Measurement of Electrostatic and

Magnetostatic Fields
Lecture FIVE

Prepared By: KA Greyson (PhD)

 Use measurement  Identify the appropriate parameters to • Measurements
tools to perform be measured of electrostatic
measurement of  Select appropriate tools and equipment and
electrostatic and for carrying out the measurement magnetostatics
magnetostatics  Perform measurement of electrostatic field are
fields and magnetostatics fields correctly
 Present the results performed

2
Electrostatic and Magnetostatic Fields
• Electrostatic fields are generated by static charges, magnetostatic fields
are generated by static currents (charges that move with constant velocity
in a particular direction).
• A electrostatic field (also referred to as static electric field ) is created by
charges that are fixed in space;
• The space (or field) in which a magnetic pole experiences a force is called
a magnetic field.
• The magnetic field around a magnet is represented by imaginary lines
called magnetic lines of force.

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• A magnetostatic field (also known as static magnetic field) is created by
a magnet or charges that move at constant speed (as in appliances
using direct current).
• Magnetic devices have been used for treating human ailments since
the 16th century.
• Magnetic fields of varying strengths are employed in such diverse
applications as energy production, transportation, information storage
and medical imaging.

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• Due to the direct current, static magnetic fields are constant fields,
which do not change in intensity or direction over time, in contrast to
alternating fields.
• Hence, they have a frequency of 0 Hz.
• Much stronger fields are generated by some types of industrial and
medical equipment, such as in Medical Resonance Imaging (MRI)
devices.
• The strength of a static magnetic flux density is expressed in tesla (T)
or in gauss (G) where 1 mG = 0.1µT.
• By contrast, the fields of MRI equipment vary from between 1.5 to up
to as much as 10 T.

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• It can be useful to remember that the field strength is inversely
proportional to the cube of the distance from the surface of the
magnet.
• Only when humans are exposed to strong magnetic fields such as
those generated by MRI equipment, or in some specialized
research facilities, will perceptible effects on the human body occur.
• Fields of 2-3 T or higher can evoke transient sensations such as
dizziness, vomiting, and nausea.

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• There are different types of magnetostatics:
• Current or voltage-driven coil
• The current path and coil segments
• Permanent magnet
• Magnetic source field
• Stationary current field
• Magnetostatic energy is the energy that is stored in
the static field.

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 The energy per this unit volume Em is:

• µ0= the permeability in vacuum (4π10-7 H/m)

• The vector of m = unit momentum of the volume of the domain
under the H field.
• The vector of H = magnetic field of the domain.

• One of the most important applications of magnetostatics is the electric motor.

• We can also find them in transformers, bells, etc.

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MEASUREMENTS OF STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS

• The magnetostatic fields is measured by:

1. Gouy's balance1: this is an instrument that allows us to measure the
magnetic susceptibility of a specific sample.
• This balance measures the weight at the moment when it is attracted by
the magnetic field zone of the poles and the other at the moment when
it is repelled, in order to compare them.
2. Magnetometers2: an instrument that helps us to measure both the
direction and the strength of a magnetic field.
1
https://physics.iitm.ac.in/~ph5060/manuals/Gouy.pdf
2
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/221927742_Induction_Magnetometers_Principle_Modeling_and_Ways_of_Improvement
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 Magnetic Susceptibility Using a Gouy Balance1

AIM:
• To determine the magnetic
susceptibility of a paramagnetic sample
by measuring the force exerted on the
sample by a magnetic field gradient.

1
https://physics.iitm.ac.in/~ph5060/manuals/Gouy.pdf

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Introduction
• The electron has an intrinsic angular momentum characterized by a quantum
number, s = ½.
• Angular momentum is the rotational analog of linear momentum.
• It is an important physical quantity because it is a conserved quantity.
• Angular momentum has both a direction and a magnitude, and both are conserved.
• Protons and neutrons, like electrons, have s = ½.
• Bohr model: The quantized angular momentum of a free electron is L = =
where is the physical constant known as the reduced Planck constant
• Thus each electron in the universe is a tiny magnet.
• You maybe familiar with the filling of atomic shells for a many-electron atom.

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• Configurations in which the shell is fully filled results in zero net spin quantum
number and net orbital angular momentum quantum number such atoms, e.g.
Argon, Neon etc., do not have a net magnetic moment and referred to as
diagmagnets.
• Atoms which do not have fully-filled outer shell possess a net magnetic moment
(e.g. Fe, Ni, etc.).
• A collection of such atoms which forms a gas, liquid or solid is magnetic since
in the presence of an applied field the tiny moments can swing in the direction
of the field.
• If the tiny moments do not ‘interact’ with each other the materials is referred to
as a paramagnet.
• Interaction among moments results in ferromagnets or antiferromagnets.

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• Consider a paramagnet at room temperature subject to a magnetic field H.
• An obvious quantity of interest is the magnetization, M (magnetic moment
(mµ) per unit volume).
• The magnetic susceptibility (  ) is defined as ratio of the magnetization to
the applied magnetic field.
• Thence, we focus on the measurement of the force exerted on the sample
by magnetic field gradient.

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• Consider a solid in which each electron has an orbital angular momentum
characterized by the quantum number, L, in addition to the spin angular
momentum.
• Assuming spin-orbit coupling the total angular momentum quantum number is
characterized by J.
• The total magnetic moment of the atom is given by mµ = gµBJ,
where g is the Landè g factor of the atom and µo is the Bohr magneton
(µB = eħ/2m).
The Landè g factor g = 2 for an electron.

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• The difference in magnetic potential energy per unit volume between a
substance of permeability µ and the displaced medium, usually air of
permittivity µo is

where B is the magnetic flux density and H is the magnetic field strength

• Here  m is the magnetic susceptibility which for small magnetic fields is defined
as

where M is the magnetization.

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• When a magnetic flux density , B, is applied the energy changes by an amount

where V is the volume of the sample

• Connect equations (1) and (2).
• If there is a gradient in the magnetic field along the z-direction, the sample
experiences a force per unit volume given by (assuming  m is uniform
throughout the sample)

where B is the magnetic flux density and H is the magnetic field strength
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• Thus the force is produced by the non-uniform field.
• A simple way to produce a field gradient is to use a specimen in the form of a
long rod or tube filled with power or liquid placed between the pole pieces of
an electromagnet which produced a uniform magnetic field as shown in the
figure.

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• Since the length over which the uniform magnetic field is produced is much
smaller than the sample length, the sample experiences a field gradient.
• In this case the total force is given by:

where l1-l2 is the length of the sample tube and A its area of cross-section and
H1 and H2 are the magnetic field strengths along the z-axis as indicated in the
figure.

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 APPARATUS:
• The Guoy balance, the powder specimen (FeCl2 or Fe2SO4) in a glass tube, dc
power supply for the magnet.

Fig. 1. The conventional Guoy balance.

NS is an electromagnet with power
supply and AB is the experimental
glass tube.

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Procedure:

• The electromagnet is energized by a DC power supply.

• The variable magnetic field is provided by the wedge-shaped pole-pieces.
• The entire electromagnet is housed inside a wooden casing.
• The distance between the pole-pieces can be varied by means of a handle
on top of the wooden casing.
• A digital balance is placed which carries a hook at the bottom for suspending
the glass tube containing the material (FeCl2, or Fe2SO4).
• The magnetic field between the pole pieces can be varied by changing the
current through the coils using a DC power supply.
• The magnetic field corresponding to the current through the coils can be
determined using a Gaussmeter.

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1. Zero-adjust the digital balance.
2. Determine the area of cross-section of the tube. Suspend the empty glass
tube as shown in Fig.1 and find its weight in zero magnetic field.
3. Using the D.C. power supply, vary the current from 0 to 3.5 A in steps of 0.2
A and in each case find the weight of the empty glass tube.
4. Fill the tube with the given sample (say FeCl2) to about 3/4ths of the tube.
Find the weight of the filled glass tube to an accuracy of 10 mg., in zero
magnetic field.
5. As before, find the weight of the filled glass tube in different applied
magnetic fields (both for the increasing and decreasing fields).
6. Repeat the experiment with one or two more substances.

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• When the magnetic force is measured in terms of weight equation (3) becomes

• Plot a graph between m and H2 to determine the susceptibility.

• This gives the susceptibility of a given volume.
• Compute the molar susceptibility of the sample.
• What is smallest susceptibility change that can be measured in the instrument?
• Is this sufficient to detect diamagnetism?
• Can you use this method for ferromagnets?
• Are there gradients in the other two perpendicular directions?
• When can we neglect their effect
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IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Reduce the current through the coils to zero slowly and then
switch off the power supply.
2. DO NOT change the distance between the pole-pieces.
3. Switch off the digital balance. The glass tube is taken out of the
balance and kept on the table. The power supply to the electro
magnet is also turned off.

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Magnetometer
• The instrument for measuring the magnitude and direction of a magnetic
field is called a magnetometer.
• The magnetometer sensor measures the magnetic field for all three physical
axes (x, y, z) in μT (micro Tesla)
• Two types of magnetometers (Fluxgate and Hall Effect) are practical for the
measurement of static magnetic fields.

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• A magnetometer is a more generic name.
• Gaussmeter refers to the CGS unit for magnetic field density, which is Gauss.
• Teslameter refers to the SI unit for the same quantity.
• The relationship is as follows: 1 Gauss = 100 microTesla.
• Today’s instruments containing magnetometers give you the option to switch
from Gauss to Tesla.
• Even though they all measure the same physical quantity, there is a commonly
accepted difference between gaussmeter/teslameter and magnetometers.
• Typically, a gaussmeter/teslameter refers to instruments used to measure high
magnetic fields, while a magnetometer will tend to refer to low-intensity
magnetic fields (<1mT).

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• Different technologies (for both magnetometers and
gaussmeters/teslameters) have emerged since, with development occurring
in the later part of the 19th century through to today.
• While the first magnetometer measured the amplitude of the field,
technology has since emerged that measures the field in one specific
direction, paving the way for vector magnetometers.
• Fluxgate technologies dating back to the 1930s are used for the
measurement of magnetic fields up to approximately one mT in one
particular direction, while the Hall effect, used for measurement of stronger
magnetic fields, dates back to 1879.

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• We know magnetometers are used to measure a magnetic field, but the number of
applications for such use can be a surprise to those not familiar with the versatility of
magnetometers.
• Due to the low amplitude nature of the magnetic field measured, most magnetometer
applications are the measurement of the natural field, or distortion of the Earth’s
magnetic field by ferromagnetic objects.
• Ferromagnetic materials generally contain iron, nickel, or cobalt.
• The presence of these materials in a number of objects (vehicles, electronic devices,
weapons, etc.) allows for magnetometers to be used to detect someone carrying a
weapon, or someone carrying a ferromagnetic object entering into an MRI suite.

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• Starting from the lowest field, magnetometers are used for the measurement
of biological fields, e.g. brain, heart, or muscles.
• You can also use magnetometers for the measurement of the Earth’s field,
whether this is for mineral/oil exploration purposes, research to understand
the mechanisms behind the Earth’s magnetic field, or compassing.
• You can additionally detect objects by looking at the way the field is distorted
around objects.
• This has utility in defense, security, traffic monitoring, and a number of other
industries. ​

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• Magnetometers are classified under two categories:
• scalar and
• vector.
• Scalar are used to measure the magnetic flux intensity value.
• A vector magnetometer is used to measure the magnitude and direction of a
magnetic field.
• In detailed discussion, these can be sorted into different types such as Hall
effect, fluxgate, magnetoresistive, search coil, or SQUID

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Magnetometers using the Hall Effect

• A Hall Effect sensor (or simply Hall

sensor) is a type of sensor which
detects the presence and
magnitude of a magnetic field
using the Hall Effect.
• The output voltage of a Hall sensor
is directly proportional to the
strength of the field.

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• The Hall effect is the production of a voltage difference (the Hall voltage)
across an electrical conductor, transverse to an electric current in the
conductor and to an applied magnetic field perpendicular to the current.
• What this means is that magnetometers can use semiconducting material to
pass current through and ascertain if a magnetic field is close by.
• Thus a magnetometer assesses the way the current is distorted or angled due
to the magnetic field, and the voltage at which this occurs is the Hall voltage,
which is proportional to the magnetic field.

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• As noted, magnetometer, gaussmeter and teslameter are all terms referring to
an instrument that measures a magnetic field.
• However, in general, gaussmeters and teslameters tend to refer to units that
measure very high fields (from several mT to tens of T).
• Therefore, gaussmeters and teslameters tend to refer to instruments with the
ability to measure very strong fields, namely Hall effect sensors, and Nuclear
Magnetic Resonance (NMR) sensors.
• The Hall effect gaussmeters will measure the field in either one or multiple (up
to 3) directions of the Earth’s field, while NMR measures only the amplitude of
the field regardless of its orientation.

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• While there isn’t a unique value of field that is considered dangerous, there
are some values that describe a domain above which a magnetic field could
have a harmful impact.
• The “danger” is both related to the field amplitude and its frequency.
• Typically, DC and low-frequency fields are less of a problem than high
frequency fields.
• You, therefore, have higher values in the low frequency, and the amplitude
decreases as the frequency increases.

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• There is some guidance for both occupational exposures and general public
exposure to fields.
• For DC, there is a 200mT limit for permanent exposure, (with higher limits for
temporary or limb exposure).
• However, for anyone with an implanted medical device such as a pacemaker,
the limit is much lower and set to 0.5mT (5 Gauss).
• For reference, the Earth’s field is 0.05mT (0.5 Gauss).
• This is one of the reasons why MRI machines will have their 5 Gauss line
mapped so as to ensure that the general public cannot get exposed to
magnetic fields which could interfere with implanted medical devices.
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Magnetometers using the Flux gate

• Flux gate magnetic sensors are especially

important in detecting weak magnetic fields.
• The mechanism of a fluxgate magnetic sensor
is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction.
• The structure of a fluxgate magnetic sensor
mainly consists of excitation windings, core
and sensing windings, similar to the structure
of a transformer.

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• This magnetometer is used for high-sensitivity applications.
• A fluxgate sensor is made up of magnetically susceptible (high
permeability) cores wound by two coils of wire – a primary excitation
winding which has an alternating drive current running through it, and
a pick-up coil.
• When operating in a magnetic field, cores saturate at different times,
which induces a signal in the pick-up coil.
• This signal is proportional to the field experienced by the sensor.

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Magneto-Resistive magnetometers
• These are semiconductor devices where the electrical resistance changes
depending on the applied or ambient magnetic field.

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Example of Magneto-Resistive Magnetometer
• GY-273 HMC5883L Module Triple Axis Compass Magneto meter Sensor is a
surface-mount, multi-chip module designed for low-field magnetic sensing with a
digital interface for applications such as low-cost compassing and magnetometry.
• The HMC5883L includes our state-of-the-art, high-resolution HMC118X series
magneto-resistive sensors plus an ASIC containing amplification, automatic
degaussing strap drivers, offset cancellation, and a 12-bit ADC
• The I2C serial bus allows for easy interface.
• Applications for the HMC5883L include Mobile Phones, Netbooks, Consumer
Electronics, Auto Navigation Systems, and Personal Navigation Devices.

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Features:
• I2C Digital Interface
• 3-Axis Magnetoresistive Sensors
• 12-Bit ADC Coupled with Low Noise AMR Sensors
• Low Voltage Operations (2.16 to 3.6V) and Low Power Consumption (100 mA)
• Sensors Can Be Used in Strong Magnetic Field Environments with a 1 to 2
Degree Compass Heading Accuracy Fast 160 Hz Maximum Output Rate

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SQUID magnetometers
• This magnetometer consists of two superconductors separated by thin
insulating layers to form two parallel junctions.
• Given how sensitive they are to the low range intensity fields, they are most
often used to measure the magnetic fields produced by the brain or heart in
medical applications.

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• SQUID is an acronym of superconducting Quantum
Interference Device .
• A SQUID is a superconducting device that can measure
an extremely small magnetic field, voltage or current.
• It is a very sensitive magnetometer in which a
superconducting loop is used with one or more
Josephson junctions.
• A schematic diagram of SQUID is shown, the SQUID is
kept in a magnetic field.

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• A DC super current I enters the device through port C, gets divided into two ports I 1
and I2.
• The current I1 and I2 undergoes a phase shift while crossing the Josephson
junctions P and Q and become I1' and I2' respectively.
• The super currents I1' and I2' interface at port D.
• In superconductors the current is caused by the Cooper pairs.
• So the interfering waves are the de Broglie waves of the Cooper pairs.
• The phase shifts of the waves occur due to the applied magnetic field.
• In the absence of the magnetic field the phase shift and the phase difference are
zero.

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• The resultant current at port D oscillates between maxima and minima.
• The maxima occurs when the magnetic flux increases by one quantum given by
φo = h/2e = 2.06×10(−15) wb
• In practice instead of the current the voltage V across the SQUID is measured.
• The voltage also oscillates with the changing magnetic field.
• Thus the SQUID is a flux-to-voltage transducer which converts a small change
in magnetic flux into voltage.
• Because of their extreme sensitivity to magnetic field SQUIDS have application
in many field like geology, medicine, engineering, etc.
Other Applications
• In measuring rock magnetism and continental drift SQUIDs are used.
• The human brain generates magnetic fields of about 10(-14) wb/m2, therefore, to
detect them SQUID are used in brain imaging. 43
Search-coil magnetometers
• This magnetometer consists of copper coils where a magnetic core can be
used in some cases.
• A varying magnetic field will induce a voltage in the coils which is
proportional to the strength of the field measured.
• These sensors can only measure AC magnetic fields

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• The search coil magnetometer or induction magnetometer, based on an
inductive sensor (also known as inductive loop and inductive coil), is a
magnetometer which measures the varying magnetic flux.
• An inductive sensor connected to a conditioning electronic circuit
constitutes a search coil magnetometer.
• It is a vector magnetometer which can measure one or more components
of the magnetic field.
• A classical configuration uses three orthogonal inductive sensors.
• The search-coil magnetometer can measure magnetic field from mHz up
to hundreds of MHz.

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• The inductive sensor is based on Faraday's law of induction.
• The temporal variation of the Magnetic Flux Φ through a N turns circuit will
induce a voltage e which follows

which can be expressed in a simpler way

• by assuming that the induced magnetic field B is homogeneous over a

section S (the Magnetic flux will be expressed

46
The induced voltage (e) may be increased several ways:
• increase the surface (S),
• increase the turn number (N),
• use a ferromagnetic core.

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Measurements of Static Electric Fields
• The term electrostatic (or static charge) is commonly used to refer
to the voltage measured on the surface of an object.
• In actuality, charge is the parameter associated with the voltage on
the surface of an object and its capacitance where Q (Charge) = C
(capacitance) times V (voltage) or (Q=CV)
• Charge is expressed in Coulombs and can be measured directly
using a Coulomb Meter (or Nano-coulomb meter) and Faraday cup.

• Please note that electric field is a vector quantity with force and direction
for which the units are Newtons per coulomb or volts per meter.
• This is the definition of electric field.
48
• Measuring static electricity is important. 
• It allows you to see if there is a static charge present, its size and where it is
being generated.
• Static electricity is a surplus or deficit of electrons which is measured in
Coulombs. 
• As it is not possible to measure the charge in a material in Coulombs, the
electric field strength or surface voltage related to the static charge is
measured. 
• This is the accepted method of measuring static in industry.
• The relationship between the field strength and voltage is that the former is the
voltage gradient at any point.

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Electric Field Measurements

• The derived SI units for the electric field are volts per meter (V/m), exactly
equivalent to newton per coulomb (N/C)
• High electric voltages are required for many applications. However, they
always involve a potential danger.
• Static discharges and high field strengths, for instance, can easily destroy
electronic components.
• If a discharge is accompanied by a spark, flammable vapors may even
explode.
• In view of these hazards, shielding and grounding are mandatory in many
areas.
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• On the other hand, the advantages of electrostatic charging are frequently
exploited by state-of-the-art technology, e.g. laser copiers.
• In such cases it is important to know the actual amount of electric potential.
• In areas such as these, an electric field meter is the appropriate instrument.
• High voltages can be produced in many different ways, such as, when rubbing
surfaces against each other, when transferring liquids with a pump, or when
exposing an object to radiation.
• Electrostatic charges are very difficult to meas­ure without actually influencing
them.

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Static Electric Fields Sensors

• Static electric field strength sensors are available including electric field mill,
the vibrating plate and the vibrating probe sensors.
• All are used to measure static field with respect to the reference object
(usually ground).
• The field strength that are measured by field mill, vibrating plate, and
vibrating probe sensors involve the quantification of the AC current across
known, high impedance between the sensing electrode and the ground.

52
Electrostatic Voltmeter Working Principle

• Electrostatic voltmeters are based on the fact that an electric force

(attraction or repulsion) exists between charged plates or objects.
• An electrostatic voltmeter is essentially an air condenser; one plate is
fixed while the other, which is coupled to the pointer, is free to rotate
on jeweled bearings.

53
Electrostatic Voltmeter Working Principle
• When p.d. to be measured is applied across the plates, the electric
force between the plates gives rise to a deflecting torque.
• Under the action of deflecting torque, the movable plate moves and
causes the deflection of the pointer to indicate the voltage being
measured.
• Such instruments can be used to measure direct as well as
alternating voltages.

54
• Types of Electrostatic Voltmeters
• There are three types of electrostatic voltmeters viz. :
1) Attracted disc type — usual range from 500 V to 500 kV
2) Quadrant type — usual range from 250 V to 10 kV
3) Multicellular type — usual range from 30 V in 300 V

• Two things are worth noting about electrostatic voltmeters.

1) First, the deflecting torque is very small for low voltages.
• For this reason, they are not very sensitive to measure small voltages.
2) Secondly, the instrument is only available for the measurement of p.d., that is
to say as voltmeter.
• It cannot be used as an ammeter because when it is used as an ammeter,
there will be a few millivolts voltage across the instrument.
• This extremely small p.d. is unsufficent to produce any deflecting torque. 55
Attracted Disc Type Voltmeter

• Fig. 1 shows the simplified diagram of

an attracted disc electrostatic
voltmeter.
• It consists of two mushroom-shaped
plates A and B, each mounted on
insulated pedestal.
Figure 1
56
• The plate B is fixed while the plate A (negative, for direct voltage) has a
movable central portion – the attracted disc.
• The movable plate A is attached to a horizontal rod which is suspended by two
phosphor bronze strips.
• When p.d. to be measured is applied across the plates, the plate A moves
towards the fixed plate B and actuates the pointer via a pulley or link
mechanism.
• The control force is provided by gravity and damping force by air dash pot.
• If the plates are too close together or if the applied voltage is too high, a spark
discharge may occur.
• In order to prevent such a possibility, a ballast resistor is included in the circuit.
The function of this resistor is to limit the current if any sparking-over occurs.

57
• If the applied voltage reverses in polarity, there is a simultaneous
change in the sign of charge on the plates so that the direction of
deflecting force remains unchanged.
• Hence such instruments can be used for both d.c. and a.c.
measurements.

58
Theory:
The force of attraction F between the charged plates is given by

where,
x = distance between the plates
C = capacitance between the plates
V = applied voltage
Since x is always small, dC/dx is practically constant.

59
Quadrant Type Electrostatic Voltmeter
• Fig. shows the simplified diagram of a
quadrant type electrostatic voltmeter.
• It consists of a light aluminum vane A
suspended by a phosphor-bronze string
mid-way between two inter-connected
quadrant shaped brass plates BB.
• One terminal is joined to fixed plates BB
(positive for direct voltage) and the other
to the movable plate A (negative for
direct voltage).
60
Working:
• When the instrument is connected in the circuit to measure the p.d.,
an electric force exists between the plates.
• Consequently, the movable vane A moves in between the fixed plates
and causes the deflection of the pointer.
• The pointer comes to rest at a position where deflecting torque is
equal to the controlling torque.

61
• Since the force of attraction between the movable plate A and the
fixed plates BB is directly proportional to (p.d.)2, the instrument can
be used to measure either direct or alternating voltages.
• When used in an a.c. circuit, it reads the r.m.s. values.
• More robust but less accurate voltmeters are made by pivoting the
moving system.
• Due to pivot friction, the pivoted voltmeters are less accurate than
the suspension type.
• For this reason, low voltage electrostatic voltmeters are always of
suspension type. In pivoted voltmeters, the —controlling torque is
provided by a spiral spring.

62
• The major drawback of quadrant type voltmeter is that deflecting torque is
very small for low voltages.
• Because it also depends upon the capacitance between plates. In a
quadrant voltmeter, the capacitance cannot be increased since the
number of vanes is limited by space consideration.
• Therefore, such an instrument cannot measure accurately voltages below
250 V.
• This difficulty has been overcome in a multicellular electrostatic voltmeter
which can read as low as 30 volts.

63
• Theory:  The capacitance C between the plates depends upon deflection θ
i.e., upon the position of the movable plate (or vane)A.
• Suppose that at any instant, the applied alternating voltage is v. Electrostatic
energy at that instant = Cv2/2.
• Since the capacitance between the plates depends upon deflection θ, the
instantaneous deflecting torque T’d is given by ;

64
• Where V = r.m.s. value of alternating voltage.
• This equation equally applies to direct voltages.
• If dC/dθ were constant, then,
Td = I2

• Hence the instrument has non-uniform scale.

• The non-linearity in the scale can be corrected by shaping the movable vane A
in such a way as to increase dC/dθ for small deflections and to make the scale
nearly uniform for larger ones.

65
Multicellular Electrostatic Voltmeter

• Fig. 3 shows the constructional details of a

multicellular voltmeter.
• It is essentially a quadrant type voltmeter with
the difference that it has ten moving vanes
instead of one and eleven fixed plates forming
“cells” in and out of which the vanes move.
• The moving vanes are fixed to a vertical spindle
and suspended by a phosphor-bronze wire so
that the vanes are free to move, each between
a pair of fixed plates.
66
• At the lower end of the spindle, an aluminium disc hangs horizontally in an oil
bath and provides damping torque due to fluid friction.
• The controlling torque is provided by the torsion of the suspension wire as the
moving system rotates.
• The upper end of the suspension wire is attached through a coach spring S to
a torsion head H.
• The torsion head is provided with a tangent screw for zero adjustment.
• The function of the coach spring is to prevent the suspension wire from
breaking when accidentally jerked.
• If the moving vanes are jerked downward, then the coach spring yields
sufficiently to allow the safety sleeve E to come into contact with the guide
stop G before the suspension wire is over strained.
67
• The scale is horizontal if the pointer is straight but the indications can be
given on a vertical scale by bending the pointer at right angles.
• The working principle of multicellular voltmeter is exactly similar to the
quadrant type.
• By using a number of inter-leaved stationary and moving plates, we are
able to increase the capacitance and hence the deflecting torque.
Consequently.
• The multicellular voltmeter is much more sensitive than the quadrant
type and can accurately measure low voltages.

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Advantages Electrostatic Voltmeters
• They can be used for both d.c. and a.c. measurements.
• With direct voltage, the instrument draws only the initial charging current and
with alternating voltages, the alternating current drawn is extremely small. So
they draw negligible power from the mains. Therefore,  such voltmeters do
not alter the condition of the circuit to which they are connected.
• They are free from hysteresis and eddy current losses as no iron is used in
their construction.
• Their readings are independent of waveform and frequency.
• They are unaffected by stray magnetic fields, although electrostatic fields
may cause considerable errors.
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Disadvantages Electrostatic Voltmeters

• The operating force is very small for low voltages so that they are
particularly suitable for the measurement of high voltages.
• Since the operating force is generally small, errors due to friction are
difficult to avoid.
• They are expensive, large in size and are not robust in construction.
• Their scale is non-uniform ; being crowded in the beginning of the scale.

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Applications Electrostatic Voltmeters

• They are used for the measurement of very high direct voltages at which
a permanent magnet moving coil instrument and the multiplier would be
unsuitable.
• They are used to measure direct low voltages when it is necessary to
preserve an open circuit.
• They are used to measure very high alternating voltages when the use
of a transformer must be avoided.

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Range Extension of Electrostatic Voltmeters

• The range of electrostatic voltmeters can be increased by the use of

multipliers. Two types of multipliers are employed for this purpose
viz.
• Resistance potential divider – for ranges upto 40 kV
• Capacitance potential divider – for ranges upto 1000 kV
• The first method can be used for both direct and alternating voltages
whereas the second method is suitable only for alternating voltages.

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Resistance potential divider:
• This divider consists of a high resistance
with tappings taken off at intermediate
points.
• The voltage V to be measured is applied
across the whole of the potential divider
and the electrostatic voltmeter connected
across part of it (resistance r in this case)
as shown in Fig. .

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• Since the voltmeter practically carries no current the p.d. v across it is the
same fraction of the applied voltage V as the resistance across it (i.e. r) is
of the whole resistance (i.e. R) i.e.,
• Multiplying factor =  V/v = R/r
• Thus if the voltmeter is connected across 1/5 of the whole resistance (i.e.
R/r = 5), then voltage V to be measured is 5 times the reading of the
voltmeter.
• The advantage of this method is that there is no shunting effect of the
voltmeter. The drawback is that there is power loss in the resistance
divider.

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Capacitance potential divider:
• In this method, a single capacitor of capacitance
C is connected in series with the voltmeter and
the whole circuit is connected across the voltage
V to be measured as shown in Fig.
• Let v volts be the reading of the voltmeter.
Since the voltage across a capacitor is
inversely proportional to its capacitance.

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• By using capacitors of different capacities, different voltage ranges can be
obtained.
• This method has the advantage that the circuit consumes no power.
• However, the drawback is that capacitance current taken is greatly increased.

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Electric Field Mills
• The electric field mill can determine the static electric field strength by
measuring modulated, capacitive induced charges sensed by metal
electrodes.
• These sensors are designed to determine the relative strength of the
electric field by comparing the level of the electric field on a known,
stable, uncharged reference object.
• The time-varying charge and the current are proportional to the
electric field strength (E).
• Sensitivity of the electric field mill is of the order of a few hundred V m-
1
, with a maximum measurement capacity of up to 100 kVm-1 or more.

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• Field mills (also called generating voltmeters)
determine electric field strength by measuring
modulated, capacitively induced charges or
currents on metal electrodes.
• The two common types of field mills — the
shutter type
and the cylindrical type.
• The shutter type is more common; a simplified
version is shown in Figure.

FIGURE Shutter-type electric field mill for measurement of

the polarity and magnitude of an electrostatic field

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• The sensing electrode is periodically exposed to and shielded from the electric
field by a grounded, rotating shutter.
• The charge qs induced on the sensing electrode and the current is between
the sensing electrode and ground are both proportional to the electric field
strength E normal to the electrode:

where є0 is the permittivity of free space and as(t) is the effective exposed area
of the sensing electrode at time t.
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• Thus, the field strength can be determined by measuring the
induced charge or current (or voltage across the impedance Z).
• If the induced signal is rectified by a phase-sensitive detector
(relative to the
shutter motion), the dc output signal will indicate both the polarity
and magnitude of the electric field.

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• Shutter-type field mills are typically operated at the ground or at a ground
plane, but a cylindrical field mill can be used to measure the electric field at
points removed from a ground plane.
• A cylindrical field mill consists of two half-cylinder sensing electrodes as shown
in Figure.

FIGURE Cylindrical field mill for measurement of electrostatic field strength.

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• Charges induced on the two sensing electrodes are varied periodically by
rotating the sensing electrodes about the cylinder axis at a constant angular
frequency ωc .
• The charge qc induced on a half- cylinder of length L and the
current ic between the half-cylinders are given by:

• where rc is the cylinder radius.

• Equation above is based on the two-dimensional solution for a conducting
cylinder in an electric field and neglects end effects for finite L.
• Equation shows that the electric field strength E can be determined from a
measurement of the induced charge or current.
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• A third type of electric field meter uses a vibrating plate to generate
an ac signal that is proportional to the electric field strength.
• With any type of electric field strength meter, the observer should
be at a sufficient distance from the measurement location to avoid
perturbing the electric field.

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84
• Electric fields are often described and
graphically represented as flux lines (see
Figure. Flux Lines).
• These lines represent the area in space where
the field is present, an area of electrical tension.
• Any object present within this area of electrical
tension will accumulate electric charge at a rate
which can be measured.
• The rate of charge accumulation on this object
is a direct measurement of the strength of this
electric field.
• Hence, measurement of this rate yields the
electric field strength.
• The field mill measures this electric charge rate.
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Electric Field Mill

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Electric Field Mill Operation Figure 1
• Because conditions are
constantly changing, there exists
a need to measure the strength of
the electric field constantly
which translates into the need to
alternately read the charged state
of the sensor plate, discharge it,
and read again, over and over.
• This is accomplished by
repeatedly exposing the sensor
plate to the external electric field
to charge it (see Figure 1.), then
shielding the plate to allow it to
discharge (see Figure.). Figure
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• Specially-designed charge amplifiers (see Figures. Charge Amplifier)
within the field mill measure the amount of charge the charge plate
receives from the outside electric field and converts this value to an
analog voltage.
• Changes in this observed voltage level correspond to changes which
take place in the atmosphere due to the presence of electrified storm
clouds.
• As the observed values increase, so does the likelihood of lightning to
be present in the area.

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• The process of exposing (charging) and shielding
(discharging) the sensor plate from the electrical
field is accomplished by means of a rotary shutter
(see Figure. Rotary Shutter.), consisting of a motor-
driven, mechanically complementary rotor/stator
pair.
• As the motor rotates, the shutter alternately opens to
allow the external electric field to charge the sensor
plate, and then closes to shield the sensor plate to
allow it to discharge, or reset, in preparation for the
next measurement.
• The shutter rotates at a speed of 1650 revolutions
per minute, and opens and closes four times per
revolution thus producing 6,600 samples per
minute.
89