Sources of Magnetic Field

General physics Phys. 106

Dr. Mohamed Abdel Rafea

m.abdelrafea@gmail.com
Contents
Chapter 1 Sources of the Magnetic Field
Chapter 30 in the text book
1.1 The Biot-Savart`s law
1.2 Amplere`s law
1.3 The magnetic Field of solenoid
1.4 Magnetic flux
1.5 Gauss`s low in magnetism
1.6 Displacement current and generalized
Ampere`s law
Ch. 2 Faraday`s law
(Ch. 31 of the text book)

2.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction

2.2 Motional emf
2.3 Lenz’s Law
2.4 Induced emf, Electric Fields and
Applications
2.5 Maxwell’s Equations
Chapter 3. Capacitors
Chapter 26 of the text book

3.1 Definition of Capacitance

3.2 Calculating Capacitance
3.3 Combinations of Capacitors
3.4 Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor
3.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics
Chapter 4 Inductance
Chapter 32 from the text book

4.1 Self-inductance
4.2 RC and Rl RLCircuits
4.3 Energy in a magnetic field
4.4 Mutual inductance
4.5 Oscillation in an LC circuit
4.6 RLC circuit.
4.7 Transformers
Chapter 5 Alternating Current Circuits:
Chapter 33 of the text book
5.1 AC Sources
5.2 Resistors in an AC Circuit
5.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit
5.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit
5.5 The RLC Series Circuit
5.6 Power in an AC Circuit
5.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit
5.8 The Transformer.

6
Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Waves
Chapter 34 of the text book

6.1- Maxwell’s equations

6.2- Plane electromagnetic waves
6.3- Energy carried by electromagnetic waves

7
Chapter 1 Sources of the Magnetic Field
1.1 The Biot-Savart`s law
1.2 Ampere's law
1.3 The magnetic Field of solenoid
1.4 Magnetic flux
1.5 Gauss`s low in magnetism
1.6 Displacement current and generalized
Ampere`s law
1.1 Biot-Savart Law
Shortly after Oersted’s discovery in 1819 that a compass needle (that is
considered as a permanent magnet) is deflected by a current-carrying
conductor, Biot and Savart performed quantitative experiments on the
force exerted by an electric current on a nearby magnet. From their
experimental results, they arrived at a mathematical expression that gives
the magnetic field dB at some point in space P at a distance r in terms of
the current I in a segment of the conductor ds that produces the field:
 0 I ds  r  1.1
dB 
4 r2
where μ0 is a constant called the permeability of free space and equals to
μ0 =4π×10-7 T.m/A. To find the total B created by a finite size current-
carrying conductor at some point in space, we must integrate the
previous equation:
 0 I ds  r 
 dB 
4  r2
1.2

9
Example 1 .1 Magnetic Field Surrounding a
Thin, Straight Current-Carrying Conductor:

Consider a thin, straight wire carrying a

constant current I and placed along the x
axis as shown in Figure. Determine the
magnitude and direction of the magnetic
field at point P due to this current. The right-
hand rule for determining the direction of
the magnetic field surrounding a long,
straight wire carrying a current.

Fig.(1.1)

10
The direction of the magnetic field is determined by the right hand as
shown in Fig. 1.1 The vector multiplication of the r and ds is
perpendicular to the page and its direction out . The ds direction is in x
and r in y plane so we use the vector unit k to express the Z direction
1.3
The magnetic field in this case is directed to k in this case there is one
current element and only one magnetic field element of directions in k
and given by :-

or
1.4

1.5
To integrate the expression, we eliminate r with
respect angles as follows:-
and 1.6

and 1.7
Substitute in magnetic field equation we get

1.8
The total magnetic field is then given by:-

1.9
Here the angles and vary from 0 to π then the integral boundaries
to
1.10
Finally the total magnetic field is then given by :
1.11

Example 1.2 The Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors.

Wire 2, which carries a current I2 and is
identified arbitrarily as the source wire,
Creates a magnetic field B2 at the location
of wire 1, the test wire. The direction of B2
is perpendicular to wire 1, as shown.
The magnetic force on a length l of wire 1 is F1 = I1 l × B2. Because l is
perpendicular to B2 in this situation, the magnitude of the force is then.

The direction of F1 is toward wire 2 because l × B2 is in that direction. If

the field set up at wire 2 by wire 1 is calculated, the force F2 acting on
wire 2 is found to be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to F1,
according to Newton’s third law
When the currents are in opposite directions, the forces are reversed and
the wires repel each other. Hence, parallel conductors carrying currents
in the same direction attract each other, and parallel conductors carrying
currents in opposite directions repel each other
For this reason computer cables, telephone cables and others have
currents in opposite directions so that B created will cancel

14
1.2 Ampere’s Law
Ampere’s law is used to calculate magnetic fields
created by highly symmetric charge distributions. It is
therefore similar to Gauss’s law that calculates electric
fields of also highly symmetric charge distributions.
First let us demonstrate a simple experiment that
shows how the a current-carrying conductor produces
magnetic fields. Several compass needles are placed
in a horizontal plane near a long vertical wire. When
no current is present in the wire, all the needles point
in the same direction (that of the Earth’s magnetic
field), as expected. When the wire carries a strong,
steady current, the needles all deflect in a direction
tangent to the circle. These observations demonstrate
that the direction of the magnetic field produced by
the current in the wire is consistent with the right-hand
rule described earlier. When the current is reversed,
the needles also reverse 15
Because the compass needles point in the direction of B, we conclude
that the lines of B form circles around the wire (this can be displayed by
iron filings). By symmetry, the magnitude of B is the same everywhere
on a circular path centered on the wire and lying in a plane perpendicular
to the wire. Moreover, by varying the current I and distance a from the
wire, we find that B is proportional to the current and inversely
proportional to the distance from the wire, as found before
Now let us evaluate the product B.ds for a small length element ds on the
circular path, and sum the products for all elements over the closed
circular path. Along this path, the vectors ds and B are parallel at each
point, so B.ds = B ds. Furthermore, the magnitude of B is constant on
this circle. Therefore, the sum of the products Bds over the closed path,
which is equivalent to the line integral of B.ds, is:
Ampere’s Law

  0 I
 B.ds  B  ds  2r   0 I
2r 1.12
16
Example 1.3 The Magnetic Field Created by a
Long Current-Carrying Wire:
A long, straight wire of radius R carries a
steady current I that is uniformly distributed
through the cross section of the wire.
Calculate the magnetic field a distance r from
the center of the wire in the regions r ≥ R and
r ˂ R.
Soln.:
Inside the conductor the current pass through
the radius r< R is given by area percentage as
r 2
I
R 2

Applying Amperes law we get

or 2 o I
B I  r for r  R 1.13
2r.R 2
2R 2

17
1.3 The Magnetic Field of A Solenoid
A solenoid is a long wire wound in the form of a
helix. With this configuration, a reasonably uniform
magnetic field can be produced in the space
surrounded by the turns of wire which we shall call
the interior of the solenoid when the solenoid carries
a current. When the turns are closely spaced, each
can be approximated as a circular loop, and the net
magnetic field is the vector sum of the fields
resulting from all the turns.
If the turns are closely spaced and the solenoid is of
finite length and that length is much greater than the
radius of the turns, the solenoid is ideal. In this case,
the external field is close to zero, and the interior
field is uniform over a great volume

18
We now use Ampere’s law to obtain a quantitative expression for the
interior magnetic field in an ideal solenoid. Because the solenoid is
ideal, B in the interior space is uniform and parallel to the axis, and the
magnetic field lines in the exterior space form circles around the
solenoid. Consider an ideal solenoid of total length l and number of turns
N Figure. We can apply Ampere’s law to this path by evaluating the
integral of B.ds over its length:

 
 B.ds  B  ds  B  0 NI 1.14
N
 B  0 I   0 nI
 1.15
where n is the number of turns per unit length

19
1.4 Magnetic Flux

The magnetic flux associated with a magnetic field

is defined in a manner similar to that used to define
electric flux. The magnetic flux passing through a
surface element dA is B . dA, where B is the
magnetic field at this element and dA is a vector
perpendicular to the surface and has a magnitude
equal to the area of the element, dA. Accordingly,
the total magnetic flux, φB, through the whole
surface is:
 
B 
  B.dA 1.16

The unit of magnetic flux is T.m2, which is defined

as a Weber (Wb). The flux is zero when the field is
parallel to the surface and is a maximum when the
field is perpendicular to it 20
1.5 Gauss’s Law in Magnetism
In the electric field, the number of electric field
lines leaving the surface depends only on the net
charge. The electric field lines originate and
terminate on electric charges on the fact that the
situation is quite different for magnetic field, which
are continuous and form closed loops. In other
words, magnetic field lines do not begin or end at
any point as illustrated in Figure. For any closed
surface, the number of lines entering the surface
equals the number leaving the surface; thus, the net
magnetic flux is zero. The net magnetic flux
through any closed surface is always zero.

 B.dA  0 1.17

21
1.6 The displacement current and generalized Ampere’s Law
(Ampere-Maxwell’s Law)
Brain storming examples:-
In the following Examples, the applied voltages on the instruments are
220 ac. (constant ac voltage)
why?
- The lamps are electrically defected at either switching on or off.
- A huge power are dissipated at the first few milliseconds, then steady
state power flow is reached.
This may only appended only when there is an instantaneous current
produced in this few time duration which is responsible for this
phenomenon. The conduction current is the stable portion after switching
off or on. We introduce a new type of current called displacement current
which is generated due to high change in magnetic field in small duration
time. Displacement current does not only pass through the conductors
but also it able to pass through any insulated medium.
Another example in the following
circuit, a conduction current pass
though the wiring circuit. If a sudden
change or alternative change of the
current is applied on the capacitor with
dielectric material, a current pass
through the circuit. This means that
there is a current pass through the
insulated medium. It is not the
conduction current bu it is the a current
pass by electric field through the
insulated portion , i.e the displacement
current.
There should be a component of current that suddenly generated at the
points switching off or on. It depends on the rate of change of magnetic
flux that is generated by the change of electric field caused by the
current. This current is called the displacement current and is given by:-
dE
Id  o 1.18
dt
Where єo is the permittivity of the free space.
If the current pass through the conductor is
not constant, another current component is
generated due to the change in magnetic flux at the conductor by
induction. Maxwell modified Ampere’s law to include time-varying
electric fields. The new “general” law states that: “magnetic fields are
produced both by conduction currents and by time-varying electric
fields:   dE
 B.ds   0  I  I d    0 I   
0 0 1.19
dt
If the field is constant in time, then Id=0 and we get Ampere’s law
Example:- A sinusoidal varying voltage is applied across 8𝛍F
capacitor. The frequency of the voltage is 3kHz, and the voltage
amplitude is 30 V. Find the displacement current in the capacitor.
Solution:-
The alternative sinusoidal voltage wave function is given by :-
V  Vm sin t  30 sin(2 .30 103 t )
30 sin(1.88 10 4 t )
The displacement current is the rate of change of electrical charges
dQ
I and Q  CV
dt
then
dV
I C  8  10 6 (30  1.88  10 4 ) cos(1.88  10 4 t ) A
dt
 4.53 cos(1.88  10 4 t )
Ch. 2 Faraday`s law

2.1 Faraday’s Law of Induction

2.2 Motional emf
2.3 Lenz’s Law
2.4 Induced emf, Electric Fields and
Applications
2.5 Maxwell’s Equations
Introduction:- when a north
or south pole of magnet
moved perpendicular to a
closed conductor loop, a
current is generated and its
direction depends on the
magnetic field direction.
Note. Static magnetic field
can not generate the current
Examples & applications:-
1-Credit cards 2-Magnetic tap recorder
3-Floppy disks 4-Electric Generators

Another way to change the magnetic field across closed loop is to

produce a magnetic field by a coil.
Nearby the coil the secondary coil in
which any change in magnetic field
caused by the primary coil generates
a current in the secondary coil as shown
in the simple transformer
Note: constant current in the primary
coil will not produce a current in the secondary coil
2.1 Farady`s law:-
In a closed loop conductor, the induced electromotive force (ε) is
directly proportional to the negative rate of change in magnetic flux
dB
 
dt 2.1
For several loops connected coil of number of turn is N, the emf is then
the multiplication of N by the negative rate change of magnetic flux
dB
  N
dt 2.2
If the magnetic field is not perpendicular to
the coil ( sloped with angle θ), the magnetic
flux is then determined by :-

B   BdA BA cos 

2.3
d
and    ( BA cos  )
dt
Example: A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of
side 18 cm, and a uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the
plane of the coil is turned on. If the field changes linearly from 0 to 0.50
T in 0.80 s, what is the magnitude of the induced emf in the coil while
the field is changing?
Note:- 1 T.m2.s-1 = 1V
Solution:- d (0  0.0162)
   N B  200  4.1V
dt 0.8

Example:- consider a magnetic field perpendicular to a loop of turns N.

 at
the magnetic field decay by the equation max B e , where a is constant
and t is the time, if the area of the coil is A deduce the emf at the end of
the loop?
Solution:- the magnetic flux is B  AB  ABmax e  at
The generated emf dB d  at
    ABmax e
dt dt
 aABmax e  at
2.2 Motional emf
The motional emf is generated at constant magnetic field while the
conductor`s position is changed. Although the magnetic field is constant ,
its the position is changed during the motion of the conductor which is
considered that the magnetic flux is changed with time. It can be
discussed as the electrons in the conductors are affected by two forces,
electric and magnetic forces as follows:-
FB  Qv  B and FE  QE 2.4
In equilibrium state the two forces are equal
QE  Qv  B or E  v  B 2.5

Introducing the potential difference in the

Equation we get:
V  El  Blv 2.6
Another derivation
The bar cutting the magnetic field of length l and moves a distance, x
The magnetic flux is then
The rate of change of magnetic flux is obtained by first derivative and
equal to the negative value of the emf :-
B  Blx 2.7
Then
2.8

Example: rotating bar about its end

A conducting bar of length l rotates with a constant angular speed 𝜔
about a pivot at one end. A uniform magnetic field B is directed
perpendicular to the plane of rotation, as shown in Figure. Find the
motional emf induced between the ends of the bar.
Solution:- in a small conductor segment dr, the segmental motional emf
( dε) is given by:

d  Bldr
2.9
The total emf (ε) is obtained by integration

2.10
Taking into account
v  r 2.11
Then

l
1
  V  vdr  B  rdr  Bl 2 2.12
0
2
Example:- The conducting bar illustrated in Figure 31.12 moves on two
frictionless parallel rails in the presence of a uniform magnetic field
directed into the page. The bar has mass m and its length is l. The bar is
given an initial velocity vi to the right and is released at t=0. Using
Newton’s laws, find the velocity of the bar as a function of time. Show
that the same result is reached by using an energy approach.
a- The force acting on the rod is only
pushing the rod inside the field at
frictionless surfaces. This force is
balanced by the magnetic force which
generates emf of current inside the rod
in order to keep the velocity to be constant

2.13
Taking into account that the current is the generated emf divided by the
conductor resistance:
2.14
Then
2.15

2.16

Integrating both sides with initial conditions at time 0,t and vi to v we

get:-

2.17
Taking the value remains the time constant of the
motion, the integral will be

Or
2.18
B- using the energy approach to get the value of the velocity, here the
mechanical power and electrical power balanced the motion of the rod
is the given by:-

We reach to the same term of the time constant at last approach that
2.3 Lenz law
The induced current in a loop is in the direction that creates a magnetic
field which opposes the change in magnetic flux through the area
enclosed by the loop. According to this opposite change, the induced emf
is negative
Thus the negative rate change in magnetic flux governs the generated mf
of any closed path and can be expressed as the line integral known as the
generalized Ampere`s law:

  dB
emf   E.ds   2.19
dt
• Examples and applications
• Example:-
• A metal ring is placed near
a solenoid, as shown in
Figure in cases of current
is not switched,
a. before switching on
b. during switching on
c. after switching off
Example:-
A rectangular metallic loop of dimensions l x w and
resistance R moves with constant speed v to the right, as
in figure. The loop passes through a uniform magnetic
field B directed into the page and extending a distance
3w along the x axis. Defining x as the position of the
right side of the loop along the x axis,
Plot as a function of the distance x the following
1. the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by the
loop,
the induced motional emf,
the external applied force necessary
to counter the magnetic force and keep
v constant.
• Solution:-
The magnetic field is not affecting all the area of the
loop but partially increases when the loop width enter
the uniform magnetic field. So that the emf is increased
linearly with the distance width inside the field and
reaching their steady state at a value, Blv. This value is
remained constant until the loop go out of the field.
The emf is decreased also linearly as the partial area of
the loop go out of the field until it completely outside
remaining the emf is zero.
The change in emf at the edges is actually a direct reason of non constant
magnetic flux. Moving inside a magnetic field generate a current and emf
which is opposite action to the magnetic flux change with time. The
electromagnetic work done on the loop to remain the velocity v is
constant is given by :-
W  I  emf  t 2.20
The time is obtained from the
velocity and distance w (v=w/t)
then t =w/v and the current
emf Blv R is the loop resistance
I 
R R
Then Blv w B 2l 2 w 2.21
W  Blv. . 
R v vR
The work is the force multiplied by the distance
B 2l 2 w B 2l 2
W  F .w  or F  2.22
vR vR
2.4 Induced emf and electric field
“an electric field is created in the conductor
as a result of the changing magnetic flux.”
We have studied before that the negative rate
change in magnetic flux generate an induced
emf. Now the emf generate an electric field
between two points of the potential difference.
In a conducting loop of radius r rotates
perpendicular to magnetic field, the electric
field is then given by the emf over the
circumstance of the loop. integrated as
follows:-

2.23
2.5 Generators and motors

The generators in the simplest form

are consists of a loop of wire rotated
in a magnetic field. An electromotive
force are generated at its ends which
can be extracted by a brush as shown
in Fig. As a loop rotates in a magnetic
field, the magnetic flux through the
area enclosed by the loop changes
with time; this induces an emf and a
current in the loop according to
Faraday’s law.

43
Generators:-
Suppose that the loop has N turns, all of the
same area A, and rotates in a magnetic field
with a constant angular speed ω. If θ is the
angle between the magnetic field and the
normal to the plane of the loop, as in Figure,
then the magnetic flux through the loop at
any time t is
2.24

where we have used the relationship θ = ωt

2.25
between angular position and angular speed. Hence, the
induced emf in the coil is
2.26
44
 Motors
In motors, the same construction of the generator while
the current pass externally from a battery to the loop
which creates a force between the loop and the
magnetic field. This force creates a torque which rotate
the motor.

45
2.6 Eddy Currents
As we have seen, an emf and a current are induced in a circuit by a
changing magnetic flux. In the same manner, circulating currents called
eddy currents are induced in bulk pieces of metal moving through a
magnetic field. This can easily be demonstrated by allowing a flat copper
or aluminum plate attached at the end of a rigid bar to swing back and
forth through a magnetic field. As the plate enters the field, the changing
magnetic flux induces an emf in the plate, which in turn causes the free
electrons in the plate to move, producing eddy currents. According to
Lenz’s law, the direction of the eddy currents is such that they create
magnetic fields that oppose the change that causes the currents in the first
place. For this reason, the eddy currents must produce effective magnetic
poles on the plate, which are repelled by the poles of the magnet; this
gives rise to a repulsive force that opposes the motion of the plate. (If the
opposite were true, the plate would accelerate and its energy would
increase after each swing, in violation of the law of conservation of
energy). Applications include metal detectors and security gates
46
2.7 Maxwell’s Equations
We conclude this chapter by presenting four equations that are regarded
as the basis of all electrical and magnetic phenomena. These equations,
developed by Maxwell, are as fundamental to electromagnetic
phenomena as Newton’s laws are to mechanical phenomena. In fact, the
theory turned out to be in agreement with the special theory of relativity,
as Einstein showed in 1905. Furthermore, these equations predict the
existence of electromagnetic waves (traveling patterns of electric and
magnetic fields), which travel with the speed of light. Moreover, the
theory shows that such waves are radiated by accelerating charges
For simplicity, we present Maxwell’s equations as applied to free space,
that is, in the absence of any dielectric or magnetic material. The four
equations are:

47
The first equation is Gauss’s law: the total electric flux through any
closed surface equals the net charge inside that surface divided by ϵ0.
This law relates an electric field to the charge distribution that creates it
The second equation is Gauss’s law in magnetism: the net magnetic
flux through a closed surface is zero. That is, the number of magnetic
field lines that enter a closed volume must equal the number that leave
that volume. This implies that magnetic field lines cannot begin or end at
any point
The third equation is Faraday’s law of induction, which describes the
creation of an electric field by a changing magnetic flux: the emf equals
the rate of change of magnetic flux through any surface area bounded by
that path
The fourth equation is Ampere–Maxwell law describes the creation of a
magnetic field by an electric field and electric currents: the line integral
of the magnetic field around any closed path is the sum of μ0 times the
net current through that path and ϵ0μ0 times the rate of change of electric
flux
48
Once the electric and magnetic fields are known at some point in space,
the force acting on a particle of charge q can be calculated from the
expression:
2.27
This relationship is called the Lorentz force law. Maxwell’s equations,
together with this force law, completely describe all classical
electromagnetic interactions. Maxwell’s equations are of fundamental
importance not only to electromagnetism but to all of science

49
Chapter 3. Capacitors

3.1 Definition of Capacitance

3.2 Calculating Capacitance
3.3 Combinations of Capacitors
3.4 Energy Stored in a ChargedCapacitor
3.5 Capacitors with Dielectrics

50
3.1 Definition of capacitors
When the connection is made, the battery
establishes an electric field in the connecting
wires. This EF creates a force that influences
electrons in the wires to move and accumulate on
the plates
This movement continues until the plate, wire,
and the terminals of the battery are ALL at the
same electric potential. Once this point is
attained, a potential difference no longer exists
between the terminals and plates. As a result, no
electric field is present in the wires, and the
movement of charges stop
The plates now carry an equal amount of charges
at opposite signs, and have a potential difference
between them that equals that between the
terminals of the battery
51
3.2 Calculating Capacitance
When a capacitor is rated as 4.0 pF, for example, it means that for every
1.0 V potential difference between the plates the capacitor stores 4.0 pC
of charge. Now if this capacitor is connected to a 9 V battery → each
plate holds 36 pC
The most common configuration of a capacitor is a pair of parallel plates
conductors separated by a vacuum (air at low pressure). As the
definition of capacitance indicates the ability of a conductor to store
charges, then we expect that the capacitance, C, of this capacitor is
directly proportional to the plate area, A CA
If the power (i.e. potential difference) supplied to the plates is constant,
then we expect that the electric field between the plates increases by
decreasing the separation, d, between them. C
1
d
Combining these two results we get:
A
C
d 3.1
52
The surface charge density on either plate is σ = Q/A. Since the
separation between the plates is small wrt their sizes, then → electric
field between the plates is uniform (constant) and is equal to:
 Q
E  
0 0 A
Qd
 V  E.d 
0 A
Q Q where ε0 is the
C  
V Qd  0 A permittivity of
free space
A
 C  0 between plates
d

where ε0 is the permittivity of free space between plates

Example: A parallel-plate capacitor with air between the plates has an
area A = 2.0 × 10-4 m2 and a plate separation of d = 1.0 mm. Find its
capacitance.

53
3.3 Combinations of Capacitors
A- Parallel combination

 V  V1  V2 &

Q  Q1  Q2
 Ceq.V  C1V1  C2 V2
 C1V  C2 V
 Ceq.  C1  C2

That is the equivalent capacitance (Ceq.) of a

parallel combination of capacitors is the algebraic
sum of the individual capacitances, and is greater
than any of the individual capacitances

54
b. Series Connection of Capacitors

 V  V1  V2 &

Q
V 
Ceq .
Q Q1 Q2
  
Ceq . C1 C2
 Q  Q1  Q2
Q Q Q
  
Ceq . C1 C 2
1 1 1
  
Ceq . C1 C 2

55
Example: Find the equivalent capacitance between points a
and b for the combination of capacitors shown in the following
figure. All capacitances are in microfarads.

56
 Potential Energy Stored in a Charged Capacitor

We know that the work necessary to transfer an

increment of charge dq from the plate carrying
charge –q to the plate carrying charge +q (which is
at the higher electric potential) is:
q
dW  Vdq  dq
C

So the total work, W, required to charge the

capacitor from q=0 to the final
q Q
charge q=Q is given
by the integration: W   q dq
q 0
C
Q
1  q2 
Q
1

C 0 qdq  C  2 
0

Q2
W 
2C
57
Note that the work done in charging the capacitor, W, is the same as
electric potential energy U stored in the capacitor. Using the last
equation, we can express the potential energy, U, stored in a charged
capacitor in the following forms:

Q2 1 Q
U   Q 
2C 2 C 

U  QV  C V 
1 1 2

2 2
This result applies to any capacitor, regardless of its geometry. In
practice, of course, there is a limit to the maximum energy (or charge)
that can be stored. This is because at a sufficiently great value of ΔV,
discharge ultimately occurs between the plates
For this reason, capacitors are usually labeled with a maximum operating
voltage

58
Capacitors with Dielectri
A dielectric is a “nonconducting” material such as
rubber or glass. When a dielectric is inserted
between the plates of a capacitor, the capacitance,
C, increases. This increase is represented by a
dimensionless quantity, k ≥ 1, called the “dielectric
constant” which is different for different materials
As shown in the figure, the charge on the plates
remains unchanged after insertion of the dielectric
material, but the potential difference decreases
from ΔV0 to ΔV = ΔV0/k (because EF strength
decreases). Thus, the capacitance increases from C0
to kC0
In other words: Q Q0 Q
C  0   0
V V0  V0
 C  C0

59
As mentioned before, we could also make C very large by
decreasing the plates separation, d. In practice, however,
the lowest value of d is determined or limited by the
electric discharge (sparking) that could occur through the
dielectric medium. For a given d, the maximum voltage
that can be applied to a capacitor without causing a
discharge depends on the dielectric strength of the
dielectric medium. If the magnitude of the electric field
strength in the dielectric exceeds the dielectric strength
then the insulating properties breakdown and the
dielectric begins to conduct (see figure for a spark in the
gap between two wires connected to a battery). The spark
appears due to ionization of air molecules then atoms, and
then the ejected electrons recombine with their parent
species creating flashes of light. To prevent sparking and
therefore damage to the capacitor, make sure not to
exceed the working (sometimes termed breakdown or
rated) voltage written on each capacitor 60
Advantages of inserting
dielectric materials
between the plates
include: increasing the
capacitance C and
possibility of
decreasing d then
increasing C further
Table of dielectric
materials along with
their dielectric
constants and dielectric
strengths

61
Example: A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of dimensions 2.0 cm
by 3.0 cm separated by a 1.0-mm thickness of paper. (a) Find its
capacitance, and (b) what is the maximum charge it could carry. Take
k for paper = 3.7; ϵ0 = 8.85×10-12 C2.m-2/N. Dielectric strength for
paper is 16×106 V/m.
Hint: C0 = ϵ0 A/d & ΔVmax = Emax.d

62
 RC Circuits
In DC circuits containing capacitors, the
current is always in the same direction but
may vary in time. A circuit containing a series
combination of a resistor and a capacitor is
called an RC circuit. When the switch is
closed at t = 0, charge begins to flow, setting
up a current in the circuit, and the capacitor
begins to charge. As the plates are being
charged, the potential difference across the
capacitor increases until it matches that
supplied by the battery and the current stops.
Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to the circuit,
traversing the loop clockwise gives:

63
At the instant the switch is closed (t = 0), the charge on the capacitor is
zero, and from previous equation we find that the initial current I0 in the
circuit is a maximum and is equal to

At this time, the potential difference from the battery terminals appears
entirely across the resistor. Later, when the capacitor is charged to its
maximum value Q, charges cease to flow, the current in the circuit is
zero, and the potential difference from the battery terminals appears
entirely across the capacitor. Substituting I = 0 into Equation on previous
slide gives the charge on the capacitor at this time:

The current in all parts of the series circuit must be the same. Thus, the
current in the resistance R must be the same as the current between the
capacitor plates and the wires. This current is equal to the time rate of
change of the charge on the capacitor plates. Thus, we substitute I =
dq/dt into equation on previous slide and rearrange: 64
To find an expression for q (t), we must solve this differential
equation. We first combine the terms on the right-hand side:

Now we multiply by dt and divide by q - Cε to obtain:

Integrating this expression, using the fact that q = 0 at t = 0, we

obtain:

dx x  ab
 x  ab  ln
 ab

65
• From the definition of the natural logarithm, we can get the charge
as a function of time for a capacitor being charged:

• We can also find an expression for the charging current by

differentiating previous equation with respect to time. Using I =
dq/dt, we get the current as a function of time for a capacitor being
charged :

66
The current has its maximum value I0 = ε/R at t = 0 and decays
exponentially to zero as t →∞. The quantity RC, which appears in the
exponents of the last two equations is called the time constant τ of the
circuit. It represents the time interval during which the current decreases
to 1/e of its initial value; that is, in a time interval τ, I = e-1I0 = 0.368I0. In
a time interval 2τ, I = e-2I0 = 0.135I0, and so forth. Likewise, in a time
interval τ, the charge increases from zero to Cε[1 – e-1] = 0.632Cε
Now in case of discharging the capacitor, the expressions for charge and
current as a function of time are:

The negative sign indicates that as the capacitor discharges, the current
direction is opposite its direction when the capacitor was being charged.
We see also that both the charge on the capacitor and the current decay
exponentially at a rate characterized by the time constant τ = RC

67
Chapter 4 Inductance
Chapter 32 from the text book

4.1 Self-inductance
4.2 RLCircuits
4.3 Energy in a magnetic field
4.4 Mutual inductance
4.5 Oscillation in an LC circuit
4.6 RLC circuit.
4.1 self Inductance:-
Consider a circuit consisting of a switch, a resistor, and a source of emf,
as shown in Figure. When the switch is closed, the current does not
immediately jump from zero to its maximum value Ԑ/R. Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction can be used to describe this effect as follows:
as the current increases with time, the magnetic flux through the circuit
loop due to this current also increases with time. This increasing flux
creates an induced emf in the circuit. The direction of the induced emf is
such that it would cause an induced current in the loop, which would
establish a magnetic field opposing the change
in the original magnetic field. Thus, the direction
of the induced emf is opposite the direction of
the emf of the battery; this results in a gradual
rather than instantaneous increase in the current
to its final equilibrium value. Because of the
direction of the induced emf, it is also called a back emf.
This effect is called self-induction because the changing flux through the circuit
and the resultant induced emf arise from the circuit itself. The emf ԐL set up in
this case is called a self-induced emf

To obtain a quantitative description of self-induction, we recall from Faraday’s

law that the induced emf is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of
the magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is proportional to the magnetic field due
to the current, which in turn is proportional to the current in the circuit.
Therefore, a self-induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of change
of the current. For any coil, we find that:

where L is a proportionality constant and is called the inductance of the coil—

that depends on its geometry. We can also write the inductance as the ratio L = -
ԐL/(dI/dt); recall that resistance is a measure of the opposition to current (R =
∆V/I ), inductance is a measure of the opposition to a change in current.
Combining this expression with Faraday’s law, ԐL=-N dɸB/dt, we see that the
inductance of a closely spaced coil of N turns (a toroid or an ideal solenoid)
carrying a current I is:
70
4.2 RL Circuits
Consider the RL circuit shown. When the switch S is closed, the current in the
circuit begins to increase, and a back emf that opposes the increasing current is
induced in the inductor. Because the current is increasing, dI/dt is positive; thus,
ԐL is negative. This negative value reflects the decrease in electric potential that
occurs in going from a to b across the inductor, as indicated by the positive and
negative signs in figure. We can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to this circuit,
traversing the circuit in the clockwise direction:

A mathematical solution for this differential

equation represents the current in the circuit
as a function of time. To find this solution,
we change variables for convenience, let x = (ε/R) - I, so that dx=-dI. With
these substitutions, we can write the above equation as:

71
72
This last expression shows how the inductor
effects the current. The current does not increase
instantly to its final equilibrium value when the
switch is closed but instead increases according
to an exponential function. If we remove the
inductance in the circuit, current increases
instantaneously to its final equilibrium value in
the absence of the inductance. We can also write
this expression as:

where the constant τ is the time constant of the

RL circuit: τ=L/R. Physically, τ is the time
interval required for the current in the circuit to
reach (1-e-1) = 0.632, 63.2% of its final value
Ԑ/R. The time constant is a useful parameter for
comparing the time responses of various circuits
73
Let us also investigate the time rate of change of the
current. Taking the first time derivative of the last
equation, we have

From this result, we see that the time rate of change of

the current is a maximum (equal to Ԑ/L) at t = 0 and
falls off exponentially to zero as t approaches infinity

4.3 Energy in a Magnetic Field: If we multiply each

term in the equation by I and rearrange the expression,
we have

Recognizing IԐ as the rate at which energy is supplied

by the battery and I2R as the rate at which energy is
delivered to the resistor, we see that LI(dI/dt) must
represent the rate at which energy is being stored in
the inductor 74
If we let U denote the energy stored in the inductor at any time, then we
can write the rate dU/dt at which energy is stored as:

To find the total energy stored in the inductor, we can rewrite this
expression as dU = LI dI and integrate:

Note that this equation is similar in form to the equation for the energy
stored in the electric field of a capacitor, U =1/2 C(∆V )2
The magnetic energy density, or the energy stored per unit volume in the
magnetic field of the inductor is (prove):

75
4.4 Mutual Inductance
Consider the two closely wound coils of wire shown in Figure. The
current I1 in coil 1, which has N1 turns, creates a magnetic field. Some of
the magnetic field lines pass through coil 2, which has N2 turns. The
magnetic flux caused by the current in coil 1 and passing through coil 2
is represented by ɸ12. In analogy to equation, we define the mutual
inductance M12 of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 as:

If the current I1 varies with time, we see

from Faraday’s law that the emf induced
by coil 1 in coil 2 is:

76
Similarly, If the current I2 varies with time, the emf induced by coil 2 in
coil 1 is

In mutual induction, the emf induced in one coil is always proportional

to the rate at which the current in the other coil is changing. Although the
proportionality constants M12 and M21 have been treated separately, it
can be shown that they are equal. Thus, with M12 = M21 = M, previous
two equations become:

These two equations are similar in form to the equation for the self-
induced emf Ԑ = -L(dI/dt). The unit of mutual inductance is the Henry
(H) too!

77
4.5 Oscillations in LC Circuits
In an LC circuit that has zero resistance and does not radiate
electromagnetically (an idealization), the values of the charge on the
capacitor and the current in the circuit vary in time according to the
expressions

where Qmax is the maximum charge on the capacitor, ɸ is a phase

constant, and ω is the angular frequency of oscillation:

The energy in an LC circuit continuously transfers between energy

stored in the capacitor and energy stored in the inductor. The total
energy of the LC circuit at any time t is

78
At t = 0, all of the energy is stored in the electric field of the capacitor (U
= Q2 max/2C). Eventually, all of this energy is transferred to the inductor
(U = LI 2 max/2)

4.5 the RLC circuit

In an RLC circuit with small resistance, the charge on the capacitor varies
with time according to The angular frequency, ωd, at which the RLC
oscillates is given by:

79
Chapter 5 Alternating Current Circuits:

5.1 AC Sources
5.2 Resistors in an AC Circuit
5.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit
5.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit
5.5 The RLC Series Circuit
5.6 Power in an AC Circuit
5.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit
5.8 The Transformer.

80
5.1 AC Sources.
The time-varying voltage, Δv, is described by

where ΔVmax is the maximum output voltage of the AC source,

or the voltage “amplitude” and the angular frequency 𝜔 is
given by:-

AC sources include generators and electrical oscillators.

Power lines for houses and industries.

81
5.2 Resistors in an AC
The AC circuit consists of a resistor and an AC source, the
applied voltage across the resistor ΔvR
is equal to the output voltage of the source according to
Kirchhoff’s loop rule. Therefore, Δv = ΔvR
Then
the instantaneous current pass through the resistor is:

or

82
A plot of IR and ΔvR versus time for shows that at point a, the
current has a maximum value in positive direction. Between
points a and b, the current decreases. At point b, the current is
zero then begins to increase in the negative direction between
points b and c. it reaches a minimum ( in negative direction) at
point c. Above point c the current increases again to reach zero
at point T. This behavior if changing current with time called
alternating current and periodically repeated every time
interval call period time. The period time is the inverse of the
frequency, f. in the case of changing both the voltage and
current with the same starting and ending points, the case
called in phase. Resistors behave essentially the same way in
both DC and AC circuits. This will not be the case for
capacitors and inductors
83
The phasor diagrams is shown in figures such that. The vector
whose length is proportional to the maximum value of the
current and voltage and varies (rotates) counterclockwise at an
angular speed equal to the angular frequency, 𝜔 . The
projection of the phasor onto the vertical axis represents the
instantaneous values of the current and voltage. Due to the
current and voltage are in phase, the are projected at the same
line. Some other components may change the phase between
the current and voltage such as capacitors and coils.
84
The average value of the current, referred to the root mean
square value, Irms. The meaning of the Irms the square root of
the square of the averagevalue of the current such that:
Irms=(I2)1/2. Because I2 varies as sin2 ωt. From integration
analysis shown in Figure, Irms is given by:-

85
Example 5.1
Calculate the Irms in a circuit of maximum AC current is 2 A.
and determine the average electrical power drops at a resistor
of 100 𝛺.
Solution:-
Irms =0.707xImax = 1.41 A

=(1.41)2x100 = 198.8 W
Note that, the root mean square voltage is given by the same
way such that:-

86
The maximum voltage can be estimated for the
previous example as
Vmax=ImaxR = 2x100 = 200 V
Then
Vrms=IrmsR = 1.41x100 = 141 V

The average electrical power by means of the current

and voltage is then:-

Pav = VrmsxIrms=141*1.41=198.8 W

87
Example 5.2 an AC voltage source of maximum peak
120 V calculate the root mean square value rms
voltage of 120 V.
Vrms =0.707xVmax = 84.84 V
Example 5.3. the average heating power of an iron is
2.4 kW. If the resistance of the iron is 10 𝛺 calculate
the AC source maximum?
Solution:-
Pav= (Vrms)2/R then (Vrms)2 = Pav xR
Vrms= (1500x10) 0.5=155 V
Vrms= 0.707Vmax then Vmax=(V/0.707)=219 V
5.3 Inductors in an AC Circuit:
Now consider an AC circuit
consisting only of an inductor
connected to the terminals of an AC
source, as shown in Figure. If ΔvL =
εL = -L(di/dt) is the self-induced
instantaneous voltage across the
inductor, then Kirchhoff’s loop rule
applied to this circuit gives Δv + ΔvL
= 0,
or

89
Integrating this last expression gives the
instantaneous current iL in the inductor as a
function of time:

When we use the trigonometric identity cos ωt

=-sin(ωt - π/2), we can express Equation as

A plot of voltage and current versus time is

provided in Figure. In general, inductors in an
AC circuit produce a current that is out of
phase with the AC voltage. Note that the
voltage reaches its maximum value one quarter
of a period before the current reaches its
maximum value. Thus, we see that

90
“for a sinusoidal applied voltage, the current in
an inductor always lags behind the voltage
across the inductor by 90° (one-quarter cycle in
time)”
As with the relationship between current and
voltage for a resistor, we can represent this
relationship for an inductor with a phasor
diagram as in Figure. Notice that the phasors
are at 90° to one another, representing the 90°
phase difference between current and voltage
From the first equation on previous slide we
see that the current in an inductive circuit
reaches its maximum value when cos 𝜔t = -1:

91
This looks similar to the relationship between current, voltage,
and resistance in a DC circuit, I = ΔV/R. In fact, because Imax
has units of amperes and ΔVmax has units of volts, ωL must
have units of ohms. Therefore, ωL has the same units as
resistance and is related to current and voltage in the same
way as resistance. For this reason, we define ωL as the
inductive reactance:

Typically as resistors, the expression for the rms current in an

inductor is similar to the last equation, with Imax replaced by
Irms and ΔVmax replaced by ΔVrms

We find that the instantaneous voltage across the inductor is

92
Example 5.4
In a purely inductive AC circuit, L =25 mH and the
rms voltage is 150 V. Calculate the inductive
reactance and rms current in the circuit if the
frequency is 60.0 Hz.

The Irms is then

93
5.4 Capacitors in an AC Circuit
Again, Kirchhoff’s loop rule applied to this circuit gives Δv +
ΔvC = 0, so that the magnitude of the instantaneous source
voltage is equal to the instantaneous of the voltage across the
capacitor:
We know from the capacitance relations that C = q/ΔvC
hence,
where q is the instantaneous charge on the capacitor. We have
I = dq/dt, differentiating last equation with respect to time
gives the instantaneous current in the circuit:

94
Using the trigonometric identity:
then
We can see that the current is leading the
voltage by π/2 rad = 90° across the
capacitor (they are out of phase). A plot
of current and voltage versus time shows
that the current reaches its maximum
value one quarter of a cycle sooner than
the voltage reaches its maximum value
Looking more closely, consider a point
such as b where the current is zero. This
occurs when the capacitor has just
reached its maximum charge, so the
voltage across the capacitor is a
maximum (point d) 95
We represent the current and voltage for a capacitor on a
phasor diagram as shown in phasor diagram that “for a
sinusoidally applied voltage, the current always leads the
voltage across a capacitor by 90°” the current in the circuit
reaches its maximum value when cos ωt = 1:

We give the combination 1/ωC the symbol XC, and because

this function varies with frequency, we define it as the
capacitive reactance:

then

96
Again, the rms current is given by an expression similar to
both resistors and inductors, with Imax replaced by Irms and
ΔVmax replaced by ΔVrms. We can also show that the
instantaneous voltage across the capacitor is given by:

The equations at the end of previous slide indicate that as the

frequency of the voltage source increases, the capacitive
reactance decreases and therefore the maximum current
increases. As the frequency approaches zero, the capacitive
reactance approaches infinity, and hence the current
approaches zero. This makes sense because the circuit
approaches direct current conditions as ω approaches zero, and
the capacitor represents an open circuit in this case

97
Example 5.5
An 8 𝜇F capacitor is connected to the terminals of a
60.0-Hz AC source whose rms voltage is 150 V. Find the
capacitive reactance and the rms current in the circuit.
Solution:-
Calculation of 𝜔 = 2πf=377 s-1

Then

98
The RLC Series Circuit: As before, we
assume that the applied voltage varies
sinusoidally with time. It is convenient
to assume that the instantaneous applied
voltage is given by:

where φ is some phase angle between

the current and the applied voltage. We
expect that the current will generally not
be in phase with the voltage in an RLC
circuit. Our aim here is to determine φ
and Imax. Opposite figure shows the
voltage versus time across each element
in the circuit and their phase
relationships
99
First, we note that because the elements are in series, the current
at all points in a series AC circuit has the same amplitude and
phase. However, the voltage across each element has a different
amplitude and phase. In particular, the voltage across the resistor
is in phase with the current, the voltage across the inductor leads
the current by 90°, and the voltage across the capacitor lags
behind the current by 90°. Using these phase relationships, we
can express the instantaneous voltages across the three circuit
elements as:

Note the instantaneous voltage Δv across the three elements

equals the sum:
100
A more simpler way to obtain the sum by examining the
phasor diagram shown in the following figure

We combine the three phasor pairs shown

to obtain a single phasor Imax that is used
to represent the current in each element.
Because phasors are rotating vectors, we
can combine the three parts of by using
vector addition as shown in opposite Fig.

101
To obtain the vector sum of the three
voltage phasors in the last Figure, we
redraw the phasor diagram as in opposite
Figure. From this diagram, we see that
the vector sum of the voltage amplitudes
ΔVR, ΔVL , and ΔVC equals a phasor
whose length is the maximum applied
voltage ΔVmax, and which makes an
angle φ with the current phasor Imax.
From this diagram:

102
The denominator of the last equation plays the role of
resistance and is called the “impedance” Z of the circuit:

Where Z also has units of ohms. Therefore, we can write last

Equation on previous slide in the form:

By removing the common factor Imax

from each phasor, we can construct the
“impedance triangle” shown. From
this phasor diagram we find that the
phase angle φ between the current and
the voltage is:
103
•When XL ˃ XC (which occurs at high frequencies), the phase
angle φ is positive, signifying that the current lags behind the
applied voltage. We describe this situation by saying that the
circuit is more inductive than capacitive. When XL ˂ XC, the
phase angle is negative, signifying that the current leads the
applied voltage, and the circuit is more capacitive than
inductive. When XL = XC, the phase angle is zero and the
circuit is purely resistive

104
5.5 Power in an AC Circuit:
For a DC circuit, the power delivered by a battery is equal to
the product of the current and the emf of the battery. Likewise,
the instantaneous power delivered by an AC source to a circuit
is the product of the source current and the applied voltage.
However, for RLC circuits, it is of great interest, from the
point of view of practical purposes, to use average power, Pav,
instead of instantaneous:

The maximum voltage across the resistor is given by ΔVR =

ΔVmax cosφ = ImaxR. Using the fact that cos φ = Imax R/ΔVmax,
we find that we can express Pav as:

105
When the load is purely resistive, then φ = 0, and the
first equation on the previous slide becomes:

The first equation on the previous slide shows that the

power delivered by an AC source to any circuit
depends on the phase a result that has many interesting
applications. For example, a factory that uses large
motors in machines, generators, or transformers has a
large inductive load (because of all the windings). To
deliver greater power to such devices in the factory
without using excessively high voltages, technicians
introduce capacitance in the circuits to shift the phase
106
5.7 Resonance in a Series RLC Circuit
A series RLC circuit is said to be in resonance when the
current has its maximum value. In general, the rms current can
be written

Because the impedance depends on the frequency of the

source, the current in the RLC circuit also depends on the
frequency. The frequency ω0 at which XL - XC = 0 is called the
resonance frequency of the circuit. To find ω0, we use the
condition XL = XC, from which we obtain ω0 L = 1/ ω0 C, or

This frequency also corresponds to the natural frequency of

oscillation of an LC circuit . 107
Therefore, the current in a series RLC circuit reaches its
maximum value when the frequency of the applied
voltage matches the natural oscillator frequency which
depends only on L and C. Furthermore, at this frequency
the current is in phase with the applied voltage A plot of
rms current versus frequency for a series RLC circuit is
shown in Figure. The three curves correspond to three
values of R. In each case, the current reaches its
maximum value at the resonance frequency ω0.
Furthermore, the curves become narrower and taller as
the resistance decreases. When R = 0, the current
becomes infinite at resonance. However, real circuits
always have some resistance, which limits the value of
the current to some finite value. 108
the average power as a function of
frequency for a series RLC circuit
Calculated Pav at resonance?

109
Example 5.6 A series RLC, AC circuit has R= 425 𝛺 ,
L=1.25 H, C=3.50 𝜇F, 𝜔= 377 s-1, and ∆Vmax = 150 V.
(A)Determine the inductive reactance, the capacitive
reactance, and the impedance of the circuit.
(B)Find the maximum current in the circuit
(C)Find the phase angle between the current and
voltage.
Solution:-
the reactance of both the capacitor and inductor are:

The Impedance:
110
The maximum current

The phase angle

111
5.8 The Transformer and Power Transmission:
As we well know, when electric power is transmitted over
great distances, it is economical to use a high voltage and a
low current to minimize the I2R loss in the transmission lines.
Consequently, 350-kV lines are common, and in many areas
even higher-voltage (765-kV) lines are used. At the receiving
end of such lines, the consumer requires power at a low
voltage (for safety and for efficiency
in design). Therefore, a device is
required that can change the
alternating voltage and current
without causing appreciable
changes in the power delivered.
112
the AC transformer consists of two coils of wire wound
around a core of iron, as illustrated in Figure. The purpose of
the iron core is to increase the magnetic flux through the coil
and to provide a medium in which nearly all the magnetic field
lines through one coil pass through the other coil. Typical
transformers have power efficiencies from 90% to 99%. In the
discussion that follows, we assume an ideal transformer, one
in which the energy losses in the windings and core are zero
In the primary circuit, because the current is 90° out of phase
with the voltage, the power factor, cosφ, is zero, and hence the
average power delivered from the source to the primary circuit
is zero. Faraday’s law states that the voltage ΔV1 across the
primary is

113
where φB is the magnetic flux through each turn. If we assume
that all magnetic field lines remain within the iron core, the
flux through each turn of the primary equals the flux through
each turn of the secondary. Hence, the voltage across the
secondary is

From the last two equations:

When N2 ˃ N1, the output voltage ΔV2 exceeds the input

voltage ΔV1. This setup is referred to as a step-up transformer.
When N2 ˂ N1, the output voltage is less than the input
voltage, and we have a step-down transformer 114
Example:- 5.7
How many turns of the secondary coil in a transformer when a
2000 V maximum is needed knowing that the out voltage in
the primary coil is 100 V maximum and the primary coil of
200 turn?

Solution:-
The secondary voltage in the transformer is given by:-

Then
N2 = ∆V2N1/∆V1 = 2000x200/100=4000 turns
115
Chapter 6 Electromagnetic Waves
6.1- Maxwell’s equations
6.2- Plane electromagnetic waves
6.3- Energy carried by electromagnetic waves

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6.1 Maxwell Equation
Waves are often divided into two main sections: mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves. In the case of mechanical waves, some physical
medium is being disturbed. Electromagnetic waves do not require a
medium to propagate; some examples of electromagnetic waves are
visible light, radio waves, television signals, and x-rays
A central feature of wave motion is the fact that “energy is being
transferred over a distance, but matter is not”. In “matter transfer”,
energy is also being transferred but accompanied by a movement of
matter through space . A traveling wave or pulse that causes the elements
of the disturbed medium to move perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is called a transverse wave. A longitudinal wave is one in
which the elements of the medium move in a direction parallel to the
direction of propagation. Sound waves in fluids and stretched strings are
just few examples. Some waves in nature exhibit a combination of
transverse and longitudinal displacements. Surface water waves are a
good example
117
2- Plane electromagnetic waves
Consider a pulse traveling to the right on a long string, as shown in
Figure. Figure a represents the shape and position of the pulse at time t
= 0. At this time, the shape of the pulse, whatever it may be, can be
represented by some mathematical function which we will write as y(x,
0) = f(x). This function describes the transverse position “y” of the
element of the string located at each value of x at time t = 0. Because
the speed of the pulse is v, the pulse has traveled to the right a distance
vt at the time t (Fig. b)

118
An element of the string at x at time t has the same “y” position as an
element located at x – vt had at time t = 0, therefore:

In general, then, we can represent the transverse position “y” for all
positions and times, measured with respect to the origin at O, as:

This last equation represents a wave travelling along +x direction. In the

–x direction, he transverse positions (the y coordinates) of elements of
the string are described by:

119
The wave function for a one-dimensional sinusoidal wave traveling to
the right can be expressed as:

where A is the amplitude, λ is the wavelength, k is the angular wave

number, and ω is the angular frequency. If T is the period and f the
frequency, v, k, and ω can be written:

120
The linear wave equation gives a complete description of the wave
motion, and from it one can derive an expression for the wave speed. The
linear wave equation is a direct consequence of Newton’s second law
applied to any element of a string carrying a traveling wave. All wave
functions y(x, t) represent solutions of this equation

This expression applies in general to various types of traveling waves.

For waves on strings, y represents the vertical position of elements of the
string. For sound waves, y corresponds to longitudinal position of
elements of air from equilibrium or variations in either the pressure or
the density of the gas through which the sound waves are propagating. In
the case of electromagnetic waves, y corresponds to electric or magnetic
field components

121
We gave a brief description of Maxwell’s equations, which form the
theoretical basis of all electromagnetic phenomena . For example, the
Ampere–Maxwell law predicts that a time-varying electric field produces
a magnetic field, just as Faraday’s law tells us that a time-varying
magnetic field produces an electric field. Astonishingly, Maxwell’s
equations also predict the existence of electromagnetic waves that
propagate through space at the speed of light. Heinrich Hertz confirmed
Maxwell’s prediction when he generated and detected electromagnetic
waves in 1887. That discovery has led to many practical communication
systems, including radio, television, radar, and opto-electronics. On a
conceptual level, Maxwell unified (made a link between) the subjects of
light and electromagnetism by developing the idea that light is a form of
electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic waves are generated by
oscillating electric charges. The waves consist of oscillating electric and
magnetic fields at right angles to each other and to the direction of wave
propagation. Thus, electromagnetic waves are transverse waves. The
waves radiated from the oscillating charges can be detected at great
distances. 122
The figure depicts “linearly-polarized waves”, in which the direction of
propagation is along the x-direction. Furthermore, at any point in space,
the magnitudes E and B of the fields depend upon x and t only, and not
upon the y or z coordinate. The dependence on x and t can be represented
by the following equations:

These equations have the form of the general wave equation

with the wave speed v replaced by c, this means that

Taking μ0=4π×10-7 T.m/A and ϵ0=8.85×10-12 C2/N.m2, we find that

c=2.997×108 m/s. Because this is the speed of light in empty space, we
are led to believe (correctly) that light is an electromagnetic wave

123
The simplest solution to the previous two equations is a sinusoidal wave,
for which the field magnitudes E and B vary with x and t according to
the expressions

where Emax and Bmax are the maximum values of the fields. The angular
wave number is k = 2π/λ, where λ is the wavelength. The angular
frequency is ω = 2πf, where f is the wave frequency. The ratio ω/k equals
the speed of an electromagnetic wave, c :

Moreover, at every instant the ratio of the magnitude of the electric field
to the magnitude of the magnetic field in an electromagnetic wave equals
the speed of light:

124
Summery of the Electromagnetic radiation
• Now, let us summarize the properties of electromagnetic waves as we
have described them:
• The solutions of Maxwell’s third and fourth equations are wave-like,
with both E and B satisfying a wave equation.
• Electromagnetic waves travel through empty space at the speed of
light
• The components of the electric and magnetic fields of plane
electromagnetic waves are perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. We can
summarize the latter property by saying that electromagnetic waves
are transverse waves.
• The magnitudes of E and B in empty space are related by the
expression E/B = c.
• Electromagnetic waves obey the principle of superposition.

125
6.3- Energy carried by electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves carry energy, and as they propagate through space

they can transfer energy to objects placed in their path. The rate of flow of
energy in an electromagnetic wave is described by a vector S, called the
Poynting vector, which is defined by the expression

The magnitude of the Poynting vector represents the rate at which energy
flows through a unit surface area perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation. Thus, the magnitude of the Poynting vector represents power
per unit area. The direction of the vector is along the direction of wave
propagation. The SI units of the Poynting vector are J/s .m2 = W/m2

126
Electromagnetic Spectrum

127