FIELD CAMP GEOPHYSICS UGM 2017

AN INTRODUCTION AND BASIC THEORY OF

MAGNETIC SURVEYING
 WHAT WE WILL DISCUSS

• Introduction and History of Magnetic Methods

• Basic Concept of Magnetic Theory
• Geomagnetic Field
• Magnetism of Rocks and Minerals
 INTRODUCTION
The study about earth’s magnetism is the oldest branch of geophysics. It has been
known for more than three centuries that the Earth behaves as a large and somewhat irregular
magnet. Sir William Gilbert (1540 – 1603) made the first investigation of terrestrial
magnetism. He published his investigation in de Magnete. In 1830 until 1842 Karl Frederick
Gauss made an extensive studies of the Earth’s magnetic field. Von Wrede is the first person
that use variation of terrestrial magnetism in the field to locate the deposit of magnetic ore. In
1879 Thalén publish a paper titled The Examination of Iron Ore Deposits by Magnetic
Measurement. This publication marked the first use of magnetic method in ore deposit
exploration. Until 1940s magnetic measurement just measured the vertical component of the
Earth’s magnetic field. Fluxgate magnetometer was developed during World War II, the PPM
was developed in mid 1950s and OPM begin to be used in earlier 1960s. Nowadays, with the
help of radar navigation technologies, it is possible to make an aeromagnetic surveying.
 APPLICATIONS
• Exploration of Fossil Fuel and Ore Deposit,
• To identifying the regional and global tectonics and large scale geological structures,
• Monitoring a volcano,
• To identifying buried conductive object and unexploded ordnance object,
• Archaeological investigation,
• Engineering/construction site investigation,
• etc.
 AIMS

To investigate subsurface geology on the basis of

anomalies in the Earth’s magnetic field resulting from the
magnetic properties of the underlying rocks (magnetic
susceptibility and remanents).
 BASIC CONCEPT OF MAGNETIC THEORY

Let us first define the following terms :

 Within the vicinity of a bar magnet
a magnetic flux is
developed which flows from one end of the magnet to
the other (poles of the magnet)
 This flux can be mapped from the
directions assumed by a small compass
needle suspended
within it. Similarly, a magnet aligns in
the flux of the Earth’s magnetic field
The force F between two magnetic poles of strengths m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is given
by :

Magnetic permeability of vaccum : μ0 = 4π x 10-7 Vs/Am

Relative magnetic permeability : μr =

The magnetic induction field B due to a pole of strength m at a distance r
from the unitary pole m1 is defined as the force exerted on a unit positive
pole at that point.

Units in Vs/m^2 or T (Tesla)

 MAGNETIC POTENTIAL
For a single pole of strength m, the magnetic potential V at a distance r
from the pole is given by

Units in Vs/m
 MAGNETIC MOMENT
The magnetic moment is the vector joining the two poles –m and +m at a
distance l (units = Am2)
 INDUCED MAGNETIZATION
When a material is placed in a
magnetic field it may acquire a
magnetization in the direction of
the field which is lost when the
material is removed from the field.
Which means when a magnetic
material is placed in a magnetic
field, elementary dipoles in the
material align in the direction of
the field.
The resulting magnetization
gives rise to an additional
magnetic field in the region
occupied by the material
 INTENSITY OF INDUCED
MAGNETIZATION
The intensity of induced magnetization Ji of a material is defined as the dipole
moment per unit volume of material and the units are A/m
 MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY
The magnetic susceptibility k determines the degree of magnetization of
material and it is dimensionless.

H describes the strength of the magnetizing force of the inducing field. In

a non-polarizable body H can be regarded as simply computational
parameter proportional to B
 MAGNETIC INDUCTION
When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, the resulting
magnetization gives rise to an additional magnetic field in the region
occupied by the material. Within the body, the total magnetic induction is
given by

Magnetic permeability of vaccum : μ0 = 4π x 10-7 Vs/Am

Relative magnetic permeability : μr =

 UNITS OF MAGNETISM
The unit used in geomagnetic surveys is Tesla and nanoTesla
1 Tesla = 1 T = 1 N/Am
1 nT = 10-9 T = 1 γ = 10-5 Oersted

cgs unit:
1 Gauss (G) = 10-4 T
1 gamma (γ) = 10-5 G
 CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC
• Diamagnetic : all electron shells are full, thus there is no net moment,MATERIALS
and if presence an
external field, the net moment opposes the external field.
• Paramagnetic : material contain unpaired electrons in incomplete electron shells, however
magnetic moment of each atom is uncoupled from others so they all behave independently,
weakly magnetic.
• Ferromagnetic : material contain unpaired electrons in incomplete electron shells, magnetic
moment of each atom is coupled to others in surrounding ‘domain’ such that they all become
parallel, gives rise to a spontaneous magnetization even in absence of an external field.
• Anti-Ferromagnetic : almost identical to ferromagnetic except that the moments of
neighboring sub lattices are aligned opposite to each other and cancel out, thus no net
magnetization is measured.
• Ferrimagnetic : similar to anti-ferromagnetic but the sub lattices have unequal magnetic
moments, high magnetic susceptibility.
 B – H RELATION :
THE HYSTERESIS LOOP
 MAGNETISM OF THE EARTH
Geomagnetic Field : Magnetic anomalies caused by rocks are localized effects superimposed
on the normal magnetic field of the Earth (geomagnetic field).
The geomagnetic field is geometrically more complex
than the gravity field of the Earth and exhibits irregular
variation in both orientation and magnitude with latitude,
longitude and time.
Inclination varies depending on the hemisphere.
Geocentric dipole is inclined at about 11.5o
 GEOMAGNETIC REFERENCE FIELD
• The International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF) defines the
theoretical undisturbed magnetic field at any point on the Earth’s surface
in simulating the observed geomagnetic field by a series of dipoles.
• This formula is used to remove from the magnetic data those magnetic
variations attributable to this theoretical field.
 THE EXTERNAL MAGNETIC FIELD
Most of the remaining small portion of the geomagnetic field appears to be
associated with electrical currents in the ionized layers of the upper atmosphere.
Time variations of this portion are much more rapid than for the main “permanent”
field. Some effects are :
• Sunspot activity (cycle continues every 11 year)
• Solar diurnal variations (each day, range 30 nT depends on latitude and season,
controlled by solar wind and ionospheric currents).
• Lunar variations (every 25 h, amplitude 2 nT, controlled by interaction between
moon and ionosphere).
• Magnetic storms (amplitude up to 1000 nT and even larger when close to polar
regions, cycles continues every 27 d)
 LOCAL MAGNETIC ANOMALIES
Local changes in the main field result from variation in the magnetic mineral
content of near surface rocks. These anomalies are occasionally are large enough to
double the main field. The sources of local magnetic anomalies cannot be very
deep, because the temperature of rocks below 40 km should be larger than Curie
Point (>550o C) and the rocks will lose their magnetic properties. Thus, local
anomalies must be associated with features in the upper crust.
 MAGNETISM OF ROCKS AND MINERALS
The measured total magnetic field is the sum of the geomagnetic field and the
remanent magnetic field
 MAGNETISM OF ROCKS AND MINERALS

• All substances are magnetic at the atomic scale. Each atom acts as a
dipole due to both spin of its electrons and the orbital path of the
electrons around the nucleus.
• Two electrons can exist in the same state provided their spins are in
opposite directions (paired electrons). In this case their spins canceled.
When unpaired electrons are present, a magnetic moment at the atomic
scale appears.
• Paired and unpaired electrons are mainly at the origin of the various
magnetic rock properties.
 ROCK MAGNETISM
Theoretically, rock magnetism can be define as :

• Diamagnetic : k<0
• Paramagnetic : k>0 (but smallest than ferromagnetic)
• Ferromagnetic, Ferrimagnetic, Anti-Ferromagnetic : k>>0
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF ROCK
Magnetic properties of rocks depend
mainly on the concentration size,
shape, and dispersion of magnetite
 REMANENT MAGNETISM
In many cases, the magnetization of rocks depends mainly on the present geomagnetic
field an the magnetic mineral content. Residual magnetism called natural remanent
magnetization (NRM) often contribute to the total magnetization, both in amplitude
and direction. This effect is complicated because NRM depends on the magnetic
history of the rock. Natural remanent magnetization may be due to several causes. The
principal ones are :
• Thermoremanent Magnetization (TRM)
• Dentrital Magnetization (DRM)
• Chemical Remanent Magnetization (CRM)
• Isothermal Remanent Magnetization (IRM)
• Viscous Remanent Magnetization (VRM)
 REFERENCE
Telford, W.M., Geldart, L.P., Sheriff, R.E., 1990, APPLIED GEOPHYSICS 2nd Edition,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kearey, Phillips., Brooks, Michael., Hill, Ian., 2002, An Introduction to
Geophysical Exploration 3rd Edition, Blackwell Publishing: Oxford.