Laboratory - PHY 120xcxc

Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic
University
College of Sciences
Department of Physics
Laboratory Manual
Electromagnetism
(PHY 381)
Prepared by
Dr. Abdelaziz Sabik
(Term 1 - 2011-2012)
1
Experiment 1
Determining the capacitance of a plate capacitor
1- Objects of the experiment

- Measuring the charge Q on a plate as a function of the applied voltage.
- Determining the capacitance C as a function of the distance “d” between the plates.
- Determining the dielectric constant,  r , of air and of polystyrene.
2- Principles
The simplest design of a capacitor is that of a plate capacitor. Its capacitance C is
equal to:
Q
C (1)
V
Q: charge on the capacitor,
V: applied voltage.
Capacitance depends on the area A of the plates, the distance d between the plates,
and the –nonconductive- material between the plates. The capacitance of a plate
capacitor is
A
C  (2)
d
where    r  0 is the permittivity of the dielectric
 0 =8.85x10-12C/V.m is the permittivity of free space.

 r : dielectric constant or relative permittivity
2
Charges are measured with an electrometer amplifier operated as a coulombmeter.
Any voltmeter may be used to display the output voltage V2. From the reference
capacitance CR=10nF, the charge QR is written as:
QR  CRV2 (3)
Consider the circuit shown in Figure, where C1 represents the capacitance of a plate
capacitor. Capacitor C1 is first charged by the closing of switch S1. Switch S1 is then
opened, and the charged capacitor is connected to the uncharged capacitor CR by the
closing of S2. The charge on CR is written as
C1C R
QR  V1
C1  C R (4)
V1 C1 C R  10nF V2
A
S1 S2
B C
Two  way switch
Figure 1. Schematic diagram for measuring the charge on CR
3- Equipment list
Description Catalogue Number
2 demountable capacitors 544 23
1 power supply 450 V 522 27
1 two-way switch 504 48
1 Voltmeter, DC, range U = ± 8 V e.g. 531 100
1 Voltmeter, DC, range U  300 V e.g. 531 100
1 electrometer amplifier 532 14
1 STE capacitor 10 nF, 630 V 578 10
3
1 connection rod 532 16
connection leads ---------
4- Setup
Figure 2. Experimental setup for the determination of the capacitance of a plate

capacitor.
The experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 2.

- Mount the pair of small plates (A=400cm2), and set the distance d between the
plates to 4mm with the spacers.
- Connect the negative pole of the power supply 450V to the right plate and to the
earth of the electrometer amplifier. Connect the connection rod to the earth as well.
- Connect the positive pole of the power supply 450V to socket B of the two-way
switch.
- Connect socket A of the two-way switch to the left plate and socket C to the input of
the electrometer amplifier.
- Plug the reference capacitor CR=10nF in at the electrometer amplifier, and connect
the voltmeter V2 to the output.
- Connect the other voltmeter to the power supply 450V for measuring the voltage V1.
5- Carrying out the experiment
4
5-1- Measuring the charge as a function of the voltage for different areas of the
plates:
1- Establish the connection AC (switch S2) with the two-way switch, discharge the
plate capacitor with the connection rod, and check the zero of the charge
measurement.
2- Hold the connection rod in your hand, change to the connection AB (switch S1)
with the two-way switch, and set the output voltage V1 to 50V.
3- Change back to the connection AC (switch S2), measure the voltage V2 with the
electrometer amplifier, and take the charge down.
4- Repeat the measurement with other voltages (V1=100V, 150V, 200V, and 250V).
5- Replace the pair of small plates with the pair of large plates (A=800cm2, d=4mm).
6- Record the second series of measurements by repeating points 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Table 1. The charge QR recorded as a function of the applied voltage V1 with

different areas A of the plates.
V1 (V) V2 (V) QR (C) V2 (V) QR (C)
(A=400cm2) (A=400cm2) (A=800cm2) (A=800cm2)
50
100
150
200
250
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting QR versus V1. You should make QR the
vertical axis and V1 the horizontal axis. Each axis should be labelled and appropriate
units indicated. The graph should have a title.
- Plot your data on the graph for A=400cm2 as well as for A=800cm2.
- Draw best fit lines to the points on your graph for A=400cm2 as well as for
A=800cm2 .
- Determine the slopes of your lines (the slope for A=400cm2, and the slope for
A=800cm2).
5
N.B: The best fit line must be drawn by using method of least squares (see appendix
B).
- Determine the capacitance C1 for A=400cm2 (C1,400=?), and for A=800cm2
(C1,800=?) by using Equation 4 and the slopes of your best fit lines.
- Determine the capacitances (C1,400)estimated and (C1,800)estimated by using Equation 2
(take  r  1 ).
- Calculate the percent error in your results for C1,400 and C1,800.
C   C1, 400 estimated
Percent error C 
1, 400 exp erimental
 100
1, 400
C 
1, 400 estimated
5-2- Measuring the charge as a function of the distance between the plates:
- Set the voltage V1 to 300V.
- Set the distance d between the large plates (A=800 cm2) to 6mm with the spacers.
- Establish the connection AC with the two-way switch, and discharge the capacitor
with the connection rod.
- Hold the connection rod in your hand, change to the connection AB to charge the
capacitor, and then change back to the connection AC for measuring the voltage V2.
- Read the voltage V2 and record it in Table 3.
- Make the same for the other distances (see Table 3).
Table 2. The charge QR (at V1=300V) and the capacitance C1 as functions of the
distance d between the plates.
d (m) d-1 (m-1) V2 (V) QR (C) C1 (F)
(use Eq. 4)
6x10-3
4x10-3
3x10-3
2x10-3
6
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting C1 versus d-1. You should make C1 the
vertical axis and d-1 the horizontal axis. Each axis should be labeled and appropriate
- Plot your data on the graph.
- Draw a best fit line to the points on your graph (by using method of least squares).
- Determine the dielectric constant kair of air by using the slope of your best line and
the Equation 2.
- Calculate the percent error in your result given that the estimated dielectric constant
for air is equal to 1
5-3- Measuring the charge QR as a function of the applied voltage V1 for

polystyrene as a dielectric.
1- Place the polystyrene plate between the pair of large plates, and see to it that the
surfaces of the capacitor plates are in contact with the polystyrene plate.
2- Establish the connection AC (switch S2) with the two-way switch, discharge the
plate capacitor with the connection rod, and check the zero of the charge
measurement.
3- Hold the connection rod in your hand, change to the connection AB (switch S1)
with the two-way switch, and set the output voltage V1 to 50V.
4- Change back to the connection AC (switch S2), measure the voltage V2 with the
electrometer amplifier, and take the voltage down.
5- Repeat the measurement with other voltages (V1=100V, V1=150V, V1=200V).
Table 3. The charge QR recorded as a function of the applied voltage V1 for

polystyrene as a dielectric (A=800cm2).
V1 (V) V2 (V) QR (C)
(A=800cm2) (A=800cm2)
50
100
150
200
7
- Draw a best fit line to the points on your graph.
- Determine the capacitance (C1 ) polystyrene by using the slope of your best line and the
Eq.4.
- Determine the dielectric constant, ( r ) polystyrene , of polystyrene.
6) Conclusions
- Discuss your results.
8
Experiment 2
Parallel and Series Connection of Capacitors

- Determining the total capacitance of two capacitors in parallel connection and
comparing with the capacitances of the individual capacitors.
- Determining the total capacitance of two capacitors in series connection and
comparing with the capacitances of the individual capacitors.
2- Principles
2-1- Definition of Capacitance
Consider two conductors carrying charges of equal magnitude and opposite sign.
Such a combination of two conductors is called a capacitor. The conductors are called
plates. A potential difference V exists between the conductors due to the presence of
the charges.
The capacitance C of a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the charge
on either conductor to the magnitude of the potential difference between the
conductors:
Q
C (Equation 1)
V
Capacitance depends on the area A of the plates, the distance d between the plates,
and the –nonconductive- material between the plates. The capacitance of a plate
capacitor is
A
C  (Equation 2)
d
where    r  0 is the permittivity of the dielectric
 0 =8.85x10-12C/V.m is the permittivity of free space.
9
 r : dielectric constant or relative permittivity (  r =1 for air as nonconductive material
between the plates)
2-2- Parallel Connection
Figure 1. The circuit diagram for the parallel connection of three capacitors.
If two or more capacitors are connected in parallel (Figure 1), then the potential
difference is the same across all of them:
V  V1  V2  V3
A total charge Q transferred to the system from the battery is the sum of charges of
the three capacitors:
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
Q  C1V  C2V  C3V
Q  C1  C2  C3 V
Q  CeqV where Ceq  C1  C2  C3
For n capacitors connected in parallel, the equivalent capacitance is given by:
Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ...  Cn (Equation 3)
2-3- Series Connection
10
Figure 2. The circuit diagram for the series connection of three capacitors.
If two or more capacitors are connected in series (Figure 2), the charge is the same on
all of them:
Q  Q1  Q2  Q3
A voltage induced in the system from the battery is the sum of potential differences
across the individual capacitors:
V  V1  V2  V3
Q Q Q
V  V1  V2  V3   
C1 C2 C3
 1 1 1 
V  Q   
 C1 C2 C3 
1 1 1 1
Q  CeqV where   
Ceq C1 C2 C3
For n capacitors connected in series, the equivalent capacitance is given by:
1 1 1 1 1
    ...  (Equation 4)
Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cn
These two equations enable us to simplify many electric circuits by replacing multiple
capacitors with a single equivalent capacitance.
11
In the experiment, these relations are studied by means of two plate capacitors with
different capacitances C1 and C2. The capacitors are set up side by side, and both
parallel or series connection can be chosen. An insulating plate between the two
capacitors ensures that the charges on the capacitors cannot influence each other
through electrostatic induction. Charges are measured with an electrometer amplifier
operated as a coulombmeter. Any voltmeter may be used to display the output voltage
V2. From the reference capacitance CR=10nF, the charge QR is written as:
QR  CRV2 (Equation 5)
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 3, where C1 represents the capacitance of a plate
capacitor. Capacitor C1 is first charged by the closing of switch S1. Switch S1 is then
opened, and the charged capacitor is connected to the uncharged capacitor CR by the
closing of S2. The charge on reference capacitor is written as
C1C R
QR  V1 (Equation 6)
C1  C R
V1 C1 C R  10nF V2
A
S1 S2
B C
Two  way switch
Figure 3. Schematic diagram for measuring the capacitance of parallel and series-
connected capacitors
3- Equipment list
12
2 demountable capacitors 544 23
1 power supply 450 V 522 27
1 two-way switch 504 48
1 Voltmeter, DC, range U = ± 8 V e.g. 531 100
1 Voltmeter, DC, range U  300 V e.g. 531 100
1 electrometer amplifier 532 14
1 STE capacitor 10 nF, 630 V 578 10
1 connection rod 532 16
connection leads ---------
4- Setup
Figure 4. Experimental setup for measuring the capacitance of parallel- and series-
connected capacitors.

- Mount the pairs of large and small plates (as a distance between the plates choose
4mm for both pairs), and put the polystyrene plate between them.
- Connect the voltmeter to the output of the power supply.
- Connect the positive pole of the power supply to socket B of the two-way switch.
- Connect the negative pole of the power supply to the earth socket of the
electrometer amplifier.
13
- Connect the connection rod to the earth socket of the electrometer amplifier with a
connection lead.
- Connect socket C of the two-way switch to the input of the electrometer amplifier.
- Plug the reference capacitor CR = 10 nF in at the electrometer amplifier.
- Supply the electrometer amplifier with voltage from the plug-in unit.
- Connect the voltmeter to the output of the electrometer amplifier.

5-1- Parallel connection:
- As shown in Figure 5-c, connect the two inner plates to each other and to socket A
of the two-way switch; connect the two outer plates to the earth.
- Set the output voltage V1 of the power supply to 50 V.
- Establish the connection AC with the two-way switch, and discharge the large plate
capacitor with the connection rod.
- Hold the connection rod in your hand, and change the two-way switch to the
connection AB to charge the plate capacitor.
- Discharge the reference capacitor CR, and adjust the voltmeter V2 to zero.
- Set the two-way switch back to the connection AC, measure the charge V2 on the
reference capacitor with the electrometer amplifier, and calculate the capacitance C1
from it.
- Repeat the measurement with other voltages (V1=100V, 150V, 200V), and write
down the results in Table 1.
Figure 5. Connection for measuring the capacitance of the parallel connected

capacitors.
14
Table 1. The charge QR recorded as a function of the applied voltage V1 for the
parallel connected capacitors (CPC).
V1 (V) V2 (V) QR (C)
50
100
150
200
- Determine the capacitance C1 by using the slope of your best line and the Equation
6. In this case, C1 represents the total capacitance of the two capacitors in parallel
connection. We labeled it CPC.
- Compare CPC with CLP +CSP (Equation 3) by determining the percent error in CPC.
CLP (the large plate) and CSP (the small plate) should be calculated from Equation 2.
5-2- Series connection:

- Set the series connection up as shown in Figure 6, and follow the same procedure as
in section 5-1.
15
Figure 6. Connection for measuring the capacitance of the series connected
capacitors.
Table 2. The charge QR recorded as a function of the applied voltage V1 for the series
connected capacitors (CSC).
V1 (V) V2 (V) QR (C)
50
100
150
200
vertical axis and V1 the horizontal axis. Each axis should be labeled and appropriate
- Determine the capacitance C1 by using the slope of your best line and the Equation
6. In this case, C1 represents the total capacitance of the two capacitors in series
connection. We labeled it CSC.
- Compare 1/CSC with (1/CLP) + (1/CSP) (Equation 4) by determining the percent error
in CSC. CLP (the large plate) and CSP (the small plate) should be calculated from
Equation 2.
6) Conclusions
16
Experiment 3
The RC Circuit

- To investigate the voltage time dependence in an R-C circuit.
- To learn to use an oscilloscope to determine the capacitance C and time constant
  RC .
- To manipulate nonlinear exponential data in such a way as to obtain a linear graph.
- To determine the capacitance of a set of capacitors when they are connected in
series and parallel.
2- Principles
A direct current (DC) circuit which contains a resistor and a capacitor is referred as
an R-C circuit. The current and voltage in this circuit is not constant, but varies as a
function of time. When a potential difference V0 is applied, the capacitor will initially
charge for a period of time. Switching off the voltage source of V0 will result in the
capacitor discharging over time. The expressions describing the variations in the
current and voltage contain exponential functions. The use of natural logarithms on
these functions enables linear analysis of the relationship between the potential
difference VC across the capacitor and time.
Multiple capacitors may be used in the construction of an R-C circuit. They may be
connected in either series or parallel. A parallel connection results in the summation
of the individual capacitance. For a series connection, the reciprocal of the equivalent
capacitance equals the sum of the reciprocals of the individual capacitances.
2-1- R-C circuit

Figure 1 shows a resistor and a capacitor connected in a circuit containing a DC
voltage source (output voltage V0), a switch (S) and a voltmeter (VC).
17
1
S
2
R
Fonction
V0
generator
C VC
Figure 1. Circuit diagram representing a capacitor in series with a resistor, switch,

and battery.
2-2- Capacitor charging
When the switch is connected to terminal ①, the resistor and capacitor are connected
to the DC voltage supply and a current I flows in the circuit which serves to charge
the capacitor. If we denote the voltages across the resistor and capacitor by V R and
VC, respectively, then from the Kirchoff’s second law we have:
V0  VR  VC (Equation 1)
The charge QC builds up on the capacitor at a rate which is governed by an

exponential law is given by:

QC  CV0 1  et RC  (Equation 2)
where e (=2.718…) is the base of natural logarithms. This also leads directly to an
expression for the voltage VC across the capacitor as a function of time, since

VC (t )  QC C  V0 1  et RC  (Equation 3)
A plot of either QC or VC against time will have the same general shape, as shown in
Figure 2 in the case of VC.
18
Since the exponent (-t/RC) in Equations 2 and 3 must be dimensionless, the product
RC must have the dimension of time and is referred to as the time constant  of the
circuit (   RC ). If R measured in Ohms and C in Farads, then the product   RC is
in units of seconds.
Table 1. Values of the voltage VC for
different values n.
n  t RC t  nRC VC
VC
1 RC 0.623V0
2 2RC 0.865V0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3 3RC 0.950V0
t/RC 4 4RC 0.982V0
Figure 2. Plot of capacitor charge versus

time for the circuit shown in Figure 1.
If we set the time t equal to integer multiples of RC, i.e. if t = nRC, where n =
1,2,3,…etc, then,

VC  V0 1  e n  (Equation 4)
Values of the voltage VC for n = 1,2,3, and 4 are given in Table 1. We see that after a
time interval t1 = RC (n = 1) after closing the switch, the voltage on the capacitor has
risen to 62% of the maximum value of V0; after the interval t2 = 2RC (n = 2) it is 87%
of V0, and so on. By measuring the times taken to reach these values, the product RC
can be determined; and if the circuit resistance is known, the capacitance C can be
found.
2-3- Capacitor discharging

Suppose that, after the capacitor has been fully charged to a voltage VC = V0, the
switch in the circuit of Figure 1 is connected to terminal ②. With the voltage source
now isolated in the circuit, and with the resistor and capacitor alone in the loop, the
Kirchoff’s second law yields the relationship:
19
VR  VC  0 (Equation 5)
The charge on the capacitor now leaks through the resistor at a rate given by:
Q  CV0et RC (Equation 6)
As before, we may write this equation in terms of the voltage VC across the capacitor,
VC  Q C  V0et RC (Equation 7)
Equation 7 shows that the charge and voltage on the capacitor decay exponentially
with time, the time dependence having the general shape shown in Figure 3.
The rate of decay of the voltage, VC, on the capacitor is again determined by the time
constant   RC of the circuit, and if as before we choose time intervals which are
integer multiples n of RC (t = nRC), we may write:
VC  V0e n (Equation 8)
Table 2. Values of the voltage VC for

different values n.
n  t RC t  nRC VC
Vc
1 RC 0.368V0
2 2RC 0.135V0
3 3RC 0.050V0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
4 4RC 0.018V0
t/RC
Figure 3. Plot of capacitor discharge versus

time for the circuit shown in Figure 1.
Values of VC for n = 1,2,3, and 4 are given in Table 2. We see that after a time
interval t1=RC after closing the switch to terminal “2”, the voltage on the capacitor
has dropped to 36.8% of its initial value V0, after an interval t2=2RC it is just 13.5%
of V0, and so on. Figure 3 shows that the rate of discharge decreases as the voltage
20
decreases, and theoretically VC never reaches zero. In practice, however, VC becomes
negligibly small after a period equal to a few time constants. Note that the time
constant of the circuit   RC (n = 1) is the time necessary for the voltage (or charge)
to decay to 1/e (= 0.368) of its original value V0.
2-4- Graphical determination of capacitance C

The voltage VC across a capacitor as it charges is given by the Equation 3. From this
equation, the time constant   RC is given by
t
  RC  (Equation 9)
 V0 
ln  
 V0  VC 
 V0 
From the graph of the ln   versus t, the capacitance C can be determined
 V0  VC 
from its slope by:
1
C (Equation 10)
R  slope
The voltage VC across a capacitor as it discharges is given by the Equation 7. From
this equation, the time constant   RC is given by
t
  RC  (Equation 11)
V 
ln  0 
 VC 
V 
From the graph of the ln  0  versus t, the capacitance C can be determined from its
 VC 
slope by the same equation as Equation 10.
2-5- Determination of capacitance C by measuring Half-Life:

A related quantity is the half-life, t1 2 , which is the time required for the voltage VC to
decrease (in the case of discharging the capacitor) to just one-half of its original
value. This is given by:
VC 1 t
  e 12
RC
(Equation 12)
V0 2
21
or,
t1 2  RC ln 2  0.693RC (Equation 13)
Therefore,
t1 2
C (Equation 14)
0.693R
When the potential difference across the capacitor, VC, is half of its initial maximum
voltage V0, the half-life time, t1 2 , can be directly determined by the corresponding
time under the exponential function at that point.

N.B. The same equation can be found in the case of charging the capacitor.
2-6- RC time constant

To measure short time constants, say less than 5ms (1ms = 1 millisecond = 1x10 -3s),
it is necessary to use a voltmeter capable of responding to very rapid changes in
voltage level, a timer capable of measuring down to 1ms, and a fast-acting switch
which can be synchronized with the timer. A cathode ray oscilloscope, CRO, can
serve both as a voltmeter and timer for such measurements.
Figure 5-a. The square wave that

Figure 5-b. The voltage across the
drives the RC circuit. When the switch
capacitor of Figure 1. The capacitor
in Figure 1 is in position ①, the input alternately charges toward V and
0
voltage is in the peak value V0. When discharges toward zero according to the
the switch moves to the position ②, the input voltage shown in Figure 5-a.
input voltage drops to zero
22
A function generator capable of generating a square-wave voltage output can also be
used to combine the functions of both the fast-acting switch and the power supply.
The output voltage of frequency f  1 T from such a square wave generator is
described in Figure 5-a. If such a voltage is applied to a capacitor-resistor pair then
the capacitor will alternately charge and discharge through the resistor, its voltage
varying with time according to Figure 5-b. It is assumed in this figure that the period
of the generated waveform T is approximately 10RC.
If the CRO is connected across the capacitor, the capacitor voltage of Figure 5-b can
be displayed on the oscilloscope. The sweep frequency of the CRO time base may be
adjusted so that just one full period T of the function generator output is displayed.
3- Equipment list
1 plug-in board A4 576 74
1 resistor 470, 2 W, STE 2/19 577 40
1 resistor 1 k, 2 W, STE 2/19 577 44
1 resistor 2.2 k, 2 W, STE 2/19 577 48
3 capacitors 1 μF, 100 V, STE 2/19 578 15
1 function generator S 12 522 621
1 two-channel oscilloscope 575 211
2 screened cables BNC/4 mm 575 24
1 pair of cables, 100cm, blue and red 501 46
4- Setup
- Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 6.
- Measure the square-wave voltage of the function generator with channel I and the
voltage drop at the capacitor with channel II.
- Display both curves simultaneously (DUAL). Set the coupling and the trigger to
DC. To ensure correct reading of the times t, use the calibrated time base sweep
(CAL.).
23
- The display on the oscilloscope can be stabilized by adjusting the trigger level.
Oscilloscope
Output
R1
CH1 CH 2
C
0V
Function
generator Screened cables
BNC / 4mm
Figure 6. Experimental setup for determining the capacitance and the time constant

5-1- Investigating the discharging and charging processes of a capacitor
- First use the resistor with R2= 1k and one capacitor with C1 = 1 F in the setup.
- Select a square-wave voltage with a frequency f = 100 Hz at the function generator
and adjust the voltage V0=8V with the aid of the oscilloscope.
- Record the time corresponding to point where the discharging curve crosses the
horizontal line representing VC=7V, and enter your data in Table 2.
- Repeat the former step for VC=6V, 5V, 4V, 3V, 2V, and 1V
- Similarly measure the times t the voltage takes to rise from 1V to 7V during
charging, and enter your data in Table 2.
- Record the time t1 2 corresponding to VC = (1/2)V0 for the case of discharging and
charging, and enter your data in Table 2.
Table 2.
DISCHARGING CHARGING
t (ms) VC (V) V  t (ms) VC (V)  V0 
ln  0  ln  
 VC   V0  VC 
1 1
24
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
t1 2 (ms) = t1 2 (ms) =
V 
1- In the case of discharging a capacitor, plot ln  0  versus t.
 VC 
2- Draw the best straight line through your data points. Do linear regression analysis
to determine the equation of the straight line. Do not include in your analysis those
data points that are too far off.
3- Use the slope of the best straight line and Equation 10 to calculate the capacitance
C of the capacitor.
4- Calculate the percent error, where the accepted value of the capacitor is C=1F.
5- Calculate the capacitance by using Equation 14
6- Calculate the percent error where the standard value of the capacitor is C=1F.
 V0 
7- In the case of charging a capacitor, plot ln   versus t and follow the steps
 V0  VC 
2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 above.
5-2- Determining the capacitance of two capacitors in parallel

- Connect the second capacitor, C2=1F, so that C1 and C2 are connected in parallel.
No adjustments should be made to the function generator.
- Record the time t1 2 corresponding to VC=(1/2)V0 for charging and discharging
cases.
- Using Equation 14, calculate the equivalent capacitance, Cparallel, in both cases
(charging and discharging)
25
N.B. C parallel  C1  C2  2F
Table 3.
t1 2 ( ms ) CPARALLEL (F) PERCENT

ERROR
Charging
Discharging
5-3- Determining the capacitance of two capacitors in series

- Connect C1 and C2 in series and follow the same procedure as in section b.
1 1 1
N.B.   , Cseries  0.5F
Cseries C1 C2
Table 4.
t1 2 ( ms ) CSERIES (F) PERCENT
ERROR
Charging
Discharging
5-4- Dependence of the half-time on the resistance and on the capacitance

- Make a capacitance C = 0.5 F by means of a series connection of two capacitors
(1F each) and use various resistors one after another.
- For each resistance determine the time t1 2 (in the case of discharging) in which the
voltage VC at the capacitor has dropped to half the maximum value and write down
the value in Table 5. If necessary, increase the time base sweep at the oscilloscope for
more accurate reading.
- In the same manner, use the resistor with R = 470 and make various capacitances
C by means of parallel and series connections of the capacitors.
- For each capacitance determine the time t1 2 (in the case of discharging) in which
the voltage VC at the capacitor has dropped to half the maximum value and write
down the value in Table 5. If necessary, increase the time base sweep at the
oscilloscope for more accurate reading.
26
Table 5. Dependence of the half-time on the resistance and on the capacitance in the
case of discharging.
R (k ) C (F) RC (ms) t1 2 (ms)
0.47 0.5
1 0.5
1.47 0.5
2.2 0.5
2.67 0.5
0.47 0.33
0.47 0.67
0.47 1
0.47 2
- Plot RC (ms) (axis-x) versus t1 2 (ms) (axis-y).
- Draw the best straight line through your data points. Do linear regression analysis to
determine the equation of the straight line.
- Calculate the percent error on the slope of the best straight line, where its accepted
value is ln2 = 0.693 (see Equation 13).
6) Conclusions
27
Experiment 4
Measuring the Magnetic Field for a Straight Conductor and
on Circular Conductor Loops

- Measuring the magnetic field of a straight conductor and of circular conductor loops
as a function of the current.
- Measuring the magnetic field of a straight conductor as a function of the distance
from the axis of the conductor.
- Measuring the magnetic field of circular conductor loops as a function of the loop
radius and the distance from the loop.
2- Principles

According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field d B generated at some point P by

a length element d s of a wire carrying a steady current I (Figure 1) is given by
 0 Id s  rˆ
dB  (Equation 1)
4 r 2
where  0 is a constant called the permeability of free space
 0  4  10 7 T  m / A (Equation 2)

Figure 1. The magnetic field dB at point P due to the current I through a length

element d s . The direction of the field is out of the page at P and into the page at P .
28

To find the total magnetic field B created at some point by a current of finite

size, we must sum up contributions from all current elements I d s that make up the

current. That is, we must evaluate B by integrating Equation 1:
  0 I d s  u
4  r 2
B (Equation 3)
2-1- Magnetic field of a straight conductor:

Because of the symmetry of the wire, the magnetic field lines are circles concentric
with the wire and lie in planes perpendicular to the wire (Figure 2). The magnitude of

B is constant on any circle of radius a and is given by
0 I
B
2 r
(Equation 4)

A convenient rule for determining the direction of B is to grasp the wire with the
right hand, positioning the thumb along the direction of the current. The four fingers
wrap in the direction of the magnetic field.
Figure 2. The right-hand rule for determining the direction of the magnetic field
surrounding a long, straight wire carrying a current. Note that the magnetic field
lines form circles around the wire (a ≡ r).
29
2-3- Magnetic field of circular conductor loop:
The magnetic field of a circular conductor loop with the radius R at a distance x on
the axis through the centre of the loop is
1 R2
B 0 I (Equation 5)
2 
R2  x2 
3/ 2
Figure 3. Geometry for calculating the magnetic field at a point P lying on the axis of
a current loop. By symmetry, the total field B is along this axis.
3- Equipment list
1 set of 4 current conductors 516 235
1 teslameter 516 62
1 axial B-probe 516 61
1 tangential B-probe 516 60
1 multicore cable, 6-pole 501 16
1 high current power supply 521 55
1 small optical bench 460 43
1 holder for plug-in elements 460 21
2 Leybold multiclamps 301 01
1 stand base, V-shape, 28 cm 300 01
1 set of two-way plug adapters 501 644
Connecting leads, Ø 2.5 mm2
30
4- Setup and carrying out the experiment
a) Magnetic field of a straight conductor:
The experimental setup is illustrated in Fig. 4.
- Set the small optical bench up in the stand base, and align it horizontally.
- Mount the holder for plug-in elements (a) with a Leybold multiclamp.
- Attach the holder for the straight conductor (b1), clamp the straight conductor, and
connect it to the high current power supply.
- Connect the tangential B-probe to the teslameter, and adjust the zero of the
teslameter (see instruction sheet of the teslameter).
Figure 4. Experimental setup for measuring the magnetic field at a straight

conductor (r= s+3mm).
- Next mount the tangential B-probe in a Leybold multiclamp with the left edge of the
multiclamp lying at the scale mark 50.0cm. Align the B-probe with the middle of the
straight conductor in height.
- Move the straight conductor towards the Hall sensor (c1) so that it almost touches
the sensor (distance s = 0).
31
- Increase the current I from 0 to 14A in steps of 2A. Each time measure the magnetic
field B, and take the measured values down.
Table 1. The magnetic field B of the straight conductor as a function of the current I
(distance s = 0)
I (A) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
B (mT)
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B(T) versus I(A) (B is the y-axis and I is
the x-axis)
- Plot the measured values on a B - I graph.
- Determine the slope from the best fit line.
- Find a relationship between the slope and 0
- Determine the value of 0
- Calculate the percent error on 0

- At I = 14A, move the B-probe to the right step by step, measure the magnetic field B
as a function of the distance s, and take the measured values down.
Table 2. The magnetic field B of the straight conductor as a function of the distance s
between the surface of the conductor and the B-probe (current I = 14A)
s 0 2 4 6 8 10 15 20 25 30 40
(mm)
r 3 5 7 9 11 13 18 23 28 33 43
(mm)
B
(mT)
B-1
(mT-1)
32
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B-1(mT-1) versus r(mm) (B-1 is the y-axis
and r is the x-axis)
- Plot the measured values on a B-1 - r graph.
b) Magnetic field of circular conductor loops:

- Replace the holder for the straight conductor with the adapter for conductor loops
(b2), and attach the 40mm conductor loop.
- Connect the conductor loop by plugging connecting leads into the sockets of the
holder for plug-in elements (a).
- Connect the axial B-probe to the teslameter, and adjust the zero of the teslameter
(see instruction sheet of the teslameter).
- Next mount the axial B-probe in a Leybold multiclamp with the left edge of the
multiclamp lying at the scale mark 70.0cm. Align the B-probe towards the centre of
the conductor loop.
- Align the conductor loop as precisely as possible with the Hall sensor (c2).
- Increase the current I from 0 to 14A in steps of 2A. Each time measure the magnetic
field B, and take the measured values down.
Table 3. The magnetic field B of the 20mm conductor loop as a function of the
current I (x = 0)
I (A) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
B (mT)
33
Figure 5. Experimental setup for measuring the magnetic field at circular conductor
loops
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B(T) versus I(A) (B is the y-axis and I is
the x-axis)

- At I = 20A, move the B-probe to the right and to the left step by step, measure the
magnetic field B as a function of the space coordinate x, and take the measured values
down.
Table 4. The magnetic field B of the40mm conductor loop as a function of the
distance x (at I=14A)
x (mm) -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
B (mT)
x (mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6
B (mT)
34
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B(mT) versus x(mm) (B is the y-axis and
x is the x-axis)
- Plot the measured values on a B - x graph.
- What’s your conclusion with respect to equation 5.
- Replace the 20mm conductor loop with the 40mm conductor loop and then with the
60mm conductor loop. In both cases measure the magnetic field with x = 0 and I =
20A.
Table 5. The magnetic field B of the conductor loop as a function of its radius at
I=20A, and x = 0.
R(mm) 20 40 60
B(mT)
B-1 (mT-1)
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B-1(T-1) versus R(m) (B-1 is the y-axis and
R is the x-axis)
- Plot the measured values on a B-1 - R graph.
6) Conclusions
35
Instruction Sheet for Teslameter
In conjunction with the tangential B-probe (516 60) or axial Bprobe (516 61) the
teslameter gives digital readings of magnetic flux densities B ranging from 0.01 mT
to 2T; both constant and alternating magnetic fields can be measured. Magnetic flux
densities of up to Bcomp = 500 mT can be compensated, thus allowing sensitive
measurements to be made of changes in magnetic fields. An additional amplifier
output supplies analog voltages which correspond to the measured values and can be
supplied to an analog measuring device.
1- Description, scope of supply, technical data (see Fig. 1)

/1/ DIN socket for connecting the tangential and axial B-probes (516 60, 516 61)
/2/ Changeover switch for constant and alternating fields
Figure 1
/3/ Measuring range selector with the decadic range steps ±20, ± 200, ±2000-mT,
Measuring range 20.00 mT 200.0 mT 2000 mT
Resolution 0.01 mT 0.1 mT 1mT
/4/ Analog output: 4-mm socket pair, lower socket connected to ground; Maximum
output voltage ±2 V (corresponding to ± 20 resp. 200 resp. 2000 mT in accordance
with the measuring range selection with 3), output resistance 100 
/5/ Magnetically shielded space for accommodating the B-probes for the purpose of
zero point adjustment with /7/
36
/6/ Digital display, with 3 1/2 digits and a decimal point corresponding to the selected
measuring range
/7/ Pushbutton for automatic zero point adjustment and compensation of magnetic
flux densities up to ± 500 mT. (set-reset function)
/7.1/ LED to indicate successful compensation of device.
Two foldable feet are attached to the bottom of the housing for setting up the device
in a tilted position. The device is equipped at the rear with a mains switch and a plug
recess with an integrated fuse holder (see fuse plate on rear of device for correct
rating).
2- Operation
2.1 Offset compensation ("tare function")
Zero point adjustment and offset compensation are only useful for constant fields;
constant field measurement is selected with switch 2.
For zero point adjustment, select the most sensitive measuring range with switch 4,
insert the magnetic B-probe into the magnetically shielded space 5, and set the
display to (approximately) zero by pressing button /7/.
The compensation of constant magnetic fields is carried out accordingly; this time,
however, the probe is situated in the field space to be compensated when pushbutton
/7/ is pressed.
Magnetic flux densities of up to ±500 mT can be compensated in every measuring
range. When the device has been compensated, LED /7.1/ lights up. You can clear
your zero point adjustment and offset compensation using the reset function of
pushbutton 7 (LED /7.1/ goes out).
2.2 Measurement of magnetic flux density (Measurement of constant magnetic

fields)
After zero point adjustment or offset compensation, measurement of the magnetic
flux density can be commenced. For this purpose, introduce the relevant magnetic B-
probe into the field to be measured, and read the measured value on the display. Also
refer to section 3.4 for measurements via the analog output.
37
2.3 Overload indication
When the measuring range is exceeded, 1 or -1 appears on the display /6/, depending
on the direction of the magnetic field (see Fig. 2).
Figure 2
In this case, select the next higher range with the selector switch 4. If magnetic fields
are to be compensated, first check in the 2000 mT range whether the condition Bcomp
500 mT is fulfilled. If compensation is not possible, 1 or -1 remains visible in the
overload display, or the display continues to show a value 0, depending on the ratio of
the measuring range to the field value. This can be remedied by changing the
experimental conditions and performing compensation or zero point adjustment again
(see Section 3.1).
38
Experiment 5
The Magnetic Field of an Air Coil
1- Objects of the experiments

- Measuring the magnetic field B of a long air coil as a function of the current I.
- Measuring the magnetic field B of a long air coil as a function of the length L and
the number N of turns of the coil.
2- Principles
A solenoid consists of a series of N closely spaced turns of wire to form a
helical coil. Figure 1 shows the magnetic field lines surrounding a loosely wound
solenoid.
Figure 1. The magnetic field lines for a loosely wound solenoid
In the interior of the solenoid, the magnetic field is given by
NI
B  0 (Equation 1)
L
where L is the length of the solenoid.
Equation 1 is valid only for points near the center of a very long solenoid.
In this experiment, the magnetic field inside a long coil will be measured by means of
an axial B-probe in order to verify the Equation 1. The probe contains a Hall sensor
which is sensitive in the direction parallel to the axis of the probe.
39
3- Equipment list
Description Code Number
1 coil with variable number of turns per unit length 516 242
1 high-current power supply 521 55
1 teslameter 51662
1 axial B-probe 51661
1 multicore cable, 6-pole, 1.5m long 501 16
1 stand for coils and tubes 516 249
1 saddle base 300 11
4- Setup
- Lay the coil with variable number of turns per unit length on the stand for coils and
tubes, and connect it to the high-current power supply.
- Connect the axial B-probe to the teslameter via the multicore cable, clamp it with
the stand rod from the scope of supply of the probe, and align it so that the Hall
sensor (a) is located in the centre of the plastic body of the coil.
Figure 2. Experimental setup for measuring the magnetic field of a long coil

a) Measuring as a function of the current I:
- Select the measuring range 20 mT at the teslameter, and calibrate the zero with
the key compensation.
40
- Push the connector sockets (b, c) together in a symmetrical way so that the length
of the solenoid is 15cm (b: 12.5cm, c: 27.5cm).
- Enhance the current I in steps of 2A, and determine the magnetic field B in each
case; before each new measurement turn the current back to 0, and check the zero
of the teslameter.
Table 1. Measuring results for N = 30 and L = 15cm

I (A) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
B (mT)
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B (T) versus I(A) (B is the y-axis and I
is the x-axis)
- Draw a best fit line by using the method of least squares (see appendix B).
- Find a relationship between the slope of your best fit line and 0
- Determine the value of 0 .
b) Measuring as a function of the length L

- Apply the current I = 14A.
- In order to adjust different coil lengths L, pull the connector sockets (b, c) apart in a
symmetrical way and determine the magnetic field B in each case; before each new
measurement turn the current back to 0, and check the zero of the teslameter.
Table 2. Measuring results for N = 30 and I = 14A

L (cm) 8 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
n=N/L (cm-1)
B (mT)
41
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting B(T) versus n (m-1) (B is the y-axis and n
is the x-axis)
- Plot the measured values on a B - n graph.
- Draw a best fit line by using the method of least squares (see appendix B).
- Find a relationship between the slope of your best fit line and 0
- Determine the value of 0 .
6) Conclusions
42
Experiment 6
RL Circuits

- To investigate the current time dependence in an R-L circuit.
- To determine the time constant  for different circuits
- To manipulate nonlinear exponential data in such a way as to obtain a linear graph.
2- Principles
Consider Figure 1, which shows a coil wound on a cylindrical core. Assume that the
current in the coil either increases or decreases with time. When the current is in the
direction shown, a magnetic field directed from right to left is set up inside the coil, as
seen in Figure 1-a. As the current changes with time, the magnetic flux through the
coil also changes and induces an electromotive force (emf) in the coil. From Lenz’s
law, the polarity of this induced emf must be such that it opposes the change in the
magnetic field from the current. If the current is increasing, the polarity of the
induced emf is as pictured in Figure 1-b, and if the current is decreasing, the polarity
of the induced emf is as shown in Figure 1-c.
Figure 1. (a) A current in the coil produces a magnetic field directed to the left. (b) If
the current increases, the increasing magnetic flux creates an induced emf in the coil
having the polarity shown by the dashed battery. (c) The polarity of the induced emf
reverses if the current decreases.
43
To obtain a quantitative description of self-induction, we recall from Faraday’s law
that the induced emf is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the
magnetic flux. The magnetic flux is proportional to the magnetic field due to the
current, which in turn is proportional to the current in the circuit. Therefore, a self-
induced emf is always proportional to the time rate of change of the current. For
any coil, we find that
dI
 L  L (Equation 1)
dt
where L is a proportionality constant—called the inductance of the coil—that
depends on the geometry of the coil and other physical characteristics. Combining
d B
this expression with Faraday’s law,  L   N , we see that the inductance of a
dt
closely spaced coil (a toroid or an ideal solenoid) carrying a current I and containing
N turns is
N B
L (Equation 2)
I
From Equation 1, we can also write the inductance as the ratio
L
L (Equation 3)
dI dt
The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H), which, as we can see from Equation 3, is
V s
1 volt-second per ampere: 1H  1
A
If a circuit contains a coil, such as a solenoid, the self-inductance of the coil prevents
the current in the circuit from increasing or decreasing instantaneously. A circuit
element that has a large self-inductance is called an inductor.
Because the inductance of the inductor results in a back emf (  L ), an inductor in a
circuit opposes changes in the current in that circuit. If the battery voltage in the
44
circuit is increased so that the current rises, the inductor opposes this change, and the
rise is not instantaneous. If the battery voltage is decreased, the presence of the
inductor results in a slow drop in the current rather than an immediate drop.
Consider the circuit shown in Figure 2, which contains a battery of negligible internal
resistance. This is an RL circuit because the elements connected to the battery are a
resistor and an inductor.
Figure 2. A series RL circuit. As the current

increases toward its maximum value, an Figure 3. Plot of the current versus
electromotive force (emf),  , that opposes time for the RL circuit shown in
L
Figure 2. The switch is open for t  0
the increasing current is induced in the
and then closed at t=0, and the
inductor.
current increases toward its maximum
value  /R.
Suppose that the switch S is open for t  0 and then closed at t = 0. The current in the
circuit begins to increase, and a back emf (Eq.1) that opposes the increasing current is
induced in the inductor. We can apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to this circuit:
dI
  IR  L 0 (Equation 4)
dt
A mathematical solution of this differential equation:

I
R
1  e 
t 
(Equation 5)
45
Where the constant  is the time constant of the RL circuit:
L
 (Equation 6)
R
Physically,  is the time interval required for the current in the circuit to reach (1 – e-
1
) = 0.632 = 63.2% of its final value /R. The time constant is a useful parameter for
comparing the time responses of various circuits.
Consider the RL circuit shown in Figure 4. Suppose that the switch has been set at
position a long enough to allow the current to reach its equilibrium value /R. If the
switch is thrown from a to b, the circuit is now described by just the right hand loop
in Figure 4. Thus, we have a circuit with no battery ( = 0). Applying Kirchhoff’s
loop rule to the right-hand loop at the instant the switch is thrown from a to b, we
obtain
dI
IR  L 0 (Equation 7)
dt
The solution of this differential equation is

I e  t   I 0e  t  (Equation 8)
R
where  is the emf of the battery and I0 = /R is the current at the instant at which the
switch is thrown to b.
Figure 4. An RL circuit. When the switch Figure 5. Current versus time when the
S is in position a, the battery is in the switch is thrown to position b at t = 0
46
circuit. When the switch is thrown to (see Figure 4)
position b, the battery is no longer part of
the circuit.
We can find the current by measuring the voltage across the resistor, VR, and using
VR
the relationship I  . From Equations 5 and 8, we can write, respectively, VR as:
R

VR increasing    1  e t   (Equation 9)
VR decreasing    e t  (Equation 10)
VR(increasing) and VR(decreasing) are the voltages across the resistor when,
respectively, the battery is in the circuit and the battery is no longer part of the circuit.
A related quantity is the half-life, t1 2 , which is the time required for the voltage
VR(inc.) to increase to just one-half of its final value (VR(dec.) to decrease to just one-
half of its original value). This is given by:
VR ( inc .) 1 t 
 1 e 12 (Equation 11)
 2
or,
t1 2 t1 2
  (Equation 12)
ln 2 0.693
N.B. The same equation can be found in the case of VR(dec.).
3- Equipment list
1 plug-in board A4 576 74
1 resistor 470, 2 W, STE 2/19 577 40
1 resistor 1 k, 2 W, STE 2/19 577 44
1 resistor 2.2 k, 2 W, STE 2/19 577 48
1 inductor 33mH
47
1 function generator 522 621
1 two-channel oscilloscope 575 211
2 screened cables BNC/4 mm 575 24
1 pair of cables, 100cm, blue and red 501 46
1 digital multimeter ---------
4- Setup
- Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 6.
Oscilloscope
Output
CH1 CH 2
0V
R1
Function
generator
Screened cables
BNC / 4mm
Figure 6. Experimental setup for determining the time constant of the circuit.
- Measure the square-wave voltage of the function generator with channel II and the
voltage drop at the resistor with channel I.
- Display both curves simultaneously (DUAL). Set the coupling and the trigger to
DC. To ensure correct reading of the times t, use the calibrated time base sweep
(CAL.).
- The display on the oscilloscope can be stabilized by adjusting the trigger level.

- Measure with a digital multimeter and record the resistance of the resistor, Rmeasured,
which will be used in this experiment.
Table 1.
R () R MEASURED ()
48
470 R1 =
1000 R2 =
2200 R3 =
a) Investigating the increasing and decreasing processes of the voltage across a

resistor.
- First use the resistor with R2 and the inductor of L = 33mH in the setup.
R
- Select a square-wave voltage with a frequency f  at the function generator
10 L
and adjust the voltage =8V with the aid of the oscilloscope.
- Record the time corresponding to point where the decreasing curve crosses the
horizontal line representing VR(dec.)=7V, and enter your data in Table 2.
- Repeat the former step for VR(dec.)=6V, 5V, 4V, 3V, 2V, and 1V
- Similarly measure the times t the voltage, VR(inc.) takes to rise from 1V to 7V and
enter your data in Table 2.
- Record the time t1 2 corresponding to VR = (1/2) for the case of increasing and
decreasing of the voltage across the resistor, and enter your data in Table 2.
Table 2.
DECREASING INCREASING
t (ms) VR(dec.)    t (ms) VR(inc.)   
ln  ln 
(in V)  VR ( dec .)  (in V)    VR ( inc .) 
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
49
t1 2 (ms) = t1 2 (ms) =
  
- Plot ln   versus t.
   VR (inc.) 
determine the equation of the straight line. Do not include in your analysis those data
points that are too far off.
- The voltage VR(increasing) across the resistor is given by Equation 9. From this
equation, the time constant  is
t
 (Equation 13)
  
ln  
   VR (inc.) 
Determine the time constant from the slope of the graph. We labeled it 1.
- The voltage VR(decreasing) across the resistor is given by Equation 10. From this
equation, the time constant  is
t
 (Equation 14)
  
ln  
 VR (dec.) 
Determine the time constant from the slope of the graph. We labeled it 2.
- Determine 3 from t1 2 (inc.) and 4 from t1 2 (dec.) by using Equation 12.
- Calculate the percent error on 1, 2, 3, and 4 where the standard value of the time
constant is as shown in Equation 6.
b) Dependence of the half-time on the resistance.

- Setup the circuit containing the inductor (L=33mH) and a resistor as shown in
Figure 6. Use various resistor one after another as shown in Table 3.
- For each resistance determine the time t1 2 (in the case of decreasing) in which the
voltage VR across the resistor has dropped to half the maximum value and write down
the value in Table 3. If necessary, increase the time base sweep at the oscilloscope for
more accurate reading.
50
Table 3. Dependence of the half-time on the resistance.
R (k ) Rmeasured( k  ) L (H)   L R ( ms ) t1 2 (ms)
0.47 33000
1 33000
1.47 33000
2.2 33000
2.67 33000
- Plot t1 2 (ms) (axis-y) versus  (ms) (axis-x).
determine the equation of the straight line.
value is ln2 = 0.693 (see Equation 12).
6) Conclusions
51
Experiment 7
Alternating Current with Coil and Ohmic Resistors

- Determining the total impedance and the phase shift in a series connection of a coil
and a resistor.
- Determining the inductance’s value of the coil.
2- Principles
2-1- Inductors in an AC circuit:
If an alternating voltage
v  Vmax sin t  with   2  f (Equation 1)
is applied to a coil with the inductance L, the current flowing through the coil is
Vmax  
iL  sin  t   (Equation 2)
L  2
Therefore an inductive reactance

X L  L (Equation 3)
is assigned to the coil, and the voltage is said to be phase-shifted with respect to the
current by 90 (see Figure 2). The phase shift is often represented in a vector diagram.
Figure 1. A circuit consisting of an inductor of inductance L connected to an AC

source.
52
Figure 2. (a) Plots of the instantaneous current and the instantaneous voltage across
an inductor as functions of time. The current lags behind the voltage by 90. (b)
Phasor diagram for the inductive circuit, showing that the current lags behind the
voltage by 90.
2-2- The RL series circuit
R VR  RI max
Vmax
L
VL  X L I max
If the coil is connected in series with an ohmic resistor, the same current flows
through both components. This current can be written in the form
i  I max sin t    (Equation 4)
where  (phase angle) is unknown for the time being. Correspondingly, the voltage
drops at the resistor and at the coil are, respectively,
v R  I max R sin t  (Equation 5)
 
v L  I max X L sin  t   (Equation 6)
 2
53
The sum of these two voltages is
v  v R  v L (Equation 7)
It is simpler to obtain the sum by examining the phasor diagram
VR  I max R
Vmax VL  I max X L
Vmax  I maxZ
VL

I max
 t VR
Figure 3. Phasor diagram for the series RL circuits. The phasor VR is in phase with
the current phasor Imax, the phasor VL leads Imax by 90. The total voltage Vmax
makes an angle  with Imax.
The series connection of an ohmic resistor and a coil can be assigned the impedance
Z  R 2  X L2 (Equation 8)
The voltage is phase-shifted with respect to the current by the angle
X 
  tan 1  L  (Equation 9)
 R 
3- Apparatus
54
1 plug-in board A4; 1 resistor 1; 1 resistor 100; 1 coil 1000 turns; 1 function
generator; 1 two-channel oscilloscope; 2 screened cables BNC/4 mm; connecting
leads.
4- Setup
- Connect the function generator as an AC voltage source.
- Connect the channel 1 of the oscilloscope to the output of the function generator,
and feed the voltage drop at the measuring resistor 1 into the channel 2.
- Press the DUAL pushbutton at the oscilloscope, and select AC for the coupling and
the trigger.
Oscilloscope
Output
R1
CH1 CH 2
0V
L
Function
R2 R1  100 BNC / 4mm
R2  1
Figure 5. Experimental setup for determining the impedance and phase-shift in

circuits with coil and ohmic resistors in series connection.

- Connect the coil as an inductance in series with the 100 resistor.
- Switch the function generator on by plugging in the plug-in power supply, and
adjust a frequency of 1000Hz (T=0.1ms).
- Select an appropriate time-base sweep at the oscilloscope.
- Adjust an output signal Vmax=5V.
55
- Read the amplitude V(R2) of the signal in the channel 2 of the oscilloscope, and
V ( R2 )
enter it in the table as current I max 
1
- Read the time difference t between the zero passages of the two signals.
v t
Figure 4. Phase difference measurement.
t
  360 ( in degrees ) (Equation 10)
T
- Calculate the total impedance:
Vmax 5V
Z  (Equation 11)
I max I max
- Calculate the inductance of the coil as function of :
R1
L1  tan  . (Equation 12)

- Calculate the inductance of the coil as function of the impedance Z:
56
Z 2  R2
L2  (Equation 13)
2
- Adjust other frequencies according to Table 1, and repeat the measurements.
Table 1. Measuring data for the oscillation period, current amplitude Imax and time
difference t.
f (Hz)  (rad/s) T (s) Imax (A) t (s) Z ()  (Eq.10) L1 (H) L2 (H)
10000
5000
2000
1000
500
200
100
50
- Find average values of L1 , and L2 , and compare them.

- Fill the following table:
Table 2. Values of the inductive reactance and the impedance calculated from the
measuring data from Table 1.
f (Hz)  (rad/s)  L  L2  Z ()
X L    1  ()
 2 
10000
5000
2000
1000
500
200
57
100
50
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting Z2 versus XL2. You should make Z2 the
vertical axis and XL2 the horizontal axis. Each axis should be labeled and appropriate
- Draw the best straight line through your data points by using method of least
squares (see Appendix B).
value is 1 (see Equation 8).
- Determine the y-intercept value and compare it to R=100.
6) Conclusions
58
Experiment 8
Determining the Capacitive Reactance of a Capacitor in an
AC Circuit
1- Objects of the experiments:

a- Investigating the voltage and the current at a capacitor in an AC circuit
b- Observing the phase shift between the current and the voltage
c- Determining the capacitive reactance.
2- Principles
In a DC circuit, a capacitor represents an infinite resistance. Only during circuit
closing and opening, respectively, a current flows.
However, a current flows in an AC circuit with a capacitor. The current Imax flowing
in an AC circuit is determined by the capacitive reactance (impedance XC of the
capacitor) and the voltage VC :
VC VC
I max  or XC  (Equation 1)
XC I max
In the case of a sinusoidal voltage, a phase difference arises between the voltage and
the current. The voltage takes its maximum when the current is zero, and the voltage
is zero at maximum current, i.e. the current is in advance of the voltage by 90°. Due
to the power factor ( cos  ), no power ( Pav  (1 2) I max Vmax cos  ) is lost in the
capacitor, that is no energy is converted.
In the experiment, the current Imax is determined via the voltage drop VR at the
resistor R, and the voltage VC at the capacitor C is measured directly. For this
59
purpose the peak voltages are determined by means of an oscilloscope. The current in
Equation 2 is used to calculate the capacitive reactance XC in Equation 1.
VR
I max  (Equation 2)
R
R VR  RI max
Vmax
C VC  X C I max
Figure 1: AC circuit with a capacitor and an ohmic resistor in series connection
In order to establish Equation 3, first the dependence of the capacitive reactance on

1 1
the capacitance ( X C  ) and then on the frequency ( X C  ) is investigated.
C f
1
XC  (Equation 3)
2 Cf
3- Apparatus:
1 plug-in board A4; 1 resistor 10Ω, 3 capacitors 1μF; 1 function generator; 1 two-
channel oscilloscope; 2 screened cables BNC/4mm; 1 pair of cables, 100cm, blue and
red.
4- Setup
- Setup according to Figure 2
- Measure the voltage drop VR at the resistance with channel 1 (CH1) and the
voltage drop VC at the capacitor with channel 2 (CH2).
- Display both curves on the oscilloscope at the same time (DUAL). Set the coupling
and the trigger to AC. For correct reading of the voltages and times (frequency) use
the calibrated mode (CAL) for the deflections. Invert (INV) one channel for a correct
in-phase representation of the two curves.
60
Oscilloscope
Output
R
CH1 CH 2
C
0V
Function
BNC / 4mm
Figure 2: Experimental setup for determining the capacitive reactance with capacitor
and ohmic resistor in series connection.
5- Carrying out the Experiments:

a) Observing the phase shift
- Adjust a sinusoidal voltage with a frequency f=1kHz and a voltage Vmax  4V
( Vpp  8V ) at the function generator.
- Select suitable Y-deflections and time bases at the oscilloscope to observe

deflections as large as possible and several oscillations.
- Compare the positions of the maxima and minima, respectively, of the voltage at the
capacitor with the position of the zero passages of the current, which is represented
by the voltage at the resistor.
b) Dependence of the capacitive reactance on the capacitance

- Adjust the frequency f = 1000-Hz of the function generator precisely, by reading
(T=1-ms) on the oscilloscope.
- Implement various capacitance C through parallel and series connection of the
capacitors.
- In each case determine the voltage drops (peak voltages) at the resistor VR and the
capacitor VC using the oscilloscope.
61
Table 1: R=10-, f = 1000-Hz
C (µF) VR (mV) VC (V) I max (mA) X C ()
0.5
1
1.5
2
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting XC versus 1/C. You should make XC the
vertical axis and 1/C the horizontal axis. Each axis should be labelled and appropriate
- Draw best fit line to the points on your graph.
- Determine the slope of your best fit line.
- Determine the frequency f by using Equation 3 and the slope of your best fit line.
- There is any discrepancy between the frequency determined experimentally and that
given by the function generator? (For that, calculate the percent error)
1000 Hz  f exp
Percent error   100
1000 Hz
c) Dependence of the capacitive reactance on the frequency

- Set up the experiment with the capacitance C =1µF.
- Adjust various frequencies f at the function generator precisely by reading the
period on the oscilloscope.
- In each case determine the voltage drops (peak voltages) at the resistor VR and the
capacitor VC using the oscilloscope.
62
Table 2: R=10-, C=1-µF
f (Hz) VR (mV) VC (V) I max (mA) X C ()
200
400
600
800
1000
- Prepare a sheet of graph paper for plotting XC versus 1/f. You should make XC the
vertical axis and 1/f the horizontal axis. Each axis should be labeled and appropriate
- Draw best fit line to the points on your graph.
- Determine the slope of your best fit line.
- Determine the capacitance by using Equation 3 and the slope of your best fit line.
- There is any discrepancy between the capacitance determined experimentally and
that given by the constructor? (For that, calculate the percent error)
1F  Cexp
Percent error   100
1F
63

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Laboratory - PHY 120xcxc

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Al-Imam Muhammad Ibn Saud Islamic

1- Objects of the experiment

where    r  0 is the permittivity of the dielectric

 0 =8.85x10-12C/V.m is the permittivity of free space.

Figure 1. Schematic diagram for measuring the charge on CR

Figure 2. Experimental setup for the determination of the capacitance of a plate

The experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 2.

5- Carrying out the experiment

Table 1. The charge QR recorded as a function of the applied voltage V1 with

5-3- Measuring the charge QR as a function of the applied voltage V1 for

Table 3. The charge QR recorded as a function of the applied voltage V1 for

1- Objects of the experiment

 0 =8.85x10-12C/V.m is the permittivity of free space.

2-2- Parallel Connection

Ceq  C1  C2  C3  ...  Cn (Equation 3)

2-3- Series Connection

The experimental setup is illustrated in Figure 4.

5- Carrying out the experiment

Figure 5. Connection for measuring the capacitance of the parallel connected

5-2- Series connection:

1- Objects of the experiment

2-1- R-C circuit

Figure 1. Circuit diagram representing a capacitor in series with a resistor, switch,

2-2- Capacitor charging

The charge QC builds up on the capacitor at a rate which is governed by an

Figure 2. Plot of capacitor charge versus

2-3- Capacitor discharging

Table 2. Values of the voltage VC for

Figure 3. Plot of capacitor discharge versus

2-4- Graphical determination of capacitance C

2-5- Determination of capacitance C by measuring Half-Life:

time under the exponential function at that point.

2-6- RC time constant

Figure 5-a. The square wave that

input voltage drops to zero

5- Carrying out the experiment

charging, and enter your data in Table 2.

5-2- Determining the capacitance of two capacitors in parallel

t1 2 ( ms ) CPARALLEL (F) PERCENT

5-3- Determining the capacitance of two capacitors in series

5-4- Dependence of the half-time on the resistance and on the capacitance

- Plot RC (ms) (axis-x) versus t1 2 (ms) (axis-y).

1- Objects of the experiment

2-1- Magnetic field of a straight conductor:

Figure 4. Experimental setup for measuring the magnetic field at a straight

- Determine the value of 0

- Calculate the percent error on 0

- Determine the value of 0

- Calculate the percent error on 0

b) Magnetic field of circular conductor loops:

- Determine the value of 0

- Calculate the percent error on 0

- Determine the value of 0

- Calculate the percent error on 0

1- Description, scope of supply, technical data (see Fig. 1)

2.2 Measurement of magnetic flux density (Measurement of constant magnetic

1- Objects of the experiments

Figure 1. The magnetic field lines for a loosely wound solenoid

In the interior of the solenoid, the magnetic field is given by

5- Carrying out the experiment

Table 1. Measuring results for N = 30 and L = 15cm

- Determine the value of 0 .

- Calculate the percent error on 0

b) Measuring as a function of the length L