Dar-es-salaam Institute of Technology

Department of Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering.

ETU 07322: DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

Lecture 1: Fundamentals of Digital Electronics

Number systems and codes

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Introduction
• This course introduces the students to digital electronics and provides
a broad overview of many important concepts, components, and tools.
• The students will get the up-to-date coverage of digital fundamentals-
from basic concepts to programmable logic devices.
• Laboratory experiments provide hands-on experience with the devices
and circuits studied in the classroom.

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 OBJECTIVES
• To present the Digital fundamentals, Boolean algebra and its
applications in digital systems
• To familiarize with the design of various combinational digital
circuits using logic gates
• To introduce the analysis and design procedures for synchronous and
asynchronous sequential circuits
• To explain the various semiconductor memories and related
technology
• To introduce the electronic circuits involved in the making of logic
gates

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 OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course:
• Use digital electronics in the present contemporary world
• Design various combinational digital circuits using logic gates
• Do the analysis and design procedures for synchronous and
asynchronous sequential circuits
• Use the semiconductor memories and related technology
• Use electronic circuits involved in the design of logic gates parallel
in/ parallel out shift register, parallel in/Serial out shift register, Bi-
directional register

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Policy
Attendance:
• Regular classroom attendance is expected and attendance is taken.
• Students more than 10 minutes late for class will not be given credit for attendance
• Mobile phones must be set to the silent mode.
Lecture and lecture slides
• Available before lecture
Assignments and Exams:
• All assigned work is due at the assigned time on the assigned date.
• All exams are to be taken at the assigned time on the assigned date.
• All late or missed work receives a score of 0. Late work is accepted only in extra ordinary
circumstances, and is accepted and graded at the instructor's discretion.
• We will have some pop quizzes (without prior warning or announcement).
• Cheating will not be tolerated.
• It is highly encouraged to discuss each other but highly discouraged to copy somebodies’ work

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Grading Policy

 Homework/assignment 15%
 Test 1& Test 2 15%
 Quizzes and
presentation 15%
 Practical/Labs 15%
 Final Exam 40%
 Surprise Quizzes may be conducted and having
share of five marks in individual assignments
 All quizzes and exams will be closed book.
Calculators are not allowed
 No Make-Up Tests
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Fundamentals of Digital
Electronics
Introduction

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Introduction
• Digital electronics is the foundation of all microprocessor-based
systems found in computers, robots, automobiles, and industrial
control systems
• Analog versus Digital Electronics
• Most observables are analog
• But the most convenient way to represent and transmit information
electronically is digital
• Analog/digital and digital/analog conversion is essential

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Analog versus Digital comparison
Analog
• Analog signal is a continuous signal
which represents physical
measurements. Denoted by sine waves
• Uses continuous range of values to
represent information.
• Examples: Human voice in air, analog
electronic devices
• Uses: Can be used in analog devices
only. Best suited for audio and video
transmission.
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Digital
• Digital signals are discrete time
signals generated by digital
modulation. Denoted by square waves.
• Uses discrete or discontinuous values
to represent information.
• Examples: Computers, CDs, DVDs,
and other digital electronic devices.
• Uses: Best suited for Computing and
digital electronics
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Digital vs. Analog Data Representation
• The real world is analog! Most things that can be
measured quantitatively occur in nature in analog form.
Examples: air temperature, pressure, distance, sound.
• Even digital systems are really analog deep down.
• Interfacing between analog and digital is important.
Many systems use a mix of analog and digital
electronics to take advantage of each technology.

• A typical CD player accepts digital data from the CD

drive and converts it to an analog signal for
amplification.
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Digital vs. Analog Data Representation
• Problems with analog?
• Hard to measure an exact value.
• Noise (or interference) may disrupt signal.
• Signal is hard to maintain across large distances.
• Analog systems can generally handle higher power than digital
systems.
• Digital systems can process, store, and transmit data more
efficiently but can only assign discrete values to each point.
• Noise (unwanted voltage fluctuations) does not affect digital data
nearly as much as it does analog signals.
• Can use error-correcting codes.
• Can use compression.

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Digital and Analog Quantities
• Digitization:
• Digitization is the process of converting information into a digital format. In
this format, information is organized into discrete units of data called bits
that can be separately addressed, usually in multiple-bit groups called bytes.
• Sampling: Discretize the time
• Get sampled values of the analog signal.

• Quantization: Discretize quantity values

• Convert each sampled value to a binary code.
Digitization

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Digital and Analog Quantities
• This is the binary data that computers and many devices with computing
capacity, such as digital cameras and digital hearing aids, can process.

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 Digital representations of logical functions
• Digital signals also offer an effective way to execute logic. The
formalism for performing logic with binary variables is called switching
algebra or Boolean algebra.
• Digital electronics combines two important properties:
• The ability to represent real functions by coding the information in
digital form.
• The ability to control a system by a process of manipulation and
evaluation of digital variables using switching algebra.

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Digital Representations of logic functions (cont.)
• Digital signals can be transmitted, received, amplified, and
retransmitted with no degradation.
• Binary numbers are a natural method of expressing logic variables.
• Complex logic functions are easily expressed as binary function.
• With digital representation, we can achieve arbitrary levels of
“ dynamic range,” that is, the ratio of the largest possible signal to
the smallest than can be distinguished above the background noise.
• Digital information is easily and inexpensively stored

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Fundamentals of Digital Electronics

Number systems

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 Overview
• The design of computers
• It all starts with numbers
• Building circuits
• Building computing machines
• Digital systems
• Understanding decimal numbers
• Binary and octal numbers
• The basis of computers!
• Conversion between different number systems

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 Digital Computer Systems
• Digital systems consider discrete amounts of data.
• Examples
• 26 letters in the alphabet
• 10 decimal digits
• Larger quantities can be built from discrete values:
• Words made of letters
• Numbers made of decimal digits (e.g. 239875.32)
• Computers operate on binary values (0 and 1)
• Easy to represent binary values electrically
• Voltages and currents.
• Can be implemented using circuits
• Create the building blocks of modern computers
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TYPES OF NUMBER SYSTEM
There are four types of number systems. They are
1. Decimal number system
2. Binary number system
3. Octal number system
4. Hexadecimal number system

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Decimal Number System
• The decimal system with its ten digits is a base-ten system
• You use decimal numbers every day.
• Each of the ten digits (symbols), 0 through 9, represents a
certain quantity.
• The position of each digit in a weighted number system is
assigned a weight based on the base or radix of the system.
• The radix of decimal numbers is ten.
• The weights for whole numbers are positive powers of ten
that increase from right to left, beginning with 100 = 1
NOTE: The radix or base of a number system is defined as the
number of different digits which can occur in each position in
the number system.

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 Decimal Number System Cont…
• Example: Express the decimal number 47 as a sum of the
values of each digit.
47 = (4 x101) + (7 x 100) = 40 + 7
• Example: What weight does the digit 7 have in each of the
following numbers?
(a) 1370: 10 (b) 6725: 100 (c) 7051: 1000 (d) 58.72: 0.1
• Example: Express each of the following decimal numbers as a sum of
the products obtained by multiplying each digit by its appropriate
weight
(a) 51 = (5 x 10) + (1 x 1)
(b) 137 = (1 x 100) + (3 x 10) + (7 x 1)
(c) 106.58 = (1 x 100) + (0 x 10) + (6 x 1) + (5 x 0.1) + (8 x 0.01)

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 Understanding Binary Numbers
• Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits):
• 0 and 1
• How many items does an binary number represent?
• (1011)2 = 1x23 + 0x22 + 1x21 + 1x20 = (11)10
• What about fractions?
• (110.10)2 = 1x22 + 1x21 + 0x20 + 1x2-1 + 0x2-2
• Groups of eight bits are called a byte
• (11001001) 2
• Groups of four bits are called a nibble.
• (1101) 2

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Binary Number System
• The position of a 1 or a 0 in a binary number indicates its weight or value
within the number.
• The weight structure of a binary number is 2n-1 ... 23 22 21 20

• Largest decimal number = 2n - 1

• The weights increase from right to left by a power of two for each bit.
• The right-most bit is the LSB (least significant bit) in a binary whole
number and has a weight of 20 = 1.
• The left-most bit is the MSB (most significant bit); its weight depends
on the size of the binary number.

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The Growth of Binary Numbers
n 2n n 2n
0 20=1 8 28=256
1 21=2 9 29=512

2 22=4 10 210=1024

3 23=8 11 211=2048

4 24=16 12 212=4096

5 25=32 20 220=1M
Mega

6 26=64 30 230=1G
Giga

7 27=128 40 240=1T Tera

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 Conversion Between Number Bases

Octal(base 8)

Decimal(base 10) Binary(base 2)

Hexadecimal
(base16)
° Learn to convert between bases.

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Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
• Two methods
1. Sum-of-Weights Method
2. Repeated Division-by-2 Method
• Sum-of-Weights Method: determine the set of binary weights
whose sum is equal to the decimal number.
• Repeated Division-by-2 Method:
• The remainders form the binary number.
• The first remainder to be produced is the LSB.

• But for this case we will use method 2.

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Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
Repeated Division-by-2 Method is illustrated as follows for
converting the decimal number 12 to binary.

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Binary-to-Decimal Conversion example
• Add the column values of all of the bits that are 1 and discarding all of the bits that are
0.
• Example: Convert the binary number 10111101.011
to decimal.
weight 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 2-1 2-2 2-3
128 68 32 16 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25 0.125
Binary 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 . 0 1 1
number

• 10111101.011 = 128+32+16+8+4+1+0.25+0.125
= 189.375
• Example: What is the largest decimal number that can be represented in binary with
seven bits?
• The largest decimal number that can be represented in binary with n bits is 2n-1.

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Binary arithmetic
• Binary arithmetic is essential in all types of digital
systems
• To understand digital systems, you must know the
basics of binary
• addition,
• subtraction,
• multiplication and
• divsion

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Binary Addition

• Binary addition is very simple.

• This is best shown in an example of adding two binary
numbers…

1 1 1 1 1 1 carries
11 1 1 0 1
+ 1 0 1 1 1
---------------------
1 0 1 0 1 0 0

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Binary Addition
• Example: Add the binary numbers 0111 and 1101 and show the
equivalent decimal addition.

1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 7
1 1 0 1 + 1 3 +
1 0 1 0 0 = 2 0

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Binary Subtraction
• The rules for binary subtraction are
0-0=0 Difference = 0, borrow = 0
0-1=1 Difference = 1, borrow = 1
1-0=1 Difference = 1, borrow = 0
1-1=0 Difference = 0, borrow = 0
• Example: Subtract the binary numbers 1101 and 0111 and show the
equivalent decimal subtraction.
1 1 0 1 1 3
0 1 1 1 - 7 -
0 1 1 0 = 0 6

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 Binary Division

1001ten Quotient
Divisor 1000ten | 1001010ten Dividend
-1000
10
101
1010
-1000
10ten Remainder

At every step,
• shift divisor right and compare it with current dividend
• if divisor is larger, shift 0 as the next bit of the quotient
• if divisor is smaller, subtract to get new dividend and shift 1
as the next bit of the quotient
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 Binary Multiplication

• Binary multiplication is much the same as decimal

multiplication, except that the multiplication
operations are much simpler…
1
0 1 1 1
X 1 0 1 0
-----------------------
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1
-----------------------
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0

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Why Use Binary Numbers?
° Easy to represent 0 and 1 using
electrical values.
° Possible to tolerate noise.
° Easy to transmit data
° Easy to build binary circuits.

AND Gate

1
0
0

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 Understanding Octal Numbers
• Octal numbers are made of octal digits: (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
• How many items does an octal number represent?
• (4536)8 = 4x83 + 5x82 + 3x81 + 6x80 = (1362)10
• What about fractions?
• (465.27)8 = 4x82 + 6x81 + 5x80 + 2x8-1 + 7x8-2
• Octal numbers don’t use digits 8 or 9
• Binary number can easily be converted to octal by grouping
bits 3 at a time and writing the equivalent octal character for
each group.
• Octal is also a weighted number system. The column weights
are powers of 8, which increase from right to left.
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 Understanding Hexadecimal Numbers
• Hexadecimal numbers are made of 16 digits:
• (0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A, B, C, D, E, F)
• How many items does an hex number represent?
• (3A9F)16 = 3x163 + 10x162 + 9x161 + 15x160 = 1499910
• What about fractions?
• (2D3.5)16 = 2x162 + 13x161 + 3x160 + 5x16-1 = 723.312510
• Note that each hexadecimal digit can be represented
with four bits.
• (1110) 2 = (E)16

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Putting It All Together
° Binary, octal, and
hexadecimal similar
° Easy to build circuits to
operate on these
representations
° Possible to convert between
the three formats

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Converting Between Base 16 and Base 2

3A9F16 = 0011 1010 1001 11112

3 A 9 F

° Conversion is easy!
 Determine 4-bit value for each hex digit
° Note that there are 24 = 16 different values of four bits
° Easier to read and write in hexadecimal.

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Converting Between Base 16 and Base 8

3A9F16 = 0011 1010 1001 11112

3 A 9 F

352378 = 011 101 010 011 1112

3 5 2 3 7

1. Convert from Base 16 to Base 2

2. Regroup bits into groups of three starting from right
3. Ignore leading zeros
4. Each group of three bits forms an octal digit.
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Class exercise
• Converting decimal numbers to binary
• 53 and 211
• What is 10011010 in decimal?
• What is 00101001 in decimal?
• Convert (1011011011)2 into hexadecimal.
• Convert (01011111011.011111)2 into hexadecimal.
• Convert (4057.06) 8 to decimal
• Convert (756.603)8 to hexadecimal.
• Convert (3A9E.B0D)16 into binary.
• Convert (A0F9.0EB)16 to decimal

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Signed Binary Number
• Digital Logic represents numbers as n-bit binary numbers, with fixed n. The number is
fixed
• Plus and minus sign used for decimal numbers: 25 (or +25), -16, etc.
• For computers, desirable to represent everything as bits.
• A signed binary number consists of both sign and magnitude
information.
• The sign indicates whether a number is positive or negative
• In a signed binary number, the left-most bit (MSB) is the sign bit.
• 0 indicates a positive number, and 1 indicates a negative number
• The magnitude is the value of the number.

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 How To Represent Signed Numbers
• There are three forms in which signed integer (whole) numbers can be represented
in binary:
1. sign-magnitude,
2. 1's complement, Change all 1s to 0s and all 0s to 1s.and
3. 2's complement. Add 1 to the LSB of the 1's complement.
• If the addition produces a result that requires more than n digits, we throw away
the extra digit(s). Of these, the 2's complement is the most important
• If a number D is complemented twice, the result is D.
Consider signed magnitude:

In each case: left-most bit indicates sign: positive (0) or negative (1).

000011002 = 1210
100011002 = -1210

Sign bit Magnitude Sign bit Magnitude

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 One’s Complement Representation
• The one’s complement of a binary number involves inverting all
bits.
• 1’s comp of 00110011 is 11001100
• 1’s comp of 10101010 is 01010101
• To find negative of 1’s complement number take the 1’s
complement.

000011002 = 1210
111100112 = -1210

Sign bit Magnitude

Sign bit Magnitude

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 Two’s Complement Representation
• The two’s complement of a binary number involves inverting all bits
and adding 1.
• 2’s comp of 00110011 is 11001101
• 2’s comp of 10101010 is 01010110
• To find negative of 2’s complement number take the 2’s complement.

000011002 = 1210
111101002 = -1210
Sign bit Magnitude
Sign bit Magnitude

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Representation of Negative Numbers
• Example
The 1’s complement of 11001010 is 00110101
To form the 2’s complement, add 1:
1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1’s complement
1 +
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 2’s complement

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Convert an Integer from Decimal to Another Base
For each digit position:
1. Divide decimal number by the base (e.g. 2)
2. The remainder is the lowest-order digit
3. Repeat first two steps until no divisor remains.

Example for (13)10:

Integer Remainder Coefficient
Quotient
13/2 = 6 + ½ a0 = 1
6/2 = 3 + 0 a1 = 0
3/2 = 1 + ½ a2 = 1
1/2 = 0 + ½ a3 = 1

Answer (13)10 = (a3 a2 a1 a0)2 = (1101)2

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Convert an Fraction from Decimal to Another Base
For each digit position:
1. Multiply decimal number by the base (e.g. 2)
2. The integer is the highest-order digit
3. Repeat first two steps until fraction becomes zero.

Example for (0.625)10:

Integer Fraction Coefficient

0.625 x 2 = 1 + 0.25 a -1 = 1
0.250 x 2 = 0 + 0.50 a-2 = 0
0.500 x 2 = 1 + 0 a-3 = 1

Answer (0.625)10 = (0.a-1 a-2 a-3 )2 = (0.101)2

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 Summary
• Binary numbers are made of binary digits (bits)
• Binary and octal number systems
• Conversion between number systems
• Addition, subtraction, and multiplication in binary
• Binary numbers can also be represented in octal and hexadecimal
• Easy to convert between binary, octal, and hexadecimal
• Signed numbers represented in signed magnitude, 1’s complement, and 2’s
complement

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