GLE 594: An introduction to applied geophysics Magnetic Methods

Fall 2004

Magnetic Methods: Concepts and rock properties

Readings from textbook

Today : pages 65-75 Next Lecture: pages 75-86

History of the magnetic method

Oldest Branch of Geophysics
Chinese first to use north-seeking properties of lodestone 1600 William Gilbert publishes De Magnete: the whole earth is a magnet

Prospecting
Began in Sweden for iron ore in 1640s Thalen and Tiberg (1870) measured Earths magnetic fields A. Schmidt (1915) developed a balance magnetometer During WWII instruments became smaller and easier to use

Now, magnetic tools are one of the most cheaply and easiest to acquire geophysical data sets

Applications
Shallow (Engineering and Environmental): contaminants, toxic waste, pipes, cables and metal inclusions Military: location of UXOs Archeology: buried walls, old fire pits Mining: iron sulfide deposits Oil and groundwater: depth to magnetic basement in basins, detection of faults Geotectonics: major player in discovery of, and current analysis of tectonic processes.

Definitions: Magnetic potential

Remember that the potential is defined as the potential to do work. o p p Wb =c W= Magnetic Potential:
4 r r m
where o=4 10-7 [H/m] is the magnetic permeability of free space and p [A/m] is magnetic pole strength

Gravitational Potential: U = G
o/4 is equivalent to G p is equivalent to m

m r

Definitions: Magnetic field or flux density

Definition: Vector quantity defining the magnetic flux/unit area; i.e., the density of the magnetic field lines. Thus often called Flux Density Mathematical Definitions:

o p p Wb = r = Tesla r c 2 Air: 4 r 2 r2 m p r Magnetic materials: B = W = 2 4 r p p = rc 2 r = r 0 2r 4 r r is the magnetic permeability of the material r is the relative magnetic permeability of the material is a unit vector pointing from the magnetic pole to the measurement point. B = W =

Definitions: Magnetic field strength or intensity

Biot-Savarts law definition: for a loop of wire of radius r that is carrying a current I, H at center is given as:

n
I

H=nI/2r [A/m]
where n is a unit vector normal to the plane of the loop. The magnetic field strength H is related to the magnetic field B as:

B = H = r H[A/m]

Dipole nature of magnetic materials

Bar Magnet
N+ Although, no magnetic monopoles exist in nature, they are useful for theory: magnetic monopoles of same sign repel, opposite signs attract. S Dipole created by two poles of opposite sign and separated by distance l. If you are close to one of the poles, the field can be though of as originating from a monopole.

Magnetic body can be though of as composed of a bunch of little magnets, or dipoles.

Magnetization or magnetic polarization

A measure of the pole strength/unit area along one of the ends of magnetic material: J=(p/A) n [A/m]

Magnetic moment
Strength of a magnetic field generator
M=J V = p l [A m2] For a loop of current: M=(Ir2) n

Units
Quantity Magnetic Pole Strength Permeability Relative permeability Magnetic Flux Density Magnetic Intensity Magnetic Polarization Magnetic Moment Symbol p o, r B H J M SI Units Am H/m unitless Wb/m2=Tesla A/m A/m A/m2 cgs units unitless Gauss/gamma oersteds

Basic comparison of magnetic and gravitational potential

A gravity perturbation can always be thought of as being caused by one or a series of monopoles. That is field lines either point toward or away from the perturbation. A magnetic perturbation, or magnetic field in general, is always produced by a dipole. Thus direction of field depends on relative position to one or the other ends of the magnetized body.

Earth dipolar field

Gravitational Potential:

m U ( P) = G r
Magnetic Potential and Fields:
[Wb/m] [T=Wb/m2]

[T=Wb/m2]

Total force, inclination and declination

Earths Dipole not aligned perfectly with rotational axis.

Earth dipolar field

Dipole that best fits earths field (origin outer core):
Moment of 81022 [A m2] Axis inclined 11.5o to the geographical pole. 60,000 nT

25,000 nT

Not a perfect dipole.

Geomagnetic reference field

What we want is the magnetic anomaly: T=Bobs-Bref. Thus need to define Reference.

Geomagnetic reference field (cont.)

Declination

Inclination

Secular variation: Slow changes in polar location

Northern Pole Wandering Southern Pole Wandering

Induced magnetization (JI) and magnetic susceptibility

A magnetizable body acquires magnetization when H field is applied
Disappears when field is removed Field induces magnetization in material

The induced magnetization is parallel and proportional to H: JI=H (due to the earth: JI=F/o)
k = susceptibility k = r-1 Dimensionless, however, kSI=4kcgs

Cause of magnetic susceptibility

At the atomic level, materials have a net magnetic moment due to:
Rotation of electrons in various shells around nucleus The spin of the electrons Number of electrons in each shell i.e., its a quantum effect

All of above result that each atomic nucleus can be though of as a small magnetic dipole with its own moment

Classifications of magnetic materials

Diamagnetic
All electron shells are full, thus there is no net moment. In the presence of an external field, the net moment opposes the external field, i.e., slightly negative susceptibility.

Paramagnetic
Materials contain unpaired electrons in incomplete electron shells. However magnetic moment of each atom is uncoupled from others so they all behave independently. Results in weakly magnetic materials, i.e. small susceptibility

Classifications of magnetic materials

Ferromagnetic
Materials contain unpaired electrons in incomplete electron shells. Magnetic moment of each atom is coupled to others in surrounding domain such they all become parallel. Caused by overlapping electron orbits. Gives rise to a spontaneous magnetization even in absence of an external field. Magnets are ferromagnetic. Examples: Cobalt, iron and nickel.

Classifications of magnetic materials

Anti-ferromagnetic
Almost identical to ferromagnetic except that the moments of neighboring sublattices are aligned opposite to each other and cancel out Thus no net magnetization is measured Example: Hematite

Ferrimagnetic
Sublattices exhibit ferromagnetically but then couple antiferromagnetically between each other Example: Magnetite and ilmenite

Magnetic properties

Concept of hysteresis
Complex relationship between B and H that occurs in ferromagnetic materials.
B flattens off with increasing H at saturation When H is decreased, B does not follow same curve Will have remanent B value at zero H

Remanent magnetization (RM)

Permanent magnetization of rock installed during its formation (JR). Ferromagnetic materials exhibit this creating spontaneous magnetization. Direction of remnant may differ radically from induced field.

Total magnetization
Total magnetization: J=Ji+Jr Effective or apparent k: ke or ka=(Ji+Jr)/(F/0) Note: a J that is not fully aligned with the natural H field at a site will cause a perturbation in H, and thus H local will have a slightly different direction and strength then the natural field.

Magnetic properties of materials of interest

Basement: tends to be igneous or metamorphic, thus greater magnetic properties. Soils and other weathered products: because magnetic minerals tend to weather rather rapidly compared to quartz, will get reduction of magnetic materials with weathering. Man-made objects: iron and steel Ore deposits: many economic ores are either magnetic, or associated with magnetic minerals.