux (𝜙) is defined as the product of 𝐵 and 𝐴 (area) and given by
𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴
• In free space, 𝑀 = 0 . ∴ 𝜙 = 𝜇0 𝐻𝐴
Magnetic Dipole Moment (𝝁𝒎 )

• Any two equal and opposite magnetic poles separated by a small distance constitute a
magnetic dipole. It is given by
𝜇𝑚 = 𝑙𝑚
Where, 𝑙 is distance from the south pole to north pole and 𝑚 is pole strength of the dipole
(ampere x meter) .
Magnetization(M)
• Magnetization is the magnetic moment per unit volume developed inside solid and given by
𝜇𝑚
𝑀=
𝑉
• In para- or ferromagnetic material the
magnetic induction (B) inside the material
consists of the free-space component (𝜇0 𝑯)
plus a contribution by the material (𝜇0 𝑴)
• The magnetic field lines outside a material
point from the north to the south poles,
whereas inside of para- or ferromagnetic, 𝑩
and 𝜇0 𝑴 point from south to north in order
to maintain continuity.

Para- or ferromagnetic material.

• In diamagnetic material, the response
of the material counteracts (weakens)
the external magnetic field.
• In a thin surface layer of a
superconductor, a supercurrent is
created (below its transition
temperature) which causes a
magnetic field that opposes the
external field. As a consequence, the
magnetic flux lines are expelled from
the interior of the material – Messner
Effect.
Diamagnetic material Superconductor
• An individual atom should act as a magnet because of the motion of the electrons about the nucleus.
• Each electron, with its charge of 1.6 × 10−19 C, circles the atom once in about 10−16 s. If we divide the
electric charge by this time interval, we see that the orbiting electron is equivalent to a current of 1.6 ×
10−3 A.
• Such a current produces a magnetic field on the order of 20 T at the centre of the circular path.
• From this we see that a very strong magnetic field would be produced if several of these atomic
magnets could be aligned inside a material. This doesn’t occur, however, because the simple model
we have described is not the complete story.
• A thorough analysis of atomic structure shows that the magnetic field produced by one electron in an
atom is often cancelled by an oppositely revolving electron in the same atom.
• The net result is that the magnetic effect produced by the electrons orbiting the nucleus is either zero
or very small for most materials.
• The magnetic properties of many materials can be explained by the fact that an electron not only
circles in an orbit, but also spins on its axis like a top, with spin magnetic moment.
Where are magnetic dipoles coming from?
1. Magnetic Moment Duet to Orbital Motion of Electrons and Orbital
Angular Momentum.
• For a current 𝐼 flowing in a circle enclosing an area 𝐴 , 𝜇𝑚 is defined as
𝜇𝑚 = 𝐼𝐴
• This does not only apply to "regular" current flowing in a wire, but in the
extreme also to a single electron circling around an atoms.
• The current 𝐼 carried by one electron orbiting around the nucleus at
the distance 𝑟 with the frequency 𝜈 = 𝜔/2𝜋 is
𝜔
𝐼 = −𝑒 . 2𝜋
• The area 𝐴 is 𝜋𝑟 2 , So we have for the magnetic moment of the electron
𝜔 1
𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑏 = −𝑒 . . 𝜋𝑟 = − . e . 𝜔 . 𝑟 2
2
2𝜋 2
• The angular momentum 𝐿 is given by
𝐿 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑚𝑒 𝜔𝑟 2
• Now, 𝐿 and 𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑏 is related by
𝑒
𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑏 =− 𝐿
2𝑚𝑒
• −ve sign shows that 𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑏 and 𝐿 are antiparallel.
• According to Bohr, 𝐿 = 𝑛ℏ where n = quantum number = 1, 2, 3,
….
𝑒 𝑛ℏ 𝑒ℏ
• So, 𝜇𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑏 = − = −𝑛𝜇𝐵 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜇𝐵 = = 9.27 × 10−27 𝐴/𝑚2 .
2𝑚𝑒 2𝑚𝑒

• This relation defines a fundamental unit for magnetic dipole

moments, it has its own name and is called a Bohr magneton.
2. Magnetic moment due to spin of the electrons
• In addition to orbital motion, the electrons spin around its own axis. The magnetic
moment due to the spin of electrons is represented as 𝜇𝑠 .
• Here, orbital angular momentum is replaced by the spin angular momentum ‘𝑆 ’ and 𝜇𝑠
is given by
𝑒
𝜇𝑠 = 𝛾 𝑆
2𝑚𝑒
• 𝛾 = −2.0024 is spin gyromagnetic ratio. It is defined as the ratio of the magnetic dipole
moment to the angular momentum of an electron.
• According to quantum theory,
𝑒 ℏ 1
𝜇𝑠 = 𝛾 = 9.4 × 10−24 𝐴𝑚2 ∵𝑆= ℏ
2𝑚𝑒 2 2
 2. Magnetic moment due to
spin of the electrons
If the atoms of a material If the material consists of an
The magnetic moments
consist of an even number odd number of electrons,
due to the spin and the
of electrons, then the spin then at least one electron
orbital motions of an
magnetic moments of pairs remains unpaired, and this
electron are of the same
of electrons get cancelled leads to the magnetic
order of magnitude.
due to the opposite spin. moment of the atoms.
3. Magnetic Moment Due to Nuclear Spin
• Like electrons, the protons present in the nucleus also possess spin.
• Vectoral sum of all proton's spins is equal to nuclear spin.
• The magnetic moment of a nucleus is expressed as nuclear magneton (𝜇𝑛 ) given as
𝑒
𝜇𝑠 = ℏ
2𝑚𝑝
• The value of 𝜇𝑛 is equal to 5.05 × 10−27 𝐴𝑚2 .
• Since mass of a proton is nearly 2000 times heavier than an electron, so 𝜇𝑛 is very
small compared to 𝜇𝐵 and it can be neglected.
• Therefore, the total magnetic moment of an atom will be mainly the vectorial sum
of the orbital and spin magnetic moments of electrons.
Figure: Demonstration of magnetic moment associated with the a) an
orbiting Electron and b) a spinning electron
 All Materials

Magnetic
Materials

Having Not having

permanent permanent
magnetic magnetic
dipole dipole

Paramagnetic Ferromagnetic Ferrimagnetic Anti-ferromagnetic Diamagnetic

• Diamagnetic Materials

• The diamagnetism is a consequence of

Lenz’s law stating that if the magnetic flux
enclosed by a current loop is changed by
the application of a magnetic field, a
current is induced in such a direction that
the corresponding magnetic field
opposes the applied field.
• Diamagnetic materials are repelled by
the applied magnetic fields, and they
magnetize to a small extent in the
opposite direction to that of an applied Figure: The atomic dipole configuration for a
external magnetic field. diamagnetic material with and without a magnetic
• In the absence of an external field(𝐻), no field(𝐻).
dipoles exist; in the presence of a
field(𝐻), dipoles are induced that are
aligned opposite to the field direction.
Diamagnetic Materials
• 𝜒 : Small and negative
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly < 1
• Magnetic susceptibility represents the ease of magnetization of a substance and is equal to
the ratio of magnetization of a material to the applied magnetic field.
• All materials have a diamagnetic effect; however, it is often the case that the diamagnetic
effect is masked by the larger paramagnetic or ferromagnetic term.
• The value of susceptibility is independent of temperature.
• Examples are gold, copper, silver, bismuth, lead, zinc and noble gases.
Paramagnetic Materials
• In case of paramagnetic materials each atom
possesses a permanent dipole moment by
virtue of incomplete cancellation of spin
and/or orbital magnetic moments.
• In the absence of an external magnetic field,
these atomic magnetic moments are
randomly oriented as a result of which the
material possesses no net macroscopic
magnetization.
Figure: Atomic dipole configuration with
• These atomic dipoles are free to rotate and and without an external magnetic field for
paramagnetism results when they are a paramagnetic material.
preferentially aligned, by rotation with an
external field.
Paramagnetic Materials
• 𝜒 : Small and positive
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly > 1
• Para-magnetism is due to the spin and orbital, motion of the electrons.
• Strong paramagnetism decreases with rising temperature because of the de-alignment
of magnetic moments produced by the greater thermally generated random motion of
the atomic magnets.
• Weak paramagnetism, independent of temperature, is found in many metallic elements
in the solid state, such as sodium and the other alkali metals, because an applied
magnetic field affects the spin of some of the loosely bound conduction electrons.
• Examples are aluminium, platinum, manganese chloride, salts of iron, nickel, tungsten
and nitrogen.
Ferromagnetic Materials
• These materials are strongly attracted by magnetic fields, and they magnetize in the
direction of the applied external magnetic field.
• Permanent magnetic moments in ferromagnetic materials result from atomic magnetic
moments due to uncanceled electron spins because of the electron structure.
• There is also an orbital magnetic moment contribution that is small in comparison to the
spin moment.
• Furthermore, in a ferromagnetic materials, coupling interactions(exchange interactions)
cause net spin magnetic moments of adjacent atoms to align with one another, even in the
absence of an external field.
• This mutual spin alignment exists over relatively large volume regions of the crystal
called domains.
Ferromagnetic Materials
Coupling Interaction
• The magnetic properties of iron are thought to be the result of the magnetic moment
associated with the spin of an electron in an outer atomic shell—specifically, the third d shell.
• Such electrons are referred to as magnetization electrons.
• The Pauli exclusion principle prohibits two electrons from having identical properties; for
example, no two electrons can be in the same location and have spins in the same direction.
This exclusion can be viewed as a “repulsive” mechanism for spins in the same direction; its
effect is opposite that required to align the electrons responsible for the magnetization in
the iron domains.
• However, other electrons with spins in the opposite direction, primarily in the fourth s atomic
shell, interact at close range with the magnetization electrons, and this interaction is
attractive. Because of the attractive effect of their opposite spins, these s-shell electrons
influence the magnetization electrons of a number of the iron atoms and align them with
each other.
Figure: Schematic illustration of the mutual alignment of
atomic dipoles for a ferromagnetic material, which will
exist even in the absence of an external magnetic field.
Ferromagnetic Materials
• Magnetization in the absence of external magnetic field is called spontaneous
magnetization.
• 𝜒 : Small and positive
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly > 1
• Ferromagnetic materials are usually compared in terms of saturation magnetisation rather
than susceptibility.
• Maximum possible magnetization occurs when all magnetic dipoles in a solid piece are
mutually aligned with the external field. It is called saturation magnetization (𝑴𝒔 ). There is
also a corresponding saturation flux density 𝐵𝑠 .
• 𝑴𝒔 = Net magnetic Moment of Each atom × N ( Number of atoms present)
• For each of iron, cobalt, and nickel, the net magnetic moments per atom are 2.22, 1.72, and
0.60 Bohr magnetons, respectively.
Antiferromagnetic materials
• Antiferromagnetic materials show very little external
magnetism.
• 𝜒 : Small and positive
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly > 1
• The magnetic dipole moments of adjacent atoms are anti-
parallel. Figure: The anti-parallel magnetic
• The atoms or molecules of anti-ferromagnetic materials dipole moments of adjacent atoms
possess magnetic dipole moment due to the spin of in antiferromagnetic materials.
electrons.
• Due to the anti-parallel magnetic dipole moments, the
magnetic effect of an anti-ferromagnetic material is zero
but possess magnetism due to temperature-dependent
disruption of the magnetic moment alignment.
• Examples are copper chloride, oxides of manganese,
cobalt and nickel.
Anti-ferromagnetism in MnO
• Manganese oxide (MnO) is one material that displays this anti-
ferromagnetism.
• Manganese oxide is a ceramic material that is ionic in character,
having both Mn2+ and O2− ions.
• No net magnetic moment is associated with the O2− ions because
there is a total cancellation of both spin and orbital moments.
• However, the Mn2+ ions possess a net magnetic moment that is
predominantly of spin origin. These Mn2+ ions are arrayed in the
crystal structure such that the moments of adjacent ions are
antiparallel.
• The opposing magnetic moments cancel one another, and, as a Figure: Schematic representation of
consequence, the solid as a whole possesses no net magnetic antiparallel alignment of spin magnetic
moment. moments for antiferromagnetic
manganese oxide.
• Ferrimagnetic materials
• The magnetization of ferrimagnetic materials is
intermediate to that of ferromagnetic and anti-
ferromagnetic materials.
• 𝜒 : Small and positive
• 𝜇𝑟 : Slightly > 1
• The magnetic dipole moments of adjacent atoms or
molecules of ferrimagnetic materials are anti-parallel
Figure: The unequal magnetic
and unequal in magnitude. dipole moments of adjacent atoms
• This unequal magnetic dipole moments of adjacent in Ferrimagnetic materials.
atoms result in a net magnetization in the material.
• Examples are all ferrites have a general formula
MFe2O4, in which M stands for any divalent ion, for
example copper, zinc, cadmium, iron, cobalt, nickel, etc
• Raising the temperature of a solid results in an increase in the magnitude of the thermal vibrations of
atoms.
• Atomic magnetic moments are free to rotate; hence, with raising temperature, the increased thermal
motion of the atoms tends to randomize the directions of any moments that may be aligned and
decreases the susceptibility.
• Magnetic susceptibility equation can be expressed in the form of
𝐶 2 𝑁
𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑚
𝜒 = , where 𝐶 = is Curie constant. This is Curie law.
𝑇 𝑘𝐵

• Thus, a plot of 1/χ versus T should give a straight line of slope 1/C passing through the origin (0K) as
shown in Figure a.
• Materials which obey this law are materials in which the magnetic moments are localised at the atomic
or ionic sites and where there is no interaction between neighbouring magnetic moments.
• This expression is approximately true for many solids, liquids, as well as for at least one of the two
common paramagnetic gases, oxygen and nitric oxide.
• Unfortunately, it has been observed that
more accurate magnetic measurements lead
to greater deviations from Curie's law are
discovered. For many systems, a plot of 1/χ
versus T gives straight line, but the intercept
is non-zero on the temperature axis as
shown in Figure b. Figure a: Plot of 1/χ versus T
• It is common to have non-zero intercept in
the systems that are not magnetically dilute
i.e., pure solid paramagnetic materials. In
these systems, interionic or intermolecular
interactions cause neighbouring magnetic
moments to become aligned and contribute
to the value of intercept.

Figure b: Plot of 1/χ versus T

• These systems don’t follow Curie's Law due to following reasons:
• There is some cooperative interaction between the neighbouring dipoles or
• There are energy levels whose population changes with variation in the temperature or
• The applied magnetic field induces some temperature-independent paramagnetism.
Curie-Weiss Law
• The Curie law is a special case of the more general Curie-Weiss law, which incorporates
a temperature constant (θ) and derives from Weiss theory, proposed for ferromagnetic
materials, that incorporates the interaction between magnetic moments.
𝐶
• The Curie-Weiss Law is given by 𝜒 = ,
𝑇 −𝜃
• where 𝜃 is ‘molecular field constant’ or ‘Weiss-constant’.
• 𝜃 as the same unit as the temperature and may have positive as well as negative values
• If 𝜃 = 0, then Curie-Weiss law equates to Curie law.
• When θ is non-zero then there is an interaction between neighbouring magnetic moments
and the material is only paramagnetic above a certain transition temperature.
• If θ is positive then the material is ferromagnetic below the transition temperature and the
value of θ corresponds to the transition temperature (Curie temperature, 𝑇𝑐 ).
• If θ is negative then the material is antiferromagnetic below the transition temperature (Néel
temperature, T𝑁 )
• It is important to note that this equation is only valid when the material is in a paramagnetic
state.
• It is also not valid for many metals as the electrons contributing to the magnetic moment are
not localised. However, the law does apply to some metals, e.g. the rareearths, where the 4f
electrons, that create the magnetic moment, are closely bound.
Core Losses
• The core loss is the energy that is dissipated in the form of heat within the core of
electromagnetic devices when the core is subjected to an alternating magnetic field.
• Several types of losses are known, among which the eddy current loss and the
hysteresis loss contribute the most.
• Typical core losses are between 0.3 and 3 watts per kilogram of core material.
• In ferromagnetic material the individual electron spins, instead of being randomly
oriented, are oriented together in domains; that is, a number of spins in a small volume
of the material are aligned in the same direction in the absence of an external magnetic
field, held together by atomic coupling forces. This small volume is called a magnetic
domain.
• A domain is of the order of 0.001 mm to 1.0 mm in width and has a volume between
10–9 mm3 and 1mm3 . The number of electron spins in a domain varies with the domain
size, but the average is of the order of 1016.
• Individual domains may be aligned in any direction in space.
• The transition region between domains is called a domain wall.
• When an external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic domains that are aligned in
the direction of the field remain aligned, but the domain walls move, causing them to
grow at the expense of neighbouring domains.
Figure: Domain model of magnetization in ferromagnetic materials. (a) Random orientation
of domains. (b) External field causes aligned domains to grow. (c) Aligned domains occupy
all or most of the volume
• This aspect of magnetization is best explained using the so-called magnetization curve.
• The magnetization curve is an experimental plot of the internal magnetic flux density
against an applied external magnetic field intensity.
• To understand this behaviour, consider first a sample of non-magnetized material,
which has no internal magnetization (domains are randomly oriented) and therefore is
represented by point O.
• As the external field increases, the magnetic flux density in the sample increases along
the curve shown. This is because domains start aligning with the external field.
• As the external magnetic field increases further, there are fewer domains left to align
and, therefore, the slope of the curve decreases.
Figure: (a) Magnetization (B(H)) curve for iron. (b) Relative permeability along
the initial magnetization curve
• At some point, all domains will be aligned with the external magnetic filed. Any increase in
the external magnetic field will only increase the internal field by the increase in the external
magnetic field: there is no increase in magnetization.
• This point is shown as point M1 and is called a saturation point. The whole curve segment
between O and M1 is called an initial magnetization curve.
• If we now decrease the external field, the magnetization curve does not follow the initial
magnetization curve. Rather, the internal magnetic flux density decreases slower due to a
lag in the realignment of the domains.
• In other words, domains tend to “retain” their magnetization. This lag in alignment gives the
magnetization curve its common name: hysteresis curve (“to lag” in Greek).
• Reducing the field further, we eventually reach point M2. At this point, the external magnetic
field intensity is zero, but the internal magnetic flux density is Br.
• Br is called the remnant or residual magnetic flux density since it is “leftover” after the
external magnetic field intensity has been removed.
• Thus, at this point, we have a piece of material which has an internal magnetic field in the
absence of an external magnetic field.
• To reduce the magnetic flux density to zero, we must apply a magnetic field intensity in the
opposite direction. This process is called demagnetization.
• If the negative external magnetic field intensity is increased to Hc, the magnetic flux density
is reduced to zero. This value of H is called the coercive field intensity (sometimes also
called coercive force).
• Further increasing the demagnetizing field causes a negative flux density; that is, after
domains have relaxed to a random pattern at Hc, they now align in the opposite direction in
the sample.
• Eventually, all domains will be aligned in the opposite direction and a saturation point has
again been reached at point M4.
• Note that the magnitudes of H and B at M1 and M4 are the same since the domain structure
is the same except for directions.
• Reducing the demagnetizing field further reduces the flux density to –Br, which, again, is a
remnant flux density and is equal in magnitude to Br, at point M2.
• To reduce this remnant field to zero, we must increase the magnetic field intensity. At point
M6, the magnetic flux density has been reduced to zero (this is the coercive field intensity).
• A further increase in the magnetizing field intensity will eventually bring us to point M1,
which is the saturation point we reached before.
• Now, if we continue the cycle of increasing and decreasing the magnetic field intensity, we
follow the outer loop as shown in figure above.
• The only way we can get on the initial magnetization curve again is by completely
demagnetizing the material first or starting with a material that has not been subjected to
magnetization.
• This indicates that the material has a “history”: the state of the material depends on what
happened to it previously.
Hysteresis Loss
• A transformer is the best example of studying energy loss due to hysteresis, as we know that
during the process of magnetization and demagnetization energy is required.
• During the cycle of magnetization and demagnetization of magnetic substances, energy is
spent, and this is spent energy appears in the form of heat. This heat loss is known as
hysteresis loss.
• The loss of energy per unit volume of the substance is equal to the area of the hysteresis
curve.
• In transformers due to the continuous process of magnetization and demagnetization
energy is lost in the form of heat continuously, due to this energy loss efficiency of the
transformer gets reduced.
• To stop this energy loss soft iron core is used in transformers because the energy loss or
hysteresis loss in the case of soft iron is much smaller than other materials.
The curve on the left above represents
materials which are sometimes called
magnetically "hard". This includes
various steel alloys and special alloys
such as Alnico. If magnetized near
saturation, such materials may retain
a magnetic field as high as B = 1 Tesla,
corresponding to an
internal magnetization M = B/μ0 of
about 800,000 A/m.
The curve on the right represents
magnetically "soft" materials such as
soft iron which are used
for transformer and motor cores. They
minimize the energy loss and heating
associated with periodically reversing
the magnetic field in AC electrical
applications.
Eddy Current Loss
• When an alternating magnetic field is applied to a magnetic material, an emf is induced
in the material itself according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction.
• Since the magnetic material is a conducting material, these EMFs circulate current
within the body of the material.
• These circulating currents are called Eddy Currents.
• As these currents are not responsible for doing any useful work, and it produces a loss
in the magnetic material known as an Eddy Current Loss.
• Like hysteresis loss, eddy current loss also increases the temperature of the magnetic
material.
The eddy current flowing
mechanism is shown in the figure.
When the alternating current flows
through the coil, it set
up magnetic flux in the magnetic
material. The flux also links to the
core material and induces EMF at
the various points of the core. The
potential difference causes closed-
loop circulating current in the core.
The circulating current is
called Eddy Current.
• If the core is made up of solid iron of larger cross-sectional area, the magnitude of I will
be very large and hence losses will be high. To reduce the eddy current, we can do the
following:
• The core can be made of an insulator in order to decrease 𝜎.
• The eddy current is larger, the larger the permeability, 𝜇 (because 𝐵 = 𝜇𝜇𝑜 H), the larger the
conductivity, 𝜎, of the core material, the higher the applied frequency, and the larger the
cross-sectional area, A, of the core.
• The core can be manufactured from pressed iron powder whereby each particle (which
is about 50–100 mm in diameter) is covered by an insulating coating.
• The most widely applied method to reduce eddy currents is the utilization of cores
made out of thin sheets which are electrically insulated from each other.
• Soft Magnetic Material like Electrical steel is used to multiply the magnetic flux in the
cores of electromagnetic coils. These materials are therefore widely incorporated in
many electrical machines in daily use. Among their applications are cores of
transformers, electromotors, generators, or electromagnets.

• Magnetic Materials are used for recording/reading of the audio and video signals.
They are used in storage devices such as magnetic tapes, floppy disks and hard disks.

• Hard Magnetic Materials (large remanence Br (or Mr), a relatively large coercivity Hc,
and a large area within the hysteresis loop.) are used in making permanent magnets,
magnetic separators, magnetic detectors, speakers, microphones, etc.