CHAPTER 15: MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

WHY STUDY the Magnetic Properties of Materials?

An understanding of the mechanism that explains the permanent magnetic behavior of
some materials may allow us to alter and in some cases tailor the magnetic properties.

Learning Objectives
1. Determine the magnetization of some material given its magnetic susceptibility and
the applied magnetic field strength.
2. From an electronic perspective note and briefly explain the two sources of magnetic
moments in materials.
3. Briefly explain the nature and source of (a) diamagnetism, (b) paramagnetism, and
(c) ferromagnetism.
4. In terms of crystal structure, explain the source of ferrimagnetism for cubic ferrites.
5. (a) Describe magnetic hysteresis; (b) explain why ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials experience magnetic hysteresis; and (c) explain why these materials may
become permanent magnets.
6. Note the distinctive magnetic characteristics for both soft and hard magnetic materials.
7. Describe the phenomenon of superconductivity.

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 BASIC CONCEPTS
Magnetic field strength (H, A/m)

where:N: number of turns, I: current (A), l: coil length (m)

Magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density (B, Tesla)

The magnitude of the internal field strength within a
substance that is subjected to an H field

where: μ0: permeability of a vacuum (4 .10-7 H/m)

μ: permeability of a medium. (H/m)
μr: relative permeability.
The permeability or relative permeability of a material is a measure of the degree to
which the material can be magnetized

The magnetization (M, A/m):

The magnitude of M is proportional to the applied field:
where: magnetic susceptibility.
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Magnetic Dipoles
Magnetic dipoles are found to exist in magnetic materials and may be thought of as
small bar magnets composed of north and south poles.
In the presence of an magnetic field, the magnetic moments within a material tend to
become aligned with the field (magnetization).

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Origins of Magnetic Moments

Orbital magnetic moment (pn):

pn = meh / 4 m e = m. B
where: μB= eh/4πme= 9.27.10-24 A.m2: Bohr magneton
m: magnetic quantum number = 0, 1, 2…. l
h: Planck’s constant.
me: electron mass, e: elementary charge.

Spin magnetic moment (ps):

s=+1/2  pn = + μB
s= -1/2  pn = - μB
Atomic magnetic moments:
patom =  pn +  ps =  ps
due to  pn =  mB = 0

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 DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM
Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field
opposition to an externally applied magnetic field. Diamagnetism is a very weak form of
magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only while an external field is being
applied. It is induced by a change in the orbital motion of electrons due to an applied
magnetic field. (μr < 1, χm ∼ -10-5)

Paramagnetism:
For some solid materials, each atom possesses a permanent dipole moment. In the
absence of an external magnetic field, the orientations of these atomic magnetic
moments are random, such that a piece of material possesses no net macroscopic
magnetization. The paramagnetism results when these atomic dipoles align, by rotation,
with an external field. (μr >1, χm ∼ 10-5 – 10-2)
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 FERROMAGNETISM
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain
materials (such as iron) possess a permanent magnetic moment
in the absence of an external field, and manifest very large and
permanent magnetizations.
Magnetic susceptibility: χm ∼ 105  M>>H
Permanent magnetic moments in
ferromagnetic materials result
mainly from atomic magnetic
moments due to electron spin.
Materials: Iron, cobalt, nickel…
and some of the rare earth metals.
Saturation magnetization (Ms):the
maximum possible magnetization
that results when all the magnetic
dipoles in a solid piece are
mutually aligned with the external
field.

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 ANTIFERROMAGNETISM AND FERRIMAGNETISM
Antiferromagnetism
This phenomenon of magnetic moment coupling between
adjacent atoms or ions occurs in materials. This coupling
results in an antiparallel alignment; the alignment of the
spin moments of neighboring atoms or ions in exactly
opposite directions.
Ferrimagnetism
The macroscopic magnetic characteristics of ferromagnets
and ferrimagnets are similar; the distinction lies in the
source of the net magnetic moments.

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EXAMPLE PROBLEM
Calculate the saturation magnetization for Fe3O4 with the unit cell edge length is
0.839 nm.
Solution:
The saturation magnetization:
where: N’ = nB/Vc the number of Bohr magnetons per cubic meter.
μB= eh/4πme= 9.27.10-24 A.m2: Bohr magneton
The formula for Fe3O4 may be wrriten as
Note that there are 8 [Fe3O4] in a unit cell.

Ms = N’. μB = nB. μB/Vc = 5.105 A/m

Ferrite chemical formula: with M2+ may be Ni2+, Mn2+, Co2+
and Cu2+
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 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR
Raising the temperature  increase in the magnitude of the thermal vibrations of atoms
 randomize the directions of any moments  decrease in the saturation magnetization.
The saturation magnetization is a maximum at 0 K,with increasing temperature, the
saturation magnetization diminishes gradually and then abruptly drops to zero at what is
called the Curie temperature Tc.

Antiferromagnetism is also
affected by temperature; this
behavior vanishes at what is
called the Néel temperature.
At temperatures above this
Fe3O4 : Tc=585 0C
point, antiferromagnetic
Iron: Tc =7680C
materials also become
paramagnetic.

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 DOMAINS AND HYSTERESIS
Domains
Any ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material that is at a
temperature below Tc is composed of small-volume regions in
which there is a mutual alignment in the same direction of all
magnetic dipole moments. For an unmagnetized specimen, the
vector sum of the magnetizations of all the domains is zero.

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Hysteresis
+Br: remanence (remanent flux density)
-Hc: coercivity (coercive force)
Hysteresis behavior and permanent
magnetization may be explained by the
motion of domain walls.

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 MAGNETIC ANISOTROPY
The magnetic hysteresis curves will have different shapes depending on various factors:
(1) whether the specimen is a single crystal or polycrystalline; (2) if polycrystalline, any
preferred orientation of the grains; (3) the presence of pores or second-phase particles;
and (4) other factors such as temperature and, if a mechanical stress is applied, the stress
state.
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy:

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 SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Soft magnetic materials
The easy movement of domain walls  Low H
 Low energy Loss.
Structural defects such as particles of a nonmagnetic
phase or voids in the magnetic material tend to restrict
the motion of domain walls. Consequently, a soft
magnetic material must be free of such structural
defects.
In addition, energy losses may result from electrical
currents that are induced in a magnetic material by a
magnetic field ( Eddy current, Foucault currents).
Forming solid solution ( Si,Ni…) Increase R 
Low energy Loss. Application: Transformer Core

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Hard magnetic materials
A hard magnetic material has a high
remanence, coercivity, and saturation flux
density, as well as a low initial permeability, and
high hysteresis energy losses.
Hysteresis behavior is related to the ease with
which the magnetic domain boundaries move; by
impeding domain wall motion, the coercivity
and susceptibility are enhanced.  [powder
metallurgy and rapid solidification]
Application: Permanent magnets ( motors,
speaker, lightweight earphones, hearing aids…)

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 MAGNETIC STORAGE
Hybrid heads:an inductive-write and a
magnetoresistive (MG) - read head in a
single unit.
Particulate magnetic media: consist of
very small needle-like or acicular
particles, normally of γ-Fe2O3 ferrite or
CrO2; these are applied and bonded to a
polymeric film (for magnetic tapes) or to
a metal or polymer disk.

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Thin film magnetic media:
Thin film (10 – 50 nm) of CoPtCr or CoCrTa alloy on
substrate layers (Cr, or Cr alloy)

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 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Application:
Superconducting magnets:
Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI), magnetic resonance
spectroscopy (MRS), magnets for
high-energy particle accelerators.
High-speed magnetically levitated
trains…
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