1.

ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD MEASUREMENT (ACFM) technique

The ACFM method is an electromagnetic inspection technique which can be used to

detect and size surface breaking (or in
some cases near surface) defects in both
magnetic and non-magnetic materials.
ACFM is a current perturbation technique
and is fundamentally different to
conventional eddy current techniques.

When an alternating current flows in a

conductor it flows in a "skin" following
the surface. If a surface breaking crack is
present, this otherwise uniform sheet of
current is disturbed. There is a magnetic
field associated with this electrical field
and the magnetic field disturbances
(associated with the electrical current
disturbances) can be measured using Fig 1.1: Flow of current around a surface breaking crack
magnetic field sensors. Although the and ACFM signals obtained.
resulting magnetic field is complex,
components can be chosen, which allow disturbances due to cracks to be identified
and quantified.

Figure 1.1 show how the electrical field is disturbed on the surface by the presence
of a crack. In practice, two components of the magnetic field are measured, Bx
along the length of the defect, which responds to changes in surface current
density and gives an indication of crack depth and Bz, which gives a negative and
positive response at either end of the defect, caused by current generated poles,
and thus gives an indication of length.

In standard applications two field sensors are used and these are incorporated into
a probe head which also introduces the uniform current into the component using
a field inducer. The probe does not require any special scanning patterns. In order
to inspect for weld toe cracks, the probe is simply moved along the weld toe.

Since the signals produced in the sensors were extremely small, TSC have
developed an instrument generally referred to as the Crack Microgauge, which
controls the inducing field and amplifies and digitises the sensor readings. All
 functions are under the control of an onboard microprocessor, which sends data to
a standard laptop PC.

Specialist Windows
software is used to control
the inspection and display
and store the results.
Figure 1.2 shows a typical
ACFM data display
produced when the probe
is scanned over a defect. In
the left-hand side of the
screen, the Bx and Bz
readings are plotted. A
defect is indicated by a
trough in the Bx plot, the
Fig 1.2- Screen showing typical crack like signals
deepest point coinciding
with the deepest part of the crack, associated with a peak and trough in the Bz plot,
which indicates the location of the crack ends. To aid in interpretation, the Bx and
Bz readings are plotted against each other on the right hand side of the screen
where a characteristic loop is formed in the presence of a defect. This display,
called the "butterfly plot", is unique to ACFM and, because it is insensitive to probe
speed, greatly enhances interpretation.

Once a defect is identified the depth can be determined by entering the length of
the defect, found by marking the locations of the Bz peak and trough on the
sample, and choosing two points from the Bx trace. The software algorithms
instantly return a value for crack length and depth, which is displayed above the
defect indication on the screen.

EQUIPMENT USED IN THE STUDIES

The equipment used in the studies has been specifically developed for subsea
operation, and is capable of operating in water depths up to 300m. the underwater
system is shown schematically in Figure 1.3 and comprises:

 A laptop PC which acts as system controller. This controls all of the

functions of the system and provides the data display. All data is also
stored in the PC.
  The topside unit provides
the interface between
the subsea unit and the
PC. The subsea unit is
powered by 110V from
the surface and the
topside unit also
provides safety cut out to
protect the diver.
 The subsea unit is a
pressure housing
Fig 1.3: Schematic layout of underwater ACFM system
containing the system
electronics and is connected to the topside unit via a special umbilical.
 350m umbilical which carries power and communications between the
topside and subsea units.
 Inspection probes which are connected to the subsea unit using
underwater mateable connectors.

Collecting Data
Inspections are carried out by scanning the chosen probe along the weld toes. Long
welds are inspected using a series of overlapping scans (to ensure full coverage).
Scanning speeds of approximately 10mm / second are used. The data is displayed
and stored on the PC controller and can, if required, be replayed.

Data Analysis

The probe operator (diver) Figure

1.4 has no data display and is not
an inspection specialist. The
inspector generally watches the
real time display as the probe is
scanned and looks for the
characteristic defect signals. Data
can be replayed at any time and
this allows data to be reviewed /
audited, even at a different site
by copying the data onto a
Fig 1.4: Diver deploying an ACFM probe
diskette or transferring via Email.
 2. FLOODED MEMBER DETECTION (FMD) technique

FMD is used to determine the integrity of the tubular bracing members of steel
jacket structures. The method relies on the detection of through-wall cracks causing
the leakage of water into the internal, air-filled space and the successful detection of
that water. The detection accomplished by the use of gamma radiation or ultrasonic
techniques, both of which are applied externally to a tubular member, usually by
means of a remotely operated vehicle (ROV) in the case of gamma FMD, or by diver,
or potentially an ROV, in the case of ultrasonic FMD.

The two principal means of flooded member detection (FMD) are ROV deployed
gamma FMD and diver-deployed ultrasonic FMD.
Gamma FMD requires a gamma source and a detector to be fixed to either end of a
yoke that is attached to an ROV. The ROV pilot then positions the yoke over the
member and notes the reading count from
the detector. This is compared with an
expected count that is calculated taking
account of the absorption characteristics of
water between the yoke and the member,
the member steel thickness and the air
within the member. If the member is
flooded, the count is lower than expected
due to the absorption of the gamma
radiation by the water and the member is
flagged as flooded.
Ultrasonic FMD employs an ultrasound Fig 2.1 Typical arrangement of UT FMD equipment
probe that is fixed to the outside of the
member after suitable cleaning to provide good acoustic contact. (Figure 2.1
provides a schematic.)

Water is a better transmitter of ultrasound

than air is, and a flooded member is
detected by observing echoes that are
received back at the probe and viewed on a
screen. For an air-filled member, the echo
will be that of the back wall. For a water-
filled member, the ultrasound is transmitted
through the water and a second echo will be Fig 2.2 Typical UT Signal for a flooded member
generated at the interface between the
water and the back face of the tube. This back-face echo is an indication that the
member is flooded. Figure 2.2 shows a typical UT trace for a flooded member.

For gamma FMD, the maximum distance between source and detector determines
the maximum diameter of member that can be inspected. The distance between the
two is limited not only by the size of the yoke, which is dependent on the payload
capability of the host vehicle, but also by the strength of the radioactive element
relative to the thickness of the steel walls of the members requiring inspection. The
size of a gamma source is normally varied according to member diameter and wall
thickness. In general, as large a source as possible is used to give meaningful results
but without saturating the detector so that a drop cannot be observed.
The host vehicle should be of sufficient size to allow access and to carry the FMD
equipment, and it should be
able to operate in the
environmental conditions
present.
The range of member
diameters typically surveyed
by gamma FMD methods is
from 12 inches (0.3 m) to 2.6
m. FMD is currently
performed on members with
a wall thickness in the range Fig 2.3 (a)Horizontal member standard survey mode for FMD
of 8 mm to 63.5 mm.

Fig 2.3 (b) Vertical member survey mode for FMD

 Orientation of the yokes can
be adjusted to any position
for taking readings on inclined
members.

Figure 2.3 shows that the

positions in which readings
may be taken on the member
can also be varied. Typically,
readings are taken at the “6
o’clock– 12 o’clock” or the “3
o’clock–9 o’clock” positions. Fig 2.3 (c)Horizontal member survey mode for FMD
The yoke can be adjusted to
make the necessary readings possible.
The majority of flooded or cracked members occur as a result of unforeseen
circumstances, such as the presence of a gross defect caused by poor fabrication,
poor design practice, or accidental damage. Poor fabrication or design errors
manifest themselves in the form of unexpected fatigue cracking, where joints crack
at a time well before their design lives. Because the occurrence of this damage is not
expected, the inspection strategy should enable detection of unforeseen damage.
Reference to design fatigue lives is not a suitable means of justifying the use of FMD.
The traditional S-N fatigue design process does not legislate for large defects or poor
design, assuming welded joints to be “nominally perfect.”