MES Unit 3 20sept20

MAIT EEE Dept.
3rd Semester
Materials in Electrical Systems

Aug. 2020-Dec. 2020
Faculty: Dr. Neelam Kassarwani

Assistant Professor
EEE Department
Syllabus
This has been referred from GGSIPU site (page 13)

Lesson Plan
Unit -III
Magnetic Materials
Contents
1. Introduction and classification of magnetic materials (1)

2. Permeability, B-H curve (1)
3. Magnetic saturation, hysteresis loop(1)
4. Coercive force and residual magnetism (1)
5. Concept of eddy current and hysteresis loss (1)
6. Curie temperature, magnetostriction effect (2)
7. Soft and hard magnetic materials (1)
8. Ferro and ferri magnetic materials (1)
9. Special purpose magnetic materials (1)
Introduction to magnetic materials
3.1 INTRODUCTION AND CLASIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
(A) Introduction to magnetism
● In 1819-20, Oersted pioneered in showing that an electric current is
surrounded by a magnetic field when it flows through a wire. The strength
of the magnetic field so produced is also dependent upon the magnetic
material. The magnetic materials and their properties play and important
role while fabricating magnets for various purposes. Magnetic effect of
current is a very useful phenomena applied to technical instruments.
● In some situations, there is a need of magnetic field that persists for a
long time and free from mechanical mishandlings. The magnets required
for such purposes are called permanent magnets. The magnetic field
produced by such magnets is not too high but is long lasting.
Introduction to magnetic materials…
● In many other situations, demand may go for very high magnetic field.
This can be achieved by using the principle of magnetic effect of current.
Such high magnetic fields can only be produced by electromagnets. The
field so produced is not permanent because when current is switched off
the magnetic field ceases. The electromagnet is therefore termed as
temporary magnets.
● Strength of the magnetic field and various parameters depend upon a
range of magnetic properties of the material, like (i) initial permeability, (ii)
susceptibility, (iii) coercivity, (iv) hysteresis loss, etc.
● Permanent magnets are used in various appliances like galvanometer,
voltmeter, ammeters, speakers, etc., while electromagnets are used in
appliances where a high magnetic field is required.
● Magnetic properties are not exhibited only by iron and its alloys, but every
material exhibits, more or less, magnetic properties. Iron and its alloys are
most common as they are used for the construction of many types of
electrical equipment. There are other materials also like Nickel and Cobalt
which exhibit magnetic properties.
(B) Origin of magnetism
Revolving electron of an atom behaves like a ‘tiny current loop’ and therefore
exhibits a magnetic moment. Hence each revolving electron has a definite
magnetic moment. These magnetic moments are randomly oriented in
materials commonly known as elementary magnets or dipoles and therefore
the net value of magnetic moment is found to be zero. The magnetic
moment, due to orbital motion can be calculated as given below:
In case the simplest atom, Hydrogen, that contains a proton and a single
electron
𝑒
current produced due to an electron 𝑖 = 𝑇
2𝜋𝑟
Time period 𝑇 = …………………………………………….(1)
𝜈
𝑒𝜈
Therefore, current 𝑖 = 2𝜋𝑟 …………………………………(2)
𝑒𝜈
Magnetic dipole moment due to orbital motion, 𝜇 = 𝑖𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑒𝜈𝑟
or 𝜇= ………………………………………………..(3)
2
From Bohr’s theory of H-atom: the angular momentum of revolving electron
is quantized, and have some definite values only, i.e.,
ℎ
𝑙 = 𝑚𝑒 𝜈𝑟 = 𝑛 × 2𝜋; 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, … is the principal quantum no. and determines the
energy of the electron
where 𝑚𝑒 = mass of electron
𝑛ℎ
Therefore, 𝜈𝑟 = 2𝜋𝑚
𝑒
Substituting this in equation (3), orbital magnetic dipole moment
𝑒 𝑛ℎ
𝜇 = 2 × 2𝜋𝑚
𝑒
𝑒ℎ
or 𝜇 = 𝑛 where 𝑛 = 1, 2, 3, …
4𝜋𝑚𝑒
𝑒ℎ
Therefore smallest magnetic moment will be 4𝜋𝑚 , commonly known as ‘Bohr
𝑒
magneton’ and is represented by 𝜇𝐵 .
𝑒ℎ
i.e. 𝜇𝐵 = 4𝜋𝑚
𝑒
Its value is Am2.
Besides the above, spinning of electrons also contributes to the magnetic
moment, which is (many times) greater than the orbital or nuclear motion.
Hence:
the net magnetic moment of an atom is mainly due to the spinning of
electrons.
(C) Basic Terms In Magnetism
Following are some important magnetic parameters used:
1. Magnetic flux
2. Magnetization vector
3. Flux density
4. Magnetic permeability
5. Magnetic susceptibility
1. Magnetic flux (𝝓𝒎 )
The magnetic flux, across any surface, placed in a magnetic field, is given by
𝜙𝑚 = ∮𝑠 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 ……………………………(1)
It is also defined as magnetic field times an area and is expressed in webers.
Since the isolated magnetic pole never exist in nature; considering a closed
surface in a magnetic field, the inward flux will be equal to outward flux. It is
because the same number of lines of force that enter the surface must come
exit.
i.e. ‘the net magnetic flux across a closed surface is always zero’.
Mathematically, the above statement can be expressed as
∮𝑠 𝑩. 𝒅𝒔 = 0 ……………………………….(2)
It is also called the Gauss's law of magnetism.
2. Magnetization Vector (𝑴)
Revolving electrons can be treated as a small magnetic or atomic dipoles,
having a definite magnetic moment. These magnetic dipoles are present in
material in a ‘random manner’. When the material is subjected to external
magnetic field, these dipoles tend to align partially, to net magnetic moment
in the direction of magnetizing field in a small volume of the material.
Magnetization (or magnetic moment) per unit volume is named as
‘magnetization vector’ or intensity of magnetization. The degree of alignment
is also dependent on external applied magnetic field.
Magnetic moment
Magnetization vector =
Volume of specimen
A bar magnet strength having pole-strength 𝑚 and separation 2𝑙 (between
north and south pole) along with cross section 𝐴, the magnetization vector is
given by
2𝑚×𝑙 𝑚
𝑀= 𝐴×2𝑙
= 𝐴
………………………………………(3)
i.e. pole-strength per unit area.
3. Flux Density B: Magnetic Induction
● When a magnetic material is kept in an external magnetic field, the
material gets magnetized. The net magnetic field inside the material is the
sum of applied magnetic field and magnetic field produced by alignment
of atomic dipoles.
● If the material is ferromagnetic, the net magnetic field inside the material
increases, and if the material is diamagnetic the net magnetic field inside
the material decreases. That is, the density of magnetic lines inside the
material either goes up or down, depending on weather it is
ferromagnetic or diamagnetic. This magnetic field inside the material is
expressed as flux-density 𝑩.
4. Magnetic Permeability
● The magnetic induction or magnetic flux density 𝐵 (expressed in units of
Tesla or Weber per square meter) due to a magnetic field applied in
vacuum is related to the field strength 𝐻 (in units of A/m) as follows:
𝐵0 = 𝜇0 𝐻 …………………………………………………………………………………………..(4)
where 𝜇0 is called the permeability of free space (vacuum) and the unit is
H/m.
In SI units, the value of 𝜇0 is 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻𝑚−1 . [It was originally defined to have
a value of unity in CGS units.]
● If the field is applied to a solid medium, the magnetic induction in the
solid is given by a similar relationship
𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻 ……………………………………………………………………………………………….(5)
where 𝜇 is the permeability of the solid material through which the magnetic
lines of force pass. In general 𝜇 is not equal to 𝜇0 . The ratio of 𝜇 𝜇0 is called
the relative permeability 𝜇𝑟 of the solid.
(𝜇𝑟 = 𝜇 𝜇0) ……………………………………………(6)
The magnetic induction in a solid is also defined by
𝐵 = 𝜇0 (𝐻 + 𝑀) ……………………………………(7)
where 𝑀 is called the magnetization of the solid.
5. Magnetic Susceptibility (𝝌𝒎 )
The magnetic susceptibility 𝜒𝑚 of a material expresses the response of a
medium to an external magnetic field like electrical susceptibility 𝜒𝑒 . It is
related to the properties of atoms and molecules of the medium. The
magnetization vector 𝑀 is directly related to the applied field 𝐻 through the
susceptibility of the medium 𝜒𝑚 as:
𝑀
𝜒𝑚 = ……………………………………………….....(8)
𝐻
It is a scalar and dimensionless quantity.
-The diamagnetic susceptibility is negative and very small in magnitude,
typical values of the order of −10−5 .
-The paramagnetic susceptibility is small and positive, of the order of 10-3.
-The ferromagnetic susceptibility is very large and positive in the range of 102
to 105.
Classification of magnetic materials
3.1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
The magnetic materials are classified based on the presence of permanent
magnetic dipoles and behavior when subjected to external magnetic field:
(1) Diamagnetic materials (lack permanent magnetic dipoles)
(2) Paramagnetic materials (permanent magnetic dipoles randomly oriented)
(3) Ferromagnetic materials (permanent magnetic dipoles aligned within a
domain)
(4) Antiferromagnetic materials
(5) Ferrimagnetic materials
Classification of magnetic materials…
(1) Diamagnetism and diamagnetic materials
● Langevin gave the classical theory of diamagnetism based on the orbital
motion of electrons of atoms and molecules which can be understood by
Lenz’s law. (Lenz’s law states that the direction of induced EMF is such that
the current (induced current) produced by it sets up a magnetic field
opposing the motion or change producing it. Thus, the field 𝐻′ of the
induced current opposes the change in the external field 𝐻 applied.
Fig. 1(b): Magnetic lines of force are

repelled by diamagnetic solids Fig. 1(a): Lenz’s law
● In the absence of external magnetic field, Lenz’s law when applied to the
two weak magnetic fields (one due to orbital revolution, and the other
due to axial spin rotation of electron) lead to diamagnetism. This is
explained as under:
These two relatively weak magnetic fields are opposite in direction and
cancel each other giving rise to the absence of permanent magnetic dipoles.
This phenomenon is called diamagnetism and the materials exhibiting
diamagnetism are called diamagnetic materials.
● When a magnetic field is applied to an atom, the motion of orbital
electrons get modified in such a way that a weak magnetic moment
opposing the field is induced. Magnetism is the result of this interaction.
● When a diamagnetic solid is placed in a magnetic field, the solid repels the
magnetic lines of force due to the applied field.
● The diamagnetic susceptibility is negative and of the order of -10-5.
Note: Diamagnetism is observed only when all other types of magnetism are
totally absent.
[Superconductor is perfectly diamagnetic with a susceptibility value of -1. All
the lines of force are repelled by the superconductor, thus making them
useful for the purpose of shielding out magnetic fields.]
Diamagnetic materials:
● Diamagnetic materials which are repelled by a magnet are: Zn, Hg, Pb, S,
Cu, Ag, Bi, Wood.
● Permeability slightly less than 1.
● These materials are slightly magnetized when placed in a strong magnetic
field and act in the direction opposite to that of applied magnetic field.
(2) Para magnetism and paramagnetic materials
● Some atoms and molecules possess intrinsic permanent magnetic
moments.
● In the absence of externally applied field, the moments of the atoms in a
solid are randomly oriented with respect to one another and solid as a
whole has no net magnetic moment.
● If an external field is applied, the magnetic moments tend to align
themselves parallel to the applied field, so as to lower their potential
energy (e.g. Suspended magnetic needle aligns itself spontaneously with
the Earth's magnetic field). Hence there is a spontaneous tendency for the
permanent moments of the atoms of the solid to align themselves in the
direction of the field, thereby intensifying the lines of force in the field
direction. This phenomenon is called Paramagnetism.
Fig. 2(a): Net dipole moment is zero for paramagnetic material

Fig. 2(b): A paramagnetic solid weakly attracts the lines of force
● The aligning force and the permanent moments of the atoms with
ordinary magnetic fields is rather small, so that the paramagnetic effect is
weak.
● The paramagnetic susceptibility is small and positive, of the order of 10-3.
It decreases with increasing temperature, as thermal energy tends to
randomize the alignment. These materials have little application in the
field of electrical engineering.
Paramagnetic materials:
● Paramagnetic materials are not strongly attracted by a magnet such as:
air, aluminum, tin, platinum, magnesium, manganese, etc.
● These materials have small but positive relative permeability e.g. air has
1.0000031.
● Such materials are slightly magnetized when placed in a strong magnetic
field and act in the direction of the magnetic field.
Fig. 3: (a) A diamagnetic solid repels slightly the magnetic lines of force. (b) A paramagnetic solid weakly
Attracts the lines of force. (c) A ferromagnetic sloid attracts magnetic lines of force very strongly
Fig. 4:(a) Ferromagnetic, (b) antiferromagnetic, and (c) ferrimagnetic coupling of electron spins in atoms by
Arrows. The length of an arrow is a measure of the magnetic moment of the atom
Ferromagnetism and ferromagnetic materials
(A) Ferromagnetism domain theory
● The magnetism attained by a ferromagnetic substance in an external
magnetic field is intense. Like paramagnetic substances, atoms of
ferromagnetic substances are magnetic dipoles, having a permanent
magnetic moment.
● But in a ferromagnetic material the atoms experience strong mutual
interactions, due to which even in the absence of an external field, the
magnetic moments of nearby atoms gets aligned in the same direction. As
a result, in a ferromagnetic substance innumerable small regions are
formed in which the magnetic moments of magnetic dipoles are aligned
in the same direction. These small regions are called domains. each
domain consists of 1027 to 1021 atoms and has maximum linear dimension
of 10-5 m.
● Each domain is itself in a stage of magnetic saturation. In the absence of
any external magnetic field, different domains are randomly oriented in
such a way that the net magnetic moment of the substance is zero. That is
why a piece of ferromagnetic substance is magnetically neutral or
unmagnetized. Figure 5 represents the probable directions of magnetic
moments of four domains of a ferromagnetic substance (iron).
● When the substance is placed in an external magnetic field, its net
magnetic moment increases and there could be two possible reasons:
-By displacement of boundaries of domains: The domain having magnetic

moments in the direction of magnetic field increase in size, while those
having magnetic moments oppositely directed decrease in size. This occurs
when external magnetic field is weak.
-By rotation of domains: All domains rotate in such a way that their magnetic
moments get aligned in the field direction see figure 5. This occurs when the
external magnetic field is strong.
Fig. : Probable directions of magnetic moments of four domains of iron

(B) Characteristics of ferromagnetic materials
● These materials are distinguished by a large value of permeability and
there for are capable of containing a high degree of magnetization. These
substances are capable of developing North and South poles when kept
in a magnetic field.in these materials induced magnetization is not
proportional to the magnetizing force. Susceptibility decreases steadily
with the rise in temperature upto a critical temperature. Ferromagnetic
character disappears and the substance becomes paramagnetic.
● These materials experience a magnificent characteristic known as
hysteresis, which is of extreme interest in the industry for deciding a
magnetic materials used for various purposes.
Permeability and B-H curve
Fig.: Variation of permeability with temperature for a ferromagnetic material

Characteristics of antiferromagnetic materials
Magnetic moments are aligned antiparallel to each other resulting in a net
zero magnetic dipole. Antiferromagnetic property is observed only below a
certain temperature known as Neel temperature which is due to ordered anti
parallel alignment of spin magnetic moments. Above Neel temperature ,
antiferromagnetic materials become paramagnetic. This behavior is
exhibited only in very few elements like Mn, Cr, and ferrous and nickel
oxides.
Characteristics of ferrimagnetic materials
These are a special class of ferromagnetic materials. They exhibit all
properties of ferromagnetic materials, like high permeability, high saturation
magnetization, hysteresis, etc. They also exhibit spin magnetic moments,
which are aligned in the crystal. These are suitable for high frequency
applications in special magnetic devices. In ferrimagnetic specimen, all the
magnetic moments not aligned in the same direction. Some of them are
oriented in opposite direction, giving rise to the magnetic moment.
B-H Curve and Magnetic Saturation
3.3 B-H CURVE
● When the values of flux density, ( B ) is plotted against the field strength,
( H ) a set of curves called Magnetization Curves, Magnetic Hysteresis
Curves or more commonly B-H Curves produced for each type of core
material used as shown in the fig. 7.
Fig. 7: Magnetization or B-H curve

B-H Curve and Magnetic Saturation…
● The set of magnetization M curves above, represents the relationship
between B and H for soft-iron and steel cores. But every type of core
material will have its own set of magnetic hysteresis curves.
● The flux density increases in proportion to the field strength until it
reaches a certain value were it can not increase any more becoming
almost level and constant as the field strength continues to increase. This
is because there is a limit to the amount of flux density that can be
generated by the core as all the domains in the iron are perfectly aligned.
Any further increase has no effect on the value of M, and the point on the
graph where the flux density reaches its limit is called Magnetic
Saturation also known as Saturation of the Core and the saturation
point of the steel curve begins at about 3000 ampere-turns per meter.
B-H Curve and Magnetic Saturation…
● Saturation occurs because the random haphazard arrangement of the
molecule structure within the core material changes as the tiny molecular
magnets within the material become “lined-up”.
● As the magnetic field strength ( H ) increases, these molecular magnets
become more and more aligned until they reach perfect alignment
producing maximum flux density and any increase in the magnetic field
strength due to an increase in the electrical current flowing through the
coil will have little or no effect.
Hysteresis Loop, Coercive force and Residual Magnetism…
3.4 HYSTERESIS LOOP
Fig. 8: Magnetic hysteresis loop
● The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behavior of a

ferromagnetic core graphically as the relationship between B and H is
non-linear. Starting with an unmagnetized core both B and H will be at
zero, point 0 on the magnetization curve.
Hysteresis Loop, Coercive force and Residual Magnetism…
● If the magnetization current, i is increased in a positive direction to some
value the magnetic field strength H increases linearly with i and the flux
density B will also increase as shown by the curve from point 0 to
point a as it heads towards saturation.
● Now if the magnetizing current in the coil is reduced to zero, the magnetic
field circulating around the core also reduces to zero. However, the coils
magnetic flux will not reach zero due to the residual magnetism present
within the core and this is shown on the curve from point a to point b.
● To reduce the flux density at point b to zero we need to reverse the
current flowing through the coil. The magnetizing force which must be
applied to null the residual flux density is called a “Coercive Force”. This
coercive force reverses the magnetic field re-arranging the molecular
magnets until the core becomes unmagnetized at point c.
Hysteresis Loop…
● An increase in this reverse current causes the core to be magnetized in
the opposite direction and increasing this magnetization current further
will cause the core to reach its saturation point but in the opposite
direction, point d on the curve.
● This point is symmetrical to point b. If the magnetizing current is reduced
again to zero the residual magnetism present in the core will be equal to
the previous value but in reverse at point e.
● Again reversing the magnetizing current flowing through the coil this time
into a positive direction will cause the magnetic flux to reach zero,
point f on the curve and as before increasing the magnetization current
further in a positive direction will cause the core to reach saturation at
point a. [The process of reversal of domains continues to give a net magnetization in
the opposite direction. After separation occurs in this direction, restoring the original
field direction complete the hysteresis loop. ]
Hysteresis Loop…
● Then the B-H curve follows the path of a-b-c-d-e-f-a as the magnetizing
current flowing through the coil alternates between a positive and
negative value such as the cycle of an AC voltage. This path is called
a Magnetic Hysteresis Loop.
● The energy required to rotate an entire domain is more than that required to move the
domain walls during growth. Consequently, the slope of the B-H curve decreases on
approaching saturation. Each time the hysteresis loop is traversed, energy equal to the
area of the loop is dissipated as heat. The power lost do to hysteresis in a transformer
core is dependent on the number of times this full loop is traversed per second.
● The effect of magnetic hysteresis shows that the magnetization process of
a ferromagnetic core and therefore the flux density depends on which
part of the curve the ferromagnetic core is magnetized on as this depends
upon the circuits past history giving the core a form of “memory”. Then
ferromagnetic materials have memory because they remain magnetized
after the external magnetic field has been removed.
Hysteresis Loop, Coercive force and Residual Magnetism
● The B-H curve for a typical ferromagnetic material is shown in figure. As
the applied field H is increased the magnetic induction B increases slowly
at first and then more rapidly. The rate of magnetic induction slows down
again eventually attaining a saturation value Bs. With further increase in
the magnetic field, there is no increase in the induction. If the field is
reversed, the induction decreases slowly at first and reaches a residual
value Br at zero field. Br represents the amount of residual induction left in
the specimen after the removal of the field. If the application of the field is
continued in the opposite direction, the domain tense two reverse their
alignment, so that the remaining induction is lost at a certain value of the
reverse field called coercive field Hc. The process of reversal of domains
continues to give a net magnetization in the opposite direction. After
separation occurs in this direction, restoring the original field direction
complete the hysteresis loop.
Hysteresis Loop, Coercive force and Residual Magnetism
Fig. : B as function of H
Demagnetization
DEMAGNETIZATION
if we heat a magnet with a hammer or pass and alternating current or heat it
above Curie temperature then it loses its magnetism it is because in any of
the above mentioned processes the random motion of atoms or molecules
of a substance increases there for the domain having magnetic moment in
the direction of external magnetic field is totally disturbed and the net
magnetic moment of the magnet becomes 0 i.e. the substance is
demagnetized.
Curie Temperature
3.5 (A) CURIE TEMPERATURE
Each ferromagnetic material has a characteristic temperature above which
its properties are quite different from those below that temperature. This
temperature is called the ferromagnetic Curie temperature and denoted
by 𝜃𝑓 . The characteristic features of ferromagnetic behavior in the two
temperature regions are discussed as under:
(i) 𝑇 > 𝜃𝑓 . In the region above the ferromagnetic Curie temperature 𝜃𝑓 , the
behavior of a ferromagnetic material is somewhat similar to that of a
paramagnetic material. There exists a unique relationship between B and H,
and between M and H. This relationship is defined as susceptibility
𝑀
𝜒= = 𝜇𝑟 − 1,
𝐻
where 𝜇𝑟 is the relative permeability of the ferromagnetic material.
Curie Temperature
In this temperature region, susceptibility depends on temperature in
accordance with the so-called Curie-Weiss law:
𝜒 = 𝜇𝑟 − 1 = 𝐶/(𝑇 − 𝜃) for 𝑇 > 𝜃𝑓 ………………………(1)
𝐶 is called the Curie constant; 𝜃 is the “paramagnetic” Curie temperature.
This expression is not valid in the region close to 𝜃𝑓 , as seen from Fig 1(a). It is
pertinent to note that in this figure 1 𝜒 is plotted as a function of 𝑇 .
Comparison of plot of 1 𝜒 as function of 𝑇 shows that the ferromagnetic case
and the paramagnetic case are very similar Fig. 1(a) and (b); the only
difference is that for a truly paramagnetic material 𝜃 = 0. The paramagnetic
Curie temperature 𝜃 is usually somewhat higher than the ferromagnetic
Curie temperature 𝜃𝑓 (Fig 1(a)).
Curie Temperature
Fig. 1(a): The reciprocal of the susceptibility as a Fig. 1(b): The reciprocal of the susceptibility as a
function of the temperature for a ferromagnetic material function of the temperature 𝑇 for a paramagnetic
above the ferromagnetic Curie temperature, 𝜃𝑓 . The material illustrating the Curie law.
paramagnetic Curie temperature 𝜃 is obtained by the
extrapolation of the straight portion of the curve which
satisfies the Curie-Wiess law.
Magnetostriction
3.5 (B) MAGNETOSTRICTION
● When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized, a small change of
dimension of the material takes place. There is a small extension with
corresponding reduction of cross-section of the crystals of which the
material is made of.
● Materials when subjected to rapidly AC magnetic fields, there is a rapid
and continuous extension and contraction of the material. This is called
magnetostriction. [Magnetostriction is the major cause of hum in
Transformers and choke.]
● Magnetostriction is of three types
-Longitudinal magnetostriction,
-Transverse magnetostriction, and
-Volume magnetostriction
Magnetostriction…
(a) Longitudinal magnetostriction:
-It is change in length in the direction of magnetization. This change may be
increase or decrease in the length of the material.
(b) Transverse magnetostriction:
-It is change in dimension, perpendicular to magnetization direction.
(c) Volume magnetostriction:
-It is change in volume from the above two effects.
Magnetostriction…
● Magnetostriction is represented by magnetostriction constant, 𝜆 which is
the characteristic of a given material. It is defined by:
𝛿𝑙
𝜆= [value of 𝜆 ≤ 30 × 10−6 ]
𝑙
where 𝛿𝑙 = extension/contraction of a specimen of length 𝑙 in the direction of
the applied field strength 𝐻 when the field strength is raised from zero to a
value causing saturation. (𝛿𝑙 refers to Joule Effect or Joule's law: an increase
in length of certain ferromagnetic materials when longitudinally magnetized)
Magnetostriction…
● Important feature of magnetostriction is that it has an inverse
characteristic as explained below:
Since the dimensions of a magnetic material gets changed when magnetized,
the inverse also takes place i.e. when the dimensions of the magnetic
material with elastic strain is changed, the magnetic properties also get
changed. The solid magnetic material does not acquire an overall magnetic
moment when it is strained for magnetostriction and insensitive to a change
in direction of magnetization by 180⁰. However, through this inverse effect,
internal strains in the material influence the direction in which a given
domain will get magnetized. Internal strains of random magnitude and
direction, greatly affect the shape of the hysteresis loop, often broadening it
considerably.
Magnetostriction…
● Materials which extend on magnetization has its permeability raised by a
tensile strain, whereas materials which contract (i.e. negative 𝜆 ) on
application of tensile pull, permeability reduces. This converse of
magnetostriction effect is known as Villari Effect. This effect states that:
longitudinal deformation leads to a change in permeability in the
direction of applied strain.
This is because of the fact that when a ferromagnetic material is strained, the
domains tend to align themselves into positions of lower energy and
accordingly, the permeability of the material is thereby changed, I.e., either
material becomes easier or more hard to magnetize.
Magnetostriction…
● The magnetostriction is anisotropic not only because the magnetization
curve is an isotropic but also because the elastic properties of this
material are anisotropic. For any given crystal direction, the
magnetostriction approaches a constant value at large magnetic fields,
magnetostriction and magnetization usually structure at the same time.
Figure 1 shows magnetostriction versus applied field for Iron, Nickel, and
Cobalt at [100], [110], and [111] field orientation.
Magnetostriction…
Fig.: Magnetization for Fe, Ni, and Co showing anisotropy

Magnetostriction…
Applications
magnetostriction is largely of theoretical interest but has limited practical
applications.
-It has application in high frequency oscillators, and generators of super-
sound (ultrasonics).
-Used for underwater sound projectors and sound detectors.
Note: When high permeability materials are prepared, effort is made to

reduce both anisotropy and magnetostriction so that internal strains do not
induce local anisotropy energy. This is done by allowing two or more
materials off opposite sign for 𝜆100 and 𝜆111 .
Concept of eddy current and hysteresis loss
2.1.4.1 Concept of Eddy current and hysteresis loss
● When magnetic circuits are subjected to time varying flux densities, there
are two causes of power loss in the form of heat in the iron core. These
losses are significant in determining the heating, rating, and efficiency of
rotating machines, transformers, and ac-operated magnetic devices. The
two causes of power loss in the magnetic materials are:
-Hysteresis and loss is known as Hysteresis loss
-Eddy current and loss known as Eddy current loss
(1) Hysteresis loss
The power loss due to the phenomenon of lagging of magnetization (or
magnetic flux density) behind the magnetizing force (magnetic field intensity)
known as magnetic hysteresis is known as hysteresis loss. Experimentally it
is found that the hysteresis loss depends on the variation in the number of
reversals per second (i.e. frequency, f), and maximum flux density (𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) and
Concept of eddy current and hysteresis loss…
is expressed with substantial accuracy as
Hysteresis loss, 𝑃ℎ = 𝜂(𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 )1.6 𝑓𝑉 J/s or W
Where 𝜂 = Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
𝑉 = volume of the core in 𝑚3 ,
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = peak magnitude of magnetic flux density attained in the
magnetic cycle, and
𝑓 = frequency of magnetic cycles per second
(2) Eddy Current Loss
● Whenever a solid block of metal passes through a varying magnetic flux,
metallic circuits in the block itself, which are linked by the flux, an EMF is
induced in the circuit and a current flows. The value of this current
depends on the EMF induced and the resistance of the circuit. This
current is known as Eddy current and flows in planes perpendicular to
the magnetic flux.
● Eddy currents result in a power loss with consequent heating of the
material giving rise of temperature of the material. This loss is known as
Eddy current loss and is proportional to 𝑖 2 𝑅 where 𝑖 is the magnitude of
Eddy currents and 𝑅 is the resistance of the Eddy current path.
● The magnitude of Eddy currents and resistance of Eddy current path
cannot be determined directly. Experimentally eddy current loss is given
as:
𝑃𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 (𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 )2 𝑓 2 𝑡 2 𝑉 watt
Where 𝐾𝑒 = eddy current coefficient and depends on type of magnetic
material used,
𝑓 = number of complete magnetization cycles per second,
𝐵𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum flux density in Tesla (Wb/m2)
𝑡 = thickness of laminations in m
𝑉 = volume of material in m3.
Other factors affecting core loss
(1) Rivets and bolts:
Laminations must be held together through use of rivets and bolts, but they
tend to short circuit the lamination insulation. Rivets and bolts often form
part of a closed magnetic loop which, under the AC operation, may cause a
serious loss of electrical energy.
(2) Burrs:
As dies become worn, the burrs that form on punched edges of lamination
stock become larger and larger. Thus, burrs are not always removed by
operation, and they cut through sheet insulation forming contacts between
lamination and allow excessive eddy currents to flow.
[Burr commonly occurs when producing sheet metal parts using different manufacturing
methods. Those include machining and cutting processes.]
(3) Pressure:
Mechanical strains set up in magnetic materials either from cold working
during rolling or punching or distortion during final assembly operations,
affects magnetic properties in several ways.
Soft and Hard magnetic materials
2.1.4.1 SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
● All ferromagnetic materials are classified into two broad groups:
-soft magnetic materials
-hard magnetic materials
(A) Soft magnetic materials
● Those materials which have a steeply rising magnetization curve,
relatively small and narrow hysteresis loop, and consequently small
energy losses during cycling magnetization are called soft magnetic
materials fig…. shows a typical narrow hysteresis loop A B C D E F A for
soft magnetic materials.
● Soft magnetic materials are used for construction of cores for electric
machines, Transformers, electromagnets, reactors, relays, etc. The
economic construction of such equipment demands that the magnetic
flux should be produced in the minimum space and with minimum loss.
Soft and Hard magnetic materials…
Fig.: Typical hysteresis loops for soft and

hard magnetic materials
Since flux = flux density×cross-sectional area
i.e. ∅= 𝐵×𝐴
● To obtain a given value of flux, a high value of flux density is chosen in
order to keep the cross-sectional area to a minimum and hence the
quantity of material. However, a large flux density means large Eddy
current and hysteresis losses. But a value of flux density above the
saturation value should not be chosen as this will give rise to a large
magnetizing current. [Saturation value is that value of flux density (𝐵) at
which the B-H curve starts bending and tends to become horizontal.
● When a low density is used to keep the magnetizing current and iron
losses low, then the cross-sectional area of the magnetic path has to be
increased which means more iron.
● Based on the above discussion, a compromise is made in actual practice
by choosing the flux density for a given application in order that the
amount of magnetic material used (i.e. the capital cost) and the iron
losses (i.e. the running cost) are kept as low as possible.
● The magnetic material for the core of the electrical machines and
Transformers should have high saturation value and high permeability to
keep the magnetizing current within the reasonable limits.
● When the core is to be used for AC magnetic fields, the core should be of
such a material as to produce small iron losses (hysteresis and Eddy
current losses). Thus, the requirements for magnetic materials for use in
the electrical machines and transformers are:
-Small enclosed area of hysteresis loop;
-High permeability;
-High saturation value of flux density;
The core of electrical machines and transformers are made of laminations
for reduced Eddy current losses.
(B) Hard magnetic materials

● Magnetic materials which have a gradually rising magnetization curve,
large hysteresis area of loop and consequently large energy losses during
cyclic magnetization are called hard magnetic materials. Such materials
are, therefore used for making permanent magnets. Typical broad
hysteresis loop mark L M N O P Q R L for hard magnetic materials is
shown in Fig. The desired properties of materials required for making
permanent magnets are:
-High saturation values
-High coercive force and
-High residual magnetism
● From Fig. 1, the product of 𝐵 and 𝐻 for hard magnetic material is high
compared to that for or soft magnetic material.
● In a hard magnetic material, it is difficult to orient the domains as
compared to the soft magnetic materials. It is thus difficult to magnetize a
hard magnetic material. The coercive force is large and hence the material
is magnetically hard. In a very hard magnetic material, the domain walls
may be absolutely immobile.
Magnetic Materials
Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

Pure iron Carbon steel
Iron-silicon alloys Tungsten steel
Grain oriented sheet steel Cobalt steel

(CRGO silicon steel)
Alnico
Nickel-iron alloys
Hard ferrites
Soft ferrites
Soft magnetic materials…
Pure iron:
● Are ferrous material with an extra low carbon content such as carbon
Steel (C<0.1%) and electrolytic iron.
● Resistivity is very low giving rise to large Eddy current losses when
operated at high flux densities in AC magnetic fields. This limits their use
to fields carrying steady (i.e. DC) flux or weak AC fields.
Applications:
-Electrical apparatus and instruments as magnetic material core for
electromagnets
-components for relay electrical instruments
Not used in rotating electrical machines where rotation of the slotted
rotor causes variation in reluctance and, therefore, of flux.
Iron-Silicon Alloys:
● Adding small quantities (0.5 to 5%) of Silicon by weight, the magnetic
properties of iron gets improved and material is called Silicon Steel. This
material is used for strong AC magnetic fields.
Applications:
-Finds application in Transformers, electrical rotating machines, reactors,
electromagnets, and relays.
Properties:
-Adding silicon to iron-electrical resistivity is increased by decreasing iron
losses due to Eddy currents
-Permeability increases at low and moderate flux densities and decreases
with high densities but lowers saturation.
-Reduces hysteresis loss and magnetostriction effect
-The most common thickness of electrical sheet Steel in making cores for
electrical equipments range between 0.35mm and 0.5mm. Thinner
laminations as 0.1mm, are used in high frequency electrical equipment.
Grain oriented sheet Steel:

● Ferromagnetic materials are made up of crystals (crystalline structure)
and each crystal has a particular direction along which it offers high
permeability and get easily magnetized. Axes along which the crystals
have high permeability are more easily magnetized, are called the
"preferred" or "easy" or the "soft" directions. Any other axis along which
the crystal has low permeability and difficult to magnetize, are called
"hard" directions.
● For easy magnetization, the crystal directions of electrical sheet Steel
should be oriented in such a way that their axes aligned (paralleled) to the
direction of the applied external magnetic field. This is achieved by
carefully controlling the rolling and annealing of Si-Fe sheets.
Advantages of higher permeability and higher saturation:
-Grain orientation (texturing) of Sheet steel
(i) obtained by cold rolling and sheet is said to be cold rolled grain oriented
(CRGO) Silicon Steel.
Fig.: Building a transformer core so as to keep the Fig.: Orientation of grains when CRGO steel is
orientation of the grains in the same direction as used for rotating machines
the flux path throughout the core length
NOTE: Broken lines indicate the orientation of the grains

Application of CRGO Si steel:
- Widely used for making transformer cores for lower magnetizing current
required by transformer, and rotating machines.
Nickel-iron alloys:
● Iron and iron-Silicon alloys have low initial permeability. For power
applications, like transformers and rotating electrical machines, core
materials are operated at high flux densities, initial permeability has no
importance.
NOTE: In communication system where high sensitivity and low distortion is
required CRGO sheet steel are not used.
Soft Ferrites:
● Soft ferrites or ceramic magnets are called ferromagnetic ceramics, and
are made of iron oxide, Fe2O3, with one or more divalent oxides such as
NiO, MnO or ZnO. These magnets have square hysteresis loop and high
resistance to demagnetization and are valued for computing machines
where a high resonance is desired. The great advantage of ferrites is their
high resistivity.
● Commercial ferrites can have resistivities as high as 109 ohm-cm. Eddy
currents resulting from alternating fields are, therefore, to reduced to a
minimum, and the range of application of these magnetic materials is
extended to high frequencies, even to microwaves. Ferrites are made by
mixing powdered oxides, compacting and sintering at high temperatures.
High-frequency Transformers in television and frequency modulated
receivers are almost always made with ferrite cores.
Hard magnetic materials
Ferrites, with large magnetostrictive effects, are sometimes used in electro-
mechanical transducers. In high frequency application, magnetostriction in
ferrites can lead to undesirable noise.
Hard Magnetic Materials:
(1) Carbon Steel, Tungsten Steel, Cobalt Steel:
● Soft magnetic materials cannot be used for making permanent magnets
because they have narrow hysteresis loops. It has been seen that when
carbon is added in a material, its hysteresis loop area is increased. That is
why in early days, carbon steel was used for permanent magnets.
Although it is cheap, magnets made from carbon Steel lose their magnetic
properties very fast under the influence of knocks and vibrations.
● When materials like Tungsten, Chromium or Cobalt are added to carbon
Steel, its magnetic properties are improved. Cobalt Steel has exceptionally
superior magnetic properties but is expensive.
Hard magnetic materials…
(2) Alnico:
Alloys like ALNICO (aluminium-nickel-iron Cobalt) are commercially the most
important of the hard magnetic materials. Large magnets are made of
special casting techniques and small ones by powder metallurgy. As
compared to Cobalt steel it is cheaper. Alnico is an exceptionally hard
magnetic material and due to this reason, now-a-days permanent magnets
are most commonly made of alnico. High quality permanent magnets are
used in many electrical engineering applications e.g. in various electrical
measuring instruments.
(3) Hard Ferrites:
● These are ceramic permanent magnetic materials. The most important
family of hard ferrites has the basic composition MOFe2O3, where M is a
barium (Ba) ion or a strontium (Sr) ion. These materials have a hexagonal
structure and low in cost and density.
● Hard ferrites are used in generators, relays, and motors. Electronic
applications include magnets for loudspeakers, telephone ringers and
receivers. They are also used in holding devices for door-closers, seals,
latches and in several toy designs.
[NOTE: There is another category of magnetic materials known as super-

paramagnetic, made from powdered iron or other magnetic particles. These
materials are used in Transformers for electronics and cores for inductors.
Permalloy (molybdenum-nickel-iron powder) is best known example of this
important category of magnetic materials.]
Applications of soft and hard magnetic materials:
(A) Soft Magnetic Materials
(B) Hard Magnetic Materials
Assignment to make notes of the above topic.
Submit the assignment in last week of November.

Special purpose magnetic materials
SPECIAL PURPOSE MAGNETIC MATERIALS
For certain applications of soft or non-retentive materials, special alloys and
other materials have been developed which, after proper fabrication and
heat treatment, have superior properties in certain ranges of magnetization.
These alloys are described as under:
1. Nickel-Iron Alloys:
i. Nickel:
● Nickel alloyed with iron in various proportions produces a series of alloys
with a wide range of magnetic properties:
Special purpose magnetic materials…
- With 78% nickel, the alloy properly heat treated, has a very high
permeability. These effects are shown in Fig. 8.22 and Fig. 8.23. Many
variations of this series have been developed for special purposes.
ii. Permalloy:
● Permalloy is a term applied to a number of nickel-iron alloys developed by
the Bell Laboratories, each specified by a prefix number indicating the
nickel content. This term is usually associated with the 78.5% nickel-iron
alloys, the important properties of which are high permeability and low
hysteresis loss in relatively low magnetizing fields.
● These properties are obtained by a unique heat treatment consisting of a
high-temperature anneal, preferably in hydrogen, with slow cooling
followed by rapid cooling from about 625°C.
● The alloy is very sensitive to mechanical strain; so it is desirable to heat-
treat the alloy in its final form.
● The addition of 3.8% chromium or molybdenum increases the resistivity
from 16 to 65 and 55 μΩ-cm, respectively, without seriously impairing the
magnetic quality. In fact, low- density permeabilities are better with these
additions.
● These alloys have found their principal application as a material for the
continuous loading of submarine cables and in loading coils for land lines.
● By special long-time high temperature treatments, maximum
permeability values greater than 1 million have been obtained. The
double treatment required by the 78% permalloy is most effective when
the strip is thin say under mils. For greater thicknesses, the quick cooling
from 625°C is not uniform throughout the section, and loss of quality
results. [A "mil" is a unit of thickness equal to one thousandth of an inch (. 001 inch). To
convert mil to inches, take mil and divide by 1000.]
iii. Deltamax:
By the use of special techniques of cold reduction and annealing the 48%
nickel-iron alloy develops directional properties resulting in high permeability
and a square hysteresis loop in the rolling direction. For optimum properties,
these materials are rapidly cooled after a 2-hour anneal in pure hydrogen at
1100°C. They are generally used in wound cores of thin tape for applications
such as phase transformers and magnetic amplifiers.
iv. Iron-Nickel-Copper-Chromium:
● The addition of copper and chromium to high nickel-iron alloys has the
effect of raising the permeability at low flux density. For optimum
properties they are annealed after cutting and forming for 4 hours at
1000°C in pure hydrogen and cooled slowly.
● Important applications are as magnetic shielding for instruments and
electronic equipment and as cores in magnetic amplifiers.
v. Constant-Permeability Alloys:
● These alloys having a moderate permeability which is quite constant over
a considerable range of flux densities are desirable for use in circuits in
which waveform distortion must be kept at a minimum.
● Isoperm and copernik are two alloys of this type. They are nickel-iron
alloys containing 40 to 55% nickel which have been severely cold-worked.
● Permnivar is the name given to a series of cobalt-nickel-iron alloys (for
example, 50% nickel, 25% cobalt, 25% iron) which exhibit this
characteristic of constant permeability over a low density range. When
magnetized to higher flux densities, they give a double loop constricted at
the origin so as to give no measurable remanence or coercive force. The
characteristics of the alloys in this group vary greatly with the chemical
content and heat treatment.
vi. Monel Metal:
● It is an alloy of 67% nickel, 28% copper, and 5% other metals. It is slightly
magnetic below 95°C.
vii. Iron-Cobalt Alloys:
● The addition of cobalt to iron has the effect of raising the saturation
intensity of iron upto about 36% cobalt (Fe2Co). This alloy is useful for pole
pieces of electromagnets and for any application where high magnetic
intensity is desired. It is workable hot but quite brittle cold.
● Hyperco contains approximately 1/3 Co, 2/3 Fe, plus 1 to 2% “added
element”. It is available as hot-rolled sheet, cold-rolled strip, plates, and
forgings. The 50% cobalt-iron alloy Permendur has a high permeability
and, with 2% vanadium added, can be cold-rolled.
viii. Iron-Silicon Aluminium Alloys:
● Aluminium in small percentages, usually under 0.5% is a valuable addition
to the iron- silicon alloy. Its principal function appears to be as a
deoxidiser. Certain compositions have very low magnetostriction and
anisotropy, high initial permeability, and high electrical resistivity.
● An alloy of 9.6% silicon and 6% aluminium with iron has better low-flux-
density properties than the Permalloys. However, poor ductility has
limited these alloys to D.C. applications in cast configurations or in
insulated pressed-powder cores to high-frequency uses. These alloys are
commonly known as sendust.
ix. Temperature-Sensitive Alloys:
● As the Curie point of metal is moved up or down the temperature scale by
the addition of other elements, it is possible to select alloys which lose
their ferromagnetism at almost any desired temperature upto 1115°C
(the change point in cobalt).
● Iron-base alloys are ordinarily used to obtain the highest possible
permeability at points below the Curie temperature. Nickel, manganese,
chromium and silicon are the most effective alloy elements for this
purpose, and most alloys made for temperature control application, such
as instruments, reactors, and transformers, use one or more of these.
x. Heusler’s Alloys:
● These are ferromagnetically composed of “nonmagnetic” elements.
● Copper, manganese and aluminium are frequently used as the alloying
elements. The saturation magnetic induction is about one-third that of
pure iron.
2. High-Frequency Materials:
● Since these materials are metals, they have low electrical resistance and
cause a large amount of heat-generation loss due to eddy current loss
under a kilohertz, megahertz, or higher-frequency AC magnetic field.
Thus, ferrite (soft ferrite) gained attention as a high-
frequency soft magnetic material (invented in 1930). These find
application in communication equipment.
● The ideal core materials for small reactors and transformers employed in
communication equipment should possess the following characteristics:
(i) Constant permeability.
(ii) Small hysteresis loss.
(iii) Small eddy-current loss within the range of small magnetizing forces and
over the wide range of frequencies met in such applications.
Table 8.1
● At the higher frequencies the control of eddy-currents becomes of
primary importance, not only to reduce losses but also to minimize skin
effect produced by eddy-current shielding. This is accomplished by the
use of high-permeability alloys in the form of wound cores of thin tape, by
the use of compressed powdered iron-alloy cores, or by sintered ferrites.
Comparison of these materials is given in Table 8.1.
● Thin electrical steels are insulated 3% iron-silicon alloys designed for
applications involving frequencies of 400 to 20,000 Hz and for pulse
components. They are made in strip 0.025 to 0.175 mm thick for wound
cores, with high effective permeability and low losses at relatively high
flux densities.
A. Nickel-Alloy Tape:
● Nickel-alloy of high permeability is used in thicknesses of 0.0025 mm to
0.025 mm for wound cores designed for the frequency range 100 to
100,000 c/s. Commonly used alloys for this purpose are the Permalloy,
MoPermalloy, Deltamax and Supermalloy, the thickness being chosen to
provide the desired permeability at the application frequency.
● Fig. 8.24 shows the effect of tape thickness (mm) on the initial
permeability of these types of materials (see Table 8.1).
B. Ferrite Cores:
● Ferrite cores are moulded from a mixture of metallic oxide powders such
that certain iron atoms in the cubic crystal of magnetite (ferrous ferrite)
are replaced by other metal atoms, such as Mn and Zn, to form
manganese zinc ferrite, or by Ni and Zn to form nickel zinc ferrite.
● They resemble ceramic materials in production processes and physical
properties. The DC resistivities correspond to those of semiconductors,
being at least 1 million times those of metals. Magnetic permeabilities
may be as high as 5,000 and apparent dielectric constants in excess
of 100,000. The Curie point is quite low, however, in the range of 100 to
300°C.
● Ferrite cores provide design advantages over strip and power cores for
uses (1) as filter cores upto 200 kc (kcalorie), (2) as deflection transformers
and yokes, and (3) in antenna rods, pulse transformers, delay lines and
wave guide elements. (See Table 8.1, Figs. 8.25 and 8.26).
C. Powdered-Iron Cores:
● Iron powders having a grain size of the order of 10 microns are
manufactured by a chemical process and coated to a thickness of 1
micron with a special insulating material. The powder is then mixed with
phenol resin binder, compressed at high pressure, and baked. The
product is a chemically stable magnetic body containing 90% pure iron by
weight; it can be worked mechanically in the same manner as soft metals.
D. Compressed Powdered Alloy:
● Compressed powdered alloy has also been developed for applications
similar to those of compressed powdered iron and has superseded the
latter for certain purposes, such as loading coils for long telephone-cable
circuits. The superior magnetic properties permit the use of smaller cores,
with considerable saving in the overall dimensions of a coil of given
inductance.
● It is necessary, however, to apply the proper heat-treatment in order to
develop the desired properties of Permalloy. Compressed powdered
molybdenum Permalloy, having lower hysteresis losses and higher
resistivity than the 78 or 81% nickel-iron alloy, is considered the best of
this class of alloys.
● It contains about 2% molybdenum, 81% nickel, and 17% iron. Much of the
quality of all these powder cores depends upon the use of specially
developed particle insulation which will withstand the desired pressure
and temperature and be of minimum thickness.
3. Permanent-Magnet (Retentive) Materials:
● Although it is possible to make permanent magnets of almost any kind of
steel that is capable of being hardened by heat treatment, it is best to use
materials especially produced for this purpose. Before the development
of the special magnet steels, magnets were generally made of plain high-
carbon tool steel. This type of steel is relatively inexpensive, but its
magnetic properties are greatly inferior to those of the special steels.
Permanent-magnet materials may be grouped in five classes as follows:
I. Precipitation-hardened alloys
II. Quench-hardened alloys
III. Ceramic
IV. Iron-powder compacts
V. Work-hardened materials
Fig. 8.27 shows typical demagnetization curves for several permanent
magnet materials.
I. Precipitation-Hardening Alloys:
a. Alnico Magnet Alloys:
● Alnico magnet alloys have the highest energy per unit of cost or volume of
any permanent-magnet material commercially available. They are usually
characterized by a higher coercivity, a higher energy, and a lower
retentivity than the magnet-steel types. They are formed only by casting
or sintering, are relatively weak and brittle and cannot be readily
machined except by grinding.
b. Cobalt-Molybdenum-Iron:
● It is known as Remalloy or Comal. It is a cast and hot rolled magnet
material, preferably containing 12% Co and 17% Mo, of precipitation-
hardening type. After quenching in air or oil at 1200 to 1300°C, it can be
formed and machined and is then aged for 1 hour at 650 to 700°C, after
which it is not sensitive to further ageing.
c. Cunife:
● It is a copper-nickel-iron alloy that is malleable, ductile, and machinable,
even in their age-hardened form. It has directional properties and should
be magnetized in the direction in which it was drawn. In small sizes,
Cunife has a tensile strength of approximately 8 kN/cm2. Remanence
decreases markedly at elevated temperatures, about 50% at 325°C, and is
non-magnetic above 400°C.
d. Cunico:
● It is a copper-nickel-cobalt alloy which is ductile prior to its final heat
treatment but cannot be readily machined thereafter. Magnets can be
made from rods, strips, and wire and can also be cast. The magnetic
properties are independent of the direction of cold working or heat
treatment.
e. Vicalloy:
● It is the trade name for permanent-magnet alloys of iron, cobalt and
vanadium. Vicalloy I contains 9.5% vanadium and has a much higher
energy product, which is obtained by heavy cold working. It is therefore,
strongly directional, having its best properties in the direction of cold
working. It is aged at 600°C, after which it no longer ductile. It is used in
tape form for magnetic recording.
f. Silmanal:
● It is a ternary alloy of silver, manganese, and aluminium, having the
highest intrinsic coercive force of any of the magnet materials. It will
withstand severe demagnetising effects. The alloy is ductile enough to be
drawn to a fine wire and can be machined as readily as soft steel.
● Magnets are made in a wide variety of shapes from wire swaged rods, or
rolled steels. Care must be taken not to heat the material above 200°C,
after which it is no longer ductile. It is used in tape form for magnetic
recording.
II. Quench-Hardened Alloys:
a. Carbon Magnet Steel:
● The coercivity and retentivity of quenched carbon steel increase with the
carbon content up to the eutectoid point, or about 0.85% of carbon; with
still higher carbon content the retentivity decreases.
b. Tungsten Magnet Steel:
● It contains approximately 5 to 6% tungsten, 0.60 to 0.80% carbon, and
about 0.50% manganese. There are two general types, viz., oil hardening
and water hardening. In designs subject to breakage in water quenching,
the oil-hardening type should be used.
c. Chrome Magnet Steels:
● These contain approximately 2.5 to 6% chromium and about the same
proportions of carbon and manganese as tungsten magnet steel. They
are nearly as efficient magnetically as tungsten steel and less expensive.
d. Cobalt-Chrome Magnet Steel:
● It is an alloy steel containing about 11% cobalt and 9% chromium. It has
the advantage of being readily machinable under production conditions.
Magnetically it is not quite so efficient as cobalt steel but is less expensive.
e. Cobalt Magnet Steel:
● It is also known as K.S. Steel, contains approximately 36% cobalt, 4%
tungsten, and 6% chromium. It forms and punches well when hot but is
not well suited for magnets requiring considerable machining, although it
can be drilled. Because of its high cobalt content it is expensive.
f. Platinum-Iron Alloys:
● These alloys containing 60 to 90% platinum develop high values of
coercive force depending on heat-treatment. Highest values are obtained
by quenching from 1200°C. The Curie points for these alloys are high
(near 1100°C), making them of value in high-temperature applications.
The preferred alloy contains about 78% platinum.
g. Platinum-Cobalt Alloys:
● These alloys have the highest energy product of any of the alloys with
noble metals. The high coercivity is attained by quenching at 1200°C, after
which they may be machined to shape, followed by ageing at 700°C.
● Machining after ageing is not possible because of their hardness.
III. Ceramic Magnet Materials:
● Commercial developments in permanent magnet materials which are
increasing in importance each year are the barium ferrite ceramic
permanent-magnet materials. These are chemical compounds with
mechanical characteristics similar to those of other ceramics.
● These materials are hard and brittle and have a lower density than metals
and extremely high electrical resistivity ingredients are barium carbonate
and iron oxide. The materials in powdered form are compressed in dies
under high pressure to the required shape. This compacted material is
then sintered at a high temperature.
This process produces a material which has its demagnetization curve
practically a straight line. Further improvements in ceramic materials have
resulted in a highly oriented barium-iron oxide whose magnetic properties,
on weight basis, are almost equal to those of Alnico V. At right angles to the
direction of grain orientation, however, this material exhibits negligible
permanent-magnet properties and has relative permeability of only
approximately 1.0.
IV. Powder Magnets:
● Although pure iron is usually regarded as a high-permeability, or
“magnetically soft”, material, yet theory has predicted and experiments
have proved that compacts of pure iron powders may produce very good
permanent magnets. Powder magnets have been produced of iron and
iron alloys (such as 70% iron and 30% cobalt) with particle size of about
10-5 cm diameter.
● The permanent-magnet properties result from the discrete small particles
of a single phase instead of from the presence of two or more phases, as
in most other metallic permanent- magnet material. Further experimental
work with particle size and shape and processes of manufacture has
produced, in the laboratory, magnets with energy products comparable
with those of Alnico V, and theoretical considerations predict even higher
values.
● Manganese-bismuth permanent magnets also belong to this group. This
material is an anisotropic aggregate of crystals of the intermetallic
compound manganese bismuthide (MnBi) and is al product of powder
metallurgy. Manganese bismuthide is prepared from the chemical action
between molten bismuth and powdered manganese when heated to
approximately 700°C in an inert atmosphere or argon or helium. Cooling
is accomplished in such a manner as to produce crystallization of the
compound.
● Powder metallurgy has also produced sintered Alnico magnets. These
magnets have greater mechanical strength and more uniform magnetic
properties than the cast variety, at the expense of a slight decrease in the
magnetic properties.
Magnet materials prepared from metal oxides such as cobalt ferrites and
Vectolite have been made and used for many years; however, they have
been practically superseded by the barium ferrites.
V. Work-Hardened Alloys:
● Several ordinarily “nonmagnetic” alloys of iron may become
ferromagnetic after cold working owing to a phase change in the material.
Stainless steel (18% chromium, 8% nickel) is “nonmagnetic” at room
temperature after being rapidly cooled from 1200°C in the usual process
of manufacture.
● However, if this stainless steel is hardened by cold working such as
drawing through a reducing die, it may develop properties such that it
makes an acceptable permanent-magnet material at room temperature.
If this work-hardened alloy is then reheated to a high temperature and
cooled slowly, it regains its original nonmagnetic condition at room
temperature. Another alloy that shows this property contains 45% iron,
15% Ni and 40% Cu.
Neodymium
Special topic on special magnetic material: NEODYMIUM MAGNET
Neodymium…
● A neodymium magnet (also known as NdFeB, NIB or Neo magnet) is the
most widely used type of rare-earth magnet. It is a permanent
magnet made from an alloy of neodymium, iron, and boron to form the
Nd2Fe14B tetragonal crystalline structure. Developed independently in
1984 by General Motors and Sumitomo Special Metals, neodymium
magnets are the strongest type of permanent magnet available
commercially.
● Because of different manufacturing processes, they are divided into two
subcategories, namely sintered NdFeB magnets and bonded NdFeB
magnets. They have replaced other types of magnets in many
applications in modern products that require strong permanent magnets,
such as electric motors in cordless tools, hard disk drives and magnetic
fasteners.
Neodymium…
Composition of neodymium
● Neodymium is a metal which is ferromagnetic (more specifically it
shows antiferromagnetic properties), meaning that like iron it can
be magnetized to become a magnet, but its Curie temperature (the
temperature above which its ferromagnetism disappears) is 19 K
(−254.2 °C; −425.5 °F), so in pure form its magnetism only appears at
extremely low temperatures. However, compounds of neodymium
with transition metals such as iron can have Curie temperatures well
above room temperature, and these are used to make neodymium
magnets.
● The strength of neodymium magnets is the result of several factors. The
most important is that the tetragonal Nd2Fe14B crystal structure has
exceptionally high uniaxial magnetocrystalline anisotropy.
Neodymium…
● This means a crystal of the material preferentially magnetizes along a
specific crystal axis but is very difficult to magnetize in other directions.
Like other magnets, the neodymium magnet alloy is composed
of microcrystalline grains which are aligned in a powerful magnetic field
during manufacture so their magnetic axes all point in the same direction.
The resistance of the crystal lattice to turning its direction of
magnetization gives the compound a very high coercivity, or resistance to
being demagnetized.
● The neodymium atom can have a large magnetic dipole moment because
it has 4 unpaired electrons in its electron structure as opposed to (on
average) 3 in iron. In a magnet it is the unpaired electrons, aligned so that
their spin is in the same direction, which generate the magnetic field. This
gives the Nd2Fe14B compound a high saturation magnetization and a
remnant magnetization of typically 1.3 teslas.
Neodymium…
● The magnetic phase of maximum energy density has the potential for
storing large amounts of magnetic energy. This magnetic energy value is
about 18 times greater than "ordinary" ferrite magnets by volume and 12
times by mass. This magnetic energy property is higher in NdFeB alloys
than in samarium cobalt (SmCo) magnets, which were the first type of
rare-earth magnet to be commercialized.
● In practice, the magnetic properties of neodymium magnets depend on
the alloy composition, microstructure, and manufacturing technique
employed.
Neodymium…
Magnetic properties of Neodymium:
● Neodymium magnets have higher remanence, much higher coercivity and
energy product, but often lower Curie temperature than other types of
magnets.
● Special neodymium magnet alloys that include terbium and dysprosium
have been developed that have higher Curie temperature, allowing them
to tolerate higher temperatures.
Neodymium…
The table below compares the magnetic performance of neodymium
magnets with other types of permanent magnets.
Br Hc BHmax TC
Magnet
(T) (kA/m) (kJ/m3) (°C) (°F)
Nd2Fe14B,
1.0–1.4 750–2000 200–440 310–400 590–752
sintered
Nd2Fe14B,
0.6–0.7 600–1200 60–100 310–400 590–752
bonded
SmCo5,
0.8–1.1 600–2000 120–200 720 1328
sintered
Sm(Co, Fe, Cu,
0.9–1.15 450–1300 150–240 800 1472
Zr)7, sintered
Alnico, sintered 0.6–1.4 275 10–88 700–860 1292–1580
Sr-ferrite,
0.2–0.78 100–300 10–40 450 842
sintered
Neodymium…
Applications:
(1) (2) (3)

Neodymium…
● The greater strength of neodymium magnets has inspired new applications in
areas where magnets were not used before, such as magnetic jewelry clasps,
children's magnetic building sets (and other neodymium magnet toys) and as
part of the closing mechanism of modern sport parachute equipment. They
are the main metal in the formerly popular desk-toy magnets, "Buckyballs"
and "Buckycubes", though some U.S. retailers have chosen not to sell them
because of child-safety concerns, and they have been banned in Canada for
the same reason.
● The strength and magnetic field homogeneity on neodymium magnets has
also opened new applications in the medical field with the introduction of
open magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners used to image the body in
radiology departments as an alternative to superconducting magnets that use
a coil of superconducting wire to produce the magnetic field.
Neodymium…
● Neodymium magnets are used as a surgically placed anti-reflux system which
is a band of magnets surgically implanted around the lower esophageal
sphincter to treat gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). They have also
been implanted in the fingertips in order to provide sensory perception of
magnetic fields, though this is an experimental procedure only popular among
biohackers and grinders.
Neodymium…
Existing magnet applications:
Neodymium magnets have replaced alnico and ferrite magnets in many of
the myriad applications in modern technology where strong permanent
magnets are required, because their greater strength allows the use of
smaller, lighter magnets for a given application. Some examples are:
● Head actuators for computer hard disks
● Mechanical e-cigarette firing switches
● Locks for doors
● Loudspeakers and headphones
● Mobile phone speakers, taptic (combination of "tap" and "haptic
feedback") feedback and auto focus actuators
● Magnetic bearings and couplings
● Benchtop NMR spectrometers
Neodymium…
● Electric motors: (Using neodymium magnets in electric motors can reduce
their power consumption by half.)Cordless tools
-Servomotors
-Lifting and compressor motors
-Synchronous motors
-Spindle and stepper motors
-Electrical power steering
-Drive motors for hybrid and electric vehicles. The electric motors of
each Toyota Prius require one kilogram (2.2 lb) of neodymium.
-Actuators
● Electric generators for wind turbines (only those with permanent magnet
excitation)
● Voice coil
● Retail media case decouplers
Neodymium…
● In process industries, powerful neodymium magnets are used to catch
foreign bodies and protect product and processes
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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MAIT EEE Dept.

Materials in Electrical Systems

Faculty: Dr. Neelam Kassarwani

This has been referred from GGSIPU site (page 13)

1. Introduction and classification of magnetic materials (1)

Fig. 1(b): Magnetic lines of force are

Fig. 2(a): Net dipole moment is zero for paramagnetic material

-By displacement of boundaries of domains: The domain having magnetic

Fig. : Probable directions of magnetic moments of four domains of iron

Fig.: Variation of permeability with temperature for a ferromagnetic material

Fig. 7: Magnetization or B-H curve

Fig. 8: Magnetic hysteresis loop

● The Magnetic Hysteresis loop above, shows the behavior of a

Fig.: Magnetization for Fe, Ni, and Co showing anisotropy

Note: When high permeability materials are prepared, effort is made to

Fig.: Typical hysteresis loops for soft and

(B) Hard magnetic materials

Soft magnetic materials Hard magnetic materials

Iron-silicon alloys Tungsten steel

Grain oriented sheet steel Cobalt steel

Grain oriented sheet Steel:

NOTE: Broken lines indicate the orientation of the grains

[NOTE: There is another category of magnetic materials known as super-

Assignment to make notes of the above topic.

Submit the assignment in last week of November.

(1) (2) (3)

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