Chapter 30

Sources of the Magnetic Field

 Learning outcomes
(magnetic field due to current carrying wires)
At the end of this unit you must be able to:
• Explain principle behind Biot-Savart Law
• Use Biot-Savart Law to find the magnitude and direction of
magnetic field produced by current-carrying wires
Lecture 1

• Find an expression of a force between parallel current carrying

wires
• Determine the direction of the force between parallel current
carrying conductors
Lecture 2

• Drive Ampere’s law

• Use Ampere’s law to find the magnetic field of different current
carrying loops
• Define magnetic flux
Lecture 3

• Identify materials depending there magnetic properties

2
 Magnetic
Electric
Biot-Savart Law
Gauss’s Law  μ I 
ds  ˆr
B o
4π  r2
Ampere's law

⃗
∮ 𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 =𝜇 𝐼
 
Magnetic flux  B  dA  0
Biot-Savart Law – Introduction
 Biot and Savart conducted experiments on
the force exerted by an electric current on a
nearby magnet
 They arrived at a mathematical expression
that gives the magnetic field at some point in
space due to a current
Biot-Savart Law – Set-Up
 The wire is carrying a
steady current of I
 The infinitesimal
 length
element is ds

 What is the magnitude and 

direction of magnetic field dB
at some point P, a distance
r from the axis of the wire?
Biot-Savart Law –
Observations
 
 The vector dB is perpendicular to both ds and
to the unit vector r̂ directed
 from ds toward P
 The magnitude of dB is inversely proportional

to r2, where r is the distance from ds to P

 The magnitude of dB is proportional to the
current and to the magnitude of the length

element ds

 The magnitude of dB is proportional to sinq,

where q is the angle between the vectors ds
and r̂
 Biot-Savart Law – Equation
 The observations are summarized in the mathematical
equation called the Biot-Savart law:
 μ I ds  ˆr
dB  o 2
4π r
 The magnetic field described by the law is the field due to the current-
carrying conductor
 Don’t confuse this field with a field external to the conductor

 The constant mo is called the permeability of

free space
 mo = 4p x 10-7 T. m / A
Total Magnetic Field
 To find the total field, sum up the 
contributions from all thecurrent elements I ds
 μ I ds  ˆr
B o  2
4π r
 The integral is over the entire current distribution
Biot-Savart Law – Final Notes
 The law is also valid for a current consisting
of charges flowing through space

 ds represents the length of a small segment
of space in which the charges flow
 For example, this could apply to the electron
beam in a TV set
  
B Compared to E
 Distance
 The magnitude of the magnetic field varies as the
inverse square of the distance from the source
 μ I 
ds  ˆr
B o
4π  r2

 The electric field due to a point charge also varies

as the inverse square of the distance from the
charge = k e
 
B Compared to E , 2
 Direction
 The electric field created by a point charge is
radial in direction

 The magnetic field created by a current element

 is
perpendicular to both the length element ds and
the unit vector r̂
  
B Compared to E, 3
 Source
 An electric field is established by an isolated
electric charge

 The current element that produces a magnetic

field must be part of an extended current
distribution
 Therefore you must integrate over the entire current
distribution
 
B for a Long, Straight
Conductor
Consider a thin, straight wire of finite length carrying a constant
current I and placed along the x axis as shown in Figure. Using Biot-
Savart law, determine the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field at point P due to this current.
 
B for a Long, Straight
Conductor
 Considering a length element
located a distance r from P.

 Integrating over all the current

elements gives

 μ I ds  ˆr 𝜇 𝑜 𝐼
dB  o
4π r 2
¿
4𝜋 [ 𝑟 2 ]
𝑑𝑥 sin (90 − 𝜃) ^
𝑘
𝑑⃗
𝑆 𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑖^ ^ ^𝑗
^ = 𝑖+
𝑟
𝜇 𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑥 cos θ ^ 𝑟𝑥𝑑⃗
⃗ 𝑆=𝑖^ 𝑥 ( 𝑖+ ^
^ ^𝑗 ) =𝑘
¿ 𝑘
4𝜋 𝑟
2
sin θ=
𝑥
𝑟 𝑥=𝑟 sin θ
From geometry

𝑟 cos 𝜃

𝑥=−𝑎 tan 𝜃

That means;
-

𝜇𝑜 𝐼
( )
2
𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝜃) ^
¿− cos θ 𝑑 𝜃 𝑘
4 𝜋 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 ( 𝜃 ) 𝑎2

B for a Long, Straight
Conductor, Special Case
μo I θ2
B
4πa 1 θ
cos θ dθ

μo I
  sin θ1  sin θ2 
4πa

 If the conductor is an
infinitely long, straight wire,
q1 = p/2 and q2 = -p/2
 The field becomes
μo I
B
2πa

B for a Long, Straight
Conductor, Direction
 The magnetic field lines
are circles concentric with
the wire
 The field lines lie in
planes perpendicular to μo I
wire B
 The magnitude of the field 2πa
is constant on any circle
of radius a
 The right-hand rule for
determining the direction
of the field is shown
 
B for a Curved Wire Segment
Calculate the magnetic field at point O for the current-
carrying wire segment shown in Figure. The wire consists
of two straight portions and a circular arc of radius a,
which subtends an angle θ.


 μ I ds  ˆr
B o  2
4π r

Arc length s = a
Conceptualize
o The magnetic field at O due to the
current in the straight segments AA’ and
CC’ is zero because is parallel to along
these paths, which means that for these
paths. Therefore, we expect the
magnetic field at O to be due only to
the current in the curved portion of the
wire.

 μ I ds  ˆr
B o  2
4π r Arc length s = a
o I and a are constants
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵= θ
4𝜋𝑎

The direction of is into the page at O

What if it is a c circular Loop of
Wire with radius a

 q = 2p
 The magnetic field at center of the loop becomes:
μo I μo I μo I
B θ 2π 
4πa 4πa 2a
 The direction of the field is into of page.
 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a
Circular Current Loop
Consider a circular wire loop of radius a located in the yz plane and carrying a
steady current I as in Figure. Calculate the magnetic field at an axial point P a
distance x from the center of the loop.

a
P

^𝑗

^
𝑘 I
𝑖^
Conceptualize
This is similar to the due to a ring of charges (chapter 23)
Figure below shows the magnetic field contribution at P due to a single current
element at the top of the ring. This field vector can be resolved into
components parallel to the axis of the ring and perpendicular to the axis.
Think about the magnetic field contributions from a current element at the
bottom of the loop. Because of the symmetry of the situation, the perpendicular
components of the field due to elements at the top and bottom of the ring
cancel. This cancellation occurs for all pairs of segments around the ring, so we
can ignore the perpendicular component of the field and focus solely on the
parallel components, which simply add.

1. In this situation, every length

element is perpendicular to the
vector at the location of the 𝑟=
element. Therefore, for any √𝑎 2
element,
+𝑥 2

2. Furthermore, all length elements

around the loop are at the same
distance r from P, where 𝑟 = √ 𝑎 2+ 𝑥 2
 
B for a Circular Current Loop

 The magnetic field due

to the length element

𝑟=
√𝑎 2
+𝑥 2

⃗ 𝜇 𝑜 𝐼 𝑑𝑠
d 𝐵𝑥 = cos 𝜃 𝑖^
𝑟 =√ 𝑎 + 𝑥
2 2
4 𝜋 𝑎 +𝑥 2 2

𝑎
cos 𝜃 =
√ 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2
 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑎 2
𝐵𝑥 = 3

2 𝑎 +𝑥 )
( 2 2 2
Comparison of Loops
 Consider the field at the center of the current
loop
 At this special point, x = 0
 Then,
μo I a 2 μo I
Bx  3

2 a  x 2a
2 2
 2

 This is exactly the same result as from the curved

wire (slide 19)
Magnetic Field Lines for a
Loop

 Figure (a) shows the magnetic field lines

surrounding a current loop
 Figure (b) shows the field lines in the iron filings
 Figure (c) compares the field lines to that of a bar
magnet
Magnetic field produced by: Circular wires
For a loop of current carrying conductor (as
shown on right), the direction of the magnetic
field is also obtained by applying the Right
Hand Rule. For this particular conductor
carrying a current around the loop in the
counterclockwise direction, the RHR shows
that the magnetic field points into the page out
side of the loop and the direction of the field
inside the loop is out of page as indicated.

For a loop of conductor with n number of turns,

the magnetic field at the center of the loop is
given by:
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=𝑛
2𝜋𝑟
𝑛=𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑠
27
 Solenoid
A solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of
a helix. With this configuration, a reasonably
uniform magnetic field can be produced in the
space surrounded by the turns of wire—which
we shall call the interior of the solenoid—when
the solenoid carries a current. When the turns
are closely spaced, each can be approximated
as a circular loop; the net magnetic field is the
vector sum of the fields resulting from all the
turns.

If the turns are closely spaced and the solenoid

is of finite length, the external magnetic field
lines are as shown in the diagram. This field
line distribution is similar to that surrounding a
bar magnet, discussed earlier. Hence, one end
of the solenoid behaves like the north (N) pole
of a magnet and the opposite end behaves like
the south (S) pole.
28
28
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors
 Two parallel wires each
carry a steady current
 We wish to find the
magnetic force on wire
2 duce to the magnetic
field produced by wire
1, or vise versa.
In chapter 29, we have discussed magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor
placed in an external magnetic field given by :

Above, we discussed about a magnetic field produced by a current-carrying wire

at a distance r given by :

Here, we wish to study the magnitude and nature ( repulsive or attractive) of

magnetic force between two current carrying wires;

The magnitude of magnetic field by wire 1

at
a position of wire 2 which are distance d
from each other is:

Using right hand rule, it can be seen that the direction of at

a position where wire 2 is placed is into (-) the page.
30
 𝐹 12 = 𝑙2 ( 𝐼 2 𝑥 𝐵1 )= 𝑙2 ( 𝐼 2 𝐵1 ) sin 𝜃

at wire 2𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑢𝑝 𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 () Hence the
angel between them is 90 degree. Therefore,

𝐹 12= 𝑙2 ( 𝐼 2 𝑥 𝐵1 )= 𝑙2 ( 𝐼2
𝜇𝑜 I 1
2𝜋 𝑑 )
𝐷 𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 12= ^𝑗 𝑥 ( − 𝑘
^ ) =− 𝑖^

If the currents are in the same direction the conductors will experience an attractive force
and if the currents flow in opposite directions then the force will be repulsive as shown in
the figures above. 31
Magnetic Force Between Two
Parallel Conductors, final
 The result is often expressed as the magnetic
force between the two wires, FB
 This can also be given as the force per unit
length:

FB μo I1 I 2
a


 2πa
 Summary ( force between two current carrying conductors)

• The direction of the force will depend on the direction of

current in the two conductors. Notice that the direction of I, B
and F is indicated.

B2 B1 B2 B1
B2 xI

>
B1 I2

>
>

I1

>
>

>

I2

>

>
1

F1_by_ F2_by_1 F1
F2
Conductor
2 1 Conductor 2 Conductor 1 Conductor 2

Currents flow in same direction Currents flow in opposite direction

= conductors experience = conductors experience
ATTRACTIVE FORCE REPULSIVE FORCE

33
Example
The figure shows a cross section of three parallel wires each carrying a current of
I. The currents in wires B and C are out of the page (positive z-axis), while that in
wire A is into the page (negative z-axis).  The distance between each wires is as
indicated. What is the magnitude of the force per unit length on wire A? Express
your answer interims of μ0 , R and I. To be solved during MS meeting. Ans
Revision of lecture 1
μo I
Biot-Savart Law B
 2πa
 μ I ds  ˆr
B o  2 I
4π r 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
2𝑅

𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑎 2
𝐵𝑥 = 3

2 (𝑎 + 𝑥 )
2 2 2

FB μo I1 I 2

ATTRACTIVE FORCE
 2πa
 Lecture 2: Ampere law
Ampere’s Circuital Law (Magnetostatics) - Integral Form

⃗
∮ 𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 =𝜇 𝐼
Definition of the Ampere
 The force between two parallel wires can be
used to define the ampere ( SI unit of current)
 When the magnitude of the force per unit
length between two long, parallel wires that
carry identical currents and are separated by
1 m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current in each wire
is defined to be 1 A
and
FB μo I1 I 2 The current in each
 wire is equal and defined to be 1 A,
 2πa
Definition of the Coulomb
 The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined
in terms of the ampere
 When a conductor carries a steady current of
1 A, the quantity of charge that flows through
a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C
Andre-Marie Ampère
 1775 – 1836
 French physicist
 Created with the
discovery of
electromagnetism
 The relationship between
electric current and
magnetic fields
 Also worked in
mathematics
Magnetic Field of a Wire
 A compass can be
used to detect the
magnetic field
 When there is no
current in the wire,
there is no field due to
the current
 The compass needles
all point toward the
Earth’s north pole
 Due to the Earth’s
magnetic field
Magnetic Field of a Wire, 2
 Here the wire carries a
strong current
 The compass needles
deflect in a direction
tangent to the circle
 This shows the direction
of the magnetic field
produced by the wire
Magnetic Field of a Wire, 3
 The circular magnetic
field around the wire is
shown by the iron
filings
Ampere’s Law
 
 The product of can be evaluated for
small length elements ds on the circular path
defined by the compass needles for the long
straight wire
 Ampere’s law states that the line integral of
  around any closed path equals moI
where I is the total steady current passing
through any surface bounded by the closed
path: ⃗ ⃗
∮ 𝐵.𝑑 𝑆=𝜇 𝐼 𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑑
Example: Find the magnetic field due to a
thin current-carrying wire at a distance r
from the axis of the wire

⃗
∮ ∮ 𝑠=𝐵(2𝜋𝑟)=𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 =𝐵 𝑑 ⃗
𝝁𝒐 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓
Find the magnitudes of for the closed paths a through each
of the path in Figure below.

⃗
∮ 𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 =𝜇 𝐼
path a, = 1A +5A -2A = 4A

path b, = 1A -2A = -1A

path c, = 1A +5A = 6A

path d, = 5A -2A = 3A
Field Due to a Long Straight
Wire – From Ampere’s Law
 Want to calculate the
magnetic field at a
distance r from the
center of a wire
carrying a steady
current I
 The current is uniformly
distributed through the
cross section of the
wire
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
– Results From Ampere’s Law
 Outside of the wire, r > R
  μo I
 B  ds  B( 2πr )  μo I  B  2πr
 Inside the wire, we need I’, the current inside
the amperian circle
  r2
 B  ds  B( 2πr )  μo I '  I '  R 2 I
 μo I 
B 2 
r
 2πR 
Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
– Results Summary
 The field is proportional
to r inside the wire
 The field varies as 1/r
outside the wire
 Both equations are
equal at r = R
 Lecture 2: Ampere law
Example:
Figure below shows a cross-section of a hollow cylindrical (inner radius = b,
outer radius = a) conductor that carries a current I parallel to its axis. This
current is uniformly distributed over a cross section of the conductor. What is
the magnitude of the magnetic field at a point at a distance



⃗ ⃗
∮ 𝐵.𝑑 𝑆=𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑑
Magnetic Field of a Toroid
 The toroid has N turns of
wire
 Find the field at a


 ⃗
∮ 𝐵 . 𝑑 ⃗𝑠=𝐵𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃=𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑒𝑛𝑐
 For ,
Hence

 For
 
 B  ds  B( 2πr )  μoN I
μo N I
B
2πr
For ,
Hence,
For an ideal toroid, in which the turns are closely spaced, the
external magnetic field is close to zero, but it is not exactly zero.
Please read comment about this on your text book
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid
 A solenoid is a long
wire wound in the form
of a helix
 A reasonably uniform
magnetic field can be
produced in the space
surrounded by the turns
of the wire
 The interior of the
solenoid
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid,
Description
 The field lines in the interior are
 nearly parallel to each other
 uniformly distributed
 close together
 This indicates the field is strong and almost
uniform
Magnetic Field of a Tightly
Wound Solenoid
 The field distribution is
similar to that of a bar
magnet
 As the length of the
solenoid increases
 the interior field becomes
more uniform
 the exterior field
becomes weaker
 Out of page
Ideal Solenoid –

Into page
Characteristics

I
I
 An ideal solenoid is
approached when:
 the turns are closely
spaced
 the length is much
greater than the radius of
the turns
 Out side the solenoid
magnetic field is zero
 Inside, the field the field
is uniform and parallel
 Find the magnetic field
inside such solenoid. Cross-sectional view of a solenoid
 Ampere’s Law Applied to a
Solenoid
 Ampere’s law can be used to
find the interior magnetic field
of the solenoid
 Consider a rectangle with side ℓ 𝑑 ⃗𝑠
parallel to the interior field and
side w perpendicular to the field
 This is loop 2 in the diagram

𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 = 𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑙 + ⃗
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑤 + ⃗
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
∮ ∫ 3 ∫ 4 ∫ 1 ∫ 𝐵.𝑑 ⃗𝑤2=𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑒𝑛𝑐
⃗ ⃗ 𝑙 + ⃗
 Let’s apply Ampère’s law to this path by
evaluating the integral of over each side of
the rectangle.
 The contribution along side 3 is zero as is
zero out side the solenoid
 The contributions from sides 2 and 4 are
both zero, because is perpendicular to
along these paths, both inside and out side 𝑑 ⃗𝑠
the solenoid.

 Side 1 gives a contribution to the integral

because along this path is uniform and
parallel to .
 The integral over the closed rectangular
path is therefore

𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 = 𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
∮ ∫ ∫ ∫ ∫ 𝐵.𝑑 ⃗𝑤 =𝜇 𝐼
⃗ ⃗ 𝑙 + ⃗
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑤 + ⃗
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑙 + ⃗
 Ampere’s Law Applied to a
Solenoid, cont.
 Therefore,
   
 B  ds  
path 1
B  ds  B 
path 1
ds  B

 The total current through the

rectangular path equals the
current through each turn
multiplied by the number of
turns
 
 B  ds  B  o NI
Magnetic Field of a Solenoid,
final
 Hence the magnetic field inside of an ideal
solenoid is given by:
N
B  μo I  μo n I

 n = N / ℓ is the number of turns per unit length
 This is valid only at points near the center of
a very long solenoid
Revision of lecture 1
μo I
Biot-Savart Law B
 2πa
 μ I ds  ˆr
B o  2 I
4π r 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
2𝑅

𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝑎 2
𝐵𝑥 = 3

2 (𝑎 + 𝑥 )
2 2 2

FB μo I1 I 2

ATTRACTIVE FORCE
 2πa
 Lecture 2: Ampere law
Ampere’s Circuital Law (Magnetostatics) - Integral Form

⃗
∮ 𝑜 𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐵.𝑑 ⃗
𝑠 =𝜇 𝐼
Lecture 3: Gauss’s Law in
Magnetism

Magnetic Flux
Magnetic Flux
 The magnetic flux
associated with a
magnetic field is
defined in a way similar
to electric flux
 Consider an area
element dA on an
arbitrarily shaped
surface
Magnetic Flux, cont.

 The
 magnetic field in this element is B
 dA is a vector that is perpendicular to the surface

 dA has a magnitude equal to the area dA
 The magnetic flux FB is
 
 B   B  dA
 The unit of magnetic flux is T.m2 = Wb
 Wb is a weber
Magnetic Flux Through a
Plane, 1
 A special case is when
a plane of area A
makes an angle q with

dA
 The magnetic flux is FB
= BA cos q
 In this case, the field is
parallel to the plane
and F = 0
Magnetic Flux Through A
Plane, 2
 The magnetic flux is FB =
BA cos q
 In this case, the field is
perpendicular to the plane
and
F = BA
 This will be the maximum
value of the flux
 Use the active figure to
investigate different angles
Gauss’ Law in Magnetism
 Magnetic fields do not begin or end at any
point
 The number of lines entering a surface equals the
number of lines leaving the surface
 Gauss’ law in magnetism says the magnetic
flux through any closed surface is always
zero:
 
 B  dA  0
 Example
A rectangular loop of width a and length b is located near a long
wire carrying a current I ( see the Figure ). The distance between the
wire and the closest side of the loop is c. The wire is parallel to the
long side of the loop. Find the total magnetic flux through the loop
due to the current in the wire.

Noting that is parallel to at any

point within the loop, the
magnetic flux through the
rectangular area is

𝝁𝒐 𝑰
𝑩=
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝑑𝐴=𝑏𝑑𝑟
Magnetism in Matter
Relative Magnetic permeability of some materials

In general, when a magnetic object is exposed to a magnetic field, the object can be
magnetized. It is know that some materials magnetized easily and others tend to
demagnetized. Depending on the strength of magnetizability: ratio between the net
field strength and the original field strength in a vacuum, which is called the relative
permeability (), magnetic materials are classified into three groups:
1) Diamagnetic materials
2) Paramagnetic materials
3) Ferromagnetic materials

71
Magnetic Moments
 In general, any current loop has a magnetic
field and thus has a magnetic dipole moment
 This includes atomic-level current loops
described in some models of the atom
 This will help explain why some materials
exhibit strong magnetic properties
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom
 The electrons move in
circular orbits
 The orbiting electron
constitutes a tiny current
loop
 The magnetic moment of
the electron is associated
with this orbital motion

 L is the angular momentum

  is magnetic moment
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom, 2
 This model assumes the electron moves
 with constant speed v
 in a circular orbit of radius r
 travels a distance 2pr in a time interval T
 The current associated with this orbiting
electron is
e ev
I 
T 2πr
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom, 3
1
 The magnetic moment is μ  I A  evr
2
 The magnetic moment can also be expressed
in terms of the angular momentum
 e 
μ L
 2me 
Magnetic Moments – Classical
Atom, final
 The magnetic moment of the electron is
proportional to
 its orbital angular momentum

 The vectors L and  point in opposite directions

 Because the electron is negatively charged

 Quantum physics indicates that angular
momentum is quantized
Magnetic Moments of Multiple
Electrons
 In most substances, the magnetic moment of
one electron is canceled by that of another
electron orbiting in the same direction
 The net result is that the magnetic effect
produced by the orbital motion of the
electrons is either zero or very small
Electron Spin
 Electrons (and other particles) have an
intrinsic property called spin that also
contributes to their magnetic moment
 The electron is not physically spinning
 It has an intrinsic angular momentum as if it were
spinning
 Spin angular momentum is actually a relativistic
effect
Electron Spin, cont.
 The classical model of
electron spin is the electron
spinning on its axis
 The magnitude of the spin
angular momentum is
3
S 
2
 , where h is Planck’s
constant
Electron Spin and Magnetic
Moment
 The magnetic moment characteristically
associated with the spin of an electron has
the value
e
μspin 
2me
 This combination of constants is called the
Bohr magneton mB = 9.27 x 10-24 J/T
Electron Magnetic Moment,
final
 The total magnetic moment
of an atom is the vector sum
of the orbital and spin
magnetic moments
 Some examples are given
in the table at right
 The magnetic moment of a
proton or neutron is much
smaller than that of an
electron and can usually be
neglected
Ferromagnetism
 Some substances exhibit strong magnetic effects
called ferromagnetism
 Some examples of ferromagnetic materials are:
 iron
 cobalt
 nickel
 gadolinium
 dysprosium
 They contain permanent atomic magnetic moments
that tend to align parallel to each other even in a
weak external magnetic field
Domains
 All ferromagnetic materials are made up of
microscopic regions called domains
 The domain is an area within which all magnetic
moments are aligned
 The boundaries between various domains
having different orientations are called
domain walls
Domains, Unmagnetized
Material
 The magnetic
moments in the
domains are
randomly aligned
 The net magnetic
moment is zero
Domains, External Field
Applied
 A sample is placed in
an external magnetic
field
 The size of the
domains with magnetic
moments aligned with
the field grows
 The sample is
magnetized
Domains, External Field
Applied, cont.
 The material is placed
in a stronger field
 The domains not
aligned with the field
become very small
 When the external field
is removed, the
material may retain a
net magnetization in
the direction of the
original field
Curie Temperature
 Curie point, also called Curie Temperature, a
temperature at which certain magnetic materials
undergo a sharp change in their magnetic
properties.
 The Curie temperature is the critical temperature
above which a ferromagnetic material loses its
residual magnetism
 The material will become paramagnetic
 Above the Curie temperature, the thermal agitation
is great enough to cause a random orientation of the
moments
Table of Some Curie
Temperatures
Paramagnetism
 Paramagnetic substances have small but
positive magnetism
 It results from the presence of atoms that
have permanent magnetic moments
 These moments interact weakly with each other
 When placed in an external magnetic field, its
atomic moments tend to line up with the field
 The alignment process competes with thermal
motion which randomizes the moment
orientations
Diamagnetism
 When an external magnetic field is applied to
a diamagnetic substance, a weak magnetic
moment is induced in the direction opposite
the applied field
 Diamagnetic substances are weakly repelled
by a magnet
 Weak, so only present when ferromagnetism or
paramagnetism do not exist
Meissner Effect
 Certain types of
superconductors also
exhibit perfect
diamagnetism in the
superconducting state
 This is called the Meissner
effect
 If a permanent magnet is
brought near a
superconductor, the two
objects repel each other
Meissner Effect
Earth’s Magnetic Field
 The Earth’s magnetic field
resembles that achieved by
burying a huge bar magnet
deep in the Earth’s interior
 The Earth’s south magnetic
pole is located near the
north geographic pole
 The Earth’s north magnetic
pole is located near the
south geographic pole

https://web.ua.es/docivis/magnet/earths_magnetic_field2.html
Vertical Movement of a
Compass
 If a compass is free to rotate vertically as well
as horizontally, it points to the Earth’s surface
 The farther north the device is moved, the
farther from horizontal the compass needle
would be
 The compass needle would be horizontal at the
equator
 The compass needle would point straight down at
the magnetic pole
More About the Earth’s
Magnetic Poles
 The compass needle with point straight downward
found at a point just north of Hudson Bay in Canada
 This is considered to be the location of the south magnetic
pole
 The exact location varies slowly with time
 The magnetic and geographic poles are not in the
same exact location
 The difference between true north, at the geographic north
pole, and magnetic north is called the magnetic declination
 The amount of declination varies by location on the Earth’s
surface
Earth’s Magnetic Declination
Source of the Earth’s Magnetic
Field
 There cannot be large masses of
permanently magnetized materials since the
high temperatures of the core prevent
materials from retaining permanent
magnetization
 The most likely source of the Earth’s
magnetic field is believed to be convection
currents in the liquid part of the core
 There is also evidence that the planet’s
magnetic field is related to its rate of rotation
Reversals of the Earth’s
Magnetic Field
 The direction of the Earth’s magnetic field
reverses every few million years
 Evidence of these reversals are found in basalts
resulting from volcanic activity
 The rocks provide a timeline for the periodic
reversals of the field
 The rocks are dated by other means to determine the
timeline