UNIFIED ENGINEERING Fall 2003

Lecture Outlines Ian A. Waitz

UNIFIED LECTURE #2:

THE BREGUET RANGE EQUATION

I. Learning Goals
At the end of this lecture you will:
A. Be able to answer the question “How far can an airplane fly, and why?”;

B. Be able to answer the question “How do the disciplines of structures &

materials, aerodynamics and propulsion jointly set the performance of
aircraft, and what are the important performance parameters?”;

C. Be able to use empirical evidence to estimate the performance of aircraft and

thus begin to develop intuition regarding important aerodynamic, structural
and propulsion system performance parameters;

D. Have had your first exposure to active learning in Unified Engineering

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II. Question: How far can an airplane (or a duck, for that matter)
fly?

OR:

What is the farthest that an airplane can

fly on earth, and why?

We will begin by developing a mathematical model of the physical system. Like most
models, this one will have many approximations and assumptions that underlie it. It is
important for you to understand these approximations and assumptions so that you
understand the limits of applicability of the model and the estimates derived from it.

T T DD

Figure 1.1 Force balance for an aircraft in steady level flight.

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For steady, level flight,

= T 
L L
T = D, L = W or W=L=D
D D

The weight of the aircraft changes in response to the fuel that is burned (rate at which
weight changes equals negative fuel mass flow rate times gravitational constant)

dW
= −m
˙ f ⋅g
dt

Now we will define an overall propulsion system efficiency:

what you get propulsive power

overall efficiency = =
what you pay for fuel power

propulsive power = thrust ⋅ flight velocity = Tu o (J/s)

fuel power = fuel mass flow rate ⋅ fuel energy per unit mass = m
˙ fh (J/s)

Thus

Tu o
ηoverall =
˙ fh
m

We can now write the expression for the change in weight of the vehicle in terms of
important aerodynamic (L/D) and propulsion system (ηoverall) parameters:

dW −W −Wu 0 −Wu 0
= −m
˙ f ⋅g = = =
dt  
L T h  
L Tu 0 h  η
L
 D m 
˙ f ⋅g g D m  ˙ f ⋅h g D
 overall

We can rewrite and integrate

dW −u 0 dt tu 0
= ⇒ ln W = constant −
W h  η
L h  L
ηoverall
g  D g  D
overall

applying the initial conditions, at t=0 W = Winitial ∴ const. = ln Winitial

−L h W
∴t = ηoverall ln
D gu 0 Winitial

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the time the aircraft has flown corresponds to the amount of fuel burned, therefore

−L h W
t final =
ηoverall ln final
D gu 0 Winitial

then multiplying by the flight velocity we arrive at the Breguet Range Equation which
applies for situations where overall efficiency, L/D, and flight velocity are constant over
the flight.

h L Winitial
Range = ηoverall ln
g D Wfinal

Fluids Propulsion Structures +

(Aero) Materials

Note that this expression is sometimes rewritten in terms of an alternate measure of

efficiency, the specific fuel consumption or SFC. SFC is defined as the mass flow rate of
fuel per unit of thrust (lbm/s/lbf or kg/s/N). In the following expression, V is the flight
velocity and g is the acceleration of gravity.

V(L D)  Winitial 
Range = ln 
g ⋅ SFC  Wfinal 

Thus we see that the answer to the question “How far can an airplane fly?” depends
on:
1. How much energy is contained in the fuel it carries;

2. How aerodynamically efficient it is (the ratio of the production of lift to the

production of drag). During the fluids lectures you will learn how to develop
and use models to estimate lift and drag.

3. How efficiently energy from the fuel/oxidizer is turned into useful work
(thrust times distance traveled) which is used to oppose the drag force.
Thermodynamics helps us describe and estimate the efficiency of various
energy conversion processes, and propulsion lets us describe how to use this
energy to propel a vehicle;

4. How light weight the structure is relative to the amount of fuel and payload it
can carry. The materials and structures lectures you will teach you how to
estimate the performance of aerospace structures.

Below are some data to allow you to make estimates for various aircraft and birds.

MJ/Kg $/Kg $/MJ Comments

Prime Beef 4.0 20 5

Beef 4.0 8 2
Whole Milk 2.8 0.90 0.32 600 cal/quart
Honey 14 4 0.29
Sugar 15 1 0.07 100 cal/ounce
Cheese 15 6 0.40
Bacon 29 4 0.14
Corn Flakes 15 3.50 0.23 100 cal/ounce
Peanut Butter 27 4 0.15 180 cal/ounce
Butter 32 4.50 0.14
Vegetable Oil 36 2 0.06 240 cal/ounce
Kerosene 42 0.40 0.010 0.82 kg/liter
Diesel Oil 42 0.40 0.010 0.85 kg/liter
Gasoline 42 0.40 0.010 0.75 kg/liter
Natural Gas 45 0.24 0.005 0.8 kg/m3

Figure 1.2 Heating values for various fuels (from The Simple Science of Flight, by H.
Tennekes)
0.1
F=
40
F=
25

human-powered
airplane
cabbage
F=

white
10
w [meters / second]

1 sailplane
F=

albatross
4

budgie ultralight

Fokker
Friendship

pheasant
10
Boeing
747

1 10 100
V [meters / second]
The Great Gliding Diagram. Airspeed, V, is plotted on the horizontal axis. Rate of descent, w, is
plotted downward along the vertical axis. The diagonals are lines of constant finesse. The
horizontal line represents the practical soaring limit, 1 meter / second.

Figure 1.3 Gliding performance as a function of L/D (where L/D=F, from The Simple
Science of Flight, by H. Tennekes)
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 25

F28-1000 F28-4000/6000

20 S360
A320-100/200
A310-300
RJ200/ER B777
B757-200 B747-400
B747-100/200/300 F100
F27 BAC111-200/400 B767-200/ER ATR72
S340A DHC8-300
MD11
15 B707-100B/300 B707-300B
B737-100/200
DC10-30 L1011-500 B767-300/ER
A300-600 ATR42 BAE-ATP
L1011-1/100/200
L/Dmax
B737-300 D328
DC9-30 EMB120
DC10-10 MD80 & DC9-80 B737-500/600
DC10-40 B737-400
BAE146-100/200/RJ70
B727-200/231A BAE-146-300
SA227
J41
J31

10

Data Unavailable For:

5 EMB-145 FH-227
CV-880 Nihon YS-11
Turboprops BAE RJ85 SA-226
Regional Jets Beech 1900 DHC-8-100
Large Aircraft CV-580 L-188
CV-600 DHC-7
0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
Figure 1.4 Aerodynamic data for commercial aircraft: L/D for cruise (Babikian, R., The
Historical Fuel Efficiency Characteristics of Regional Aircraft From Technological,
Operational, and Cost Perspectives, SM Thesis, MIT, June 2001)

W S b
(N) (m2) (m) A F

House Sparrow 0.28 0.009 0.23 6 4

Swift 0.36 0.016 0.42 11 10
Common Tern 1.2 0.056 0.83 12 12
Kestrel (Sparrow Hawk) 1.8 0.06 0.74 9 9
Carrion Crow 5.5 0.12 0.78 5 5
Common Buzzard 8.0 0.22 1.25 7 10
Peregrine Falcon 8.1 0.13 1.06 9 10
Herring Gull 12 0.21 1.43 10 11
Heron 14 0.36 1.73 8 9
White Stork 34 0.50 2.00 8 10
Wandering Albatross 85 0.62 3.40 19 20
Hang Glider 1000 15 10 7 8
Parawing 1000 25 8 2.6 4
Powered Parawing 1700 35 10 2.7 4
Ultralight (microlight) 2000 15 10 7 8
Sailplanes
Standard Class 3500 10.5 15 21 40
Open Class 5500 16.3 25 38 60

Fokker F-50 19 x104 70 29 12 16

Boeing 747 36 x 105 511 60 7 15

Figure 1.5 Weight and geometry for aircraft and birds (where L/D=F, from The Simple
Science of Flight, by H. Tennekes)

7
 80

70
C-7A
C-12A
C-123 757 767
60
UV C-9A
WE / WTO [%] -18 A310
C-21A L-1011
C-140
50 C-130 747
C-20A C-17
C-5A C-5B
Concorde
C-141B KC-10A
40

KC-135A

30
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
WTO [1,000 lbs]

Weight Fractions of Cargo and Passenger Aircraft

Figure 1.5 Weight fractions for transport aircraft in terms of empty weight over max
take-off weight (Mattingly, Heiser & Daley, Aircraft Engine Design, 1987)

0.70
DHC8-100
J31 SA227 EMB120
S340A D328 DHC8-300
B727-200/231A DHC7 S360 ATR72
J41 RJ200/ER
CV600 BAE146-100/RJ70 BAE-ATP
0.60 BAC111-200
F28-1000
SA226 BAE146-200 B1900
ATR42
B737-500/600
F100
BAC111-400 MD80 & DC9-80 EMB145
L1011-1/100/200 B737-300 BAE-146-300
DC9-10 F28-4000/6000 B757-200
FH227 DC10-10 A320-100/200 RJ85
F27 B767-200/ER
B737-100/200 B737-400
A300-600
0.50 DC9-40
B747-200/300 DC9-50
A310-300
B747-400
L188A-08/188C DC10-40 B767-300/ER B777
CV880 L1011-500
OEW / MTOW

DC9-30
DC10-30 MD11
B747-100
0.40 B707-300B

0.30

0.20
Turboprops
0.10 Regional Jets
Large Aircraft

0.00
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
Year
Figure 1.6 Structural efficiency data for commercial aircraft: Operating empty weight
over maximum take-off weight (Babikian, R., The Historical Fuel Efficiency
Characteristics of Regional Aircraft From Technological, Operational, and Cost
Perspectives, SM Thesis, MIT, June 2001)

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 Takeoff Sea-level Fuel Cruising
weight thrust consumption speed Range
W (tons) S (m2) b (m) T (tons) (liters/hour) V (km/hour) (km) Seats

Boeing
747-400 395 530 65 4 x 25.7 12300 900 12200 421

Boeing
747-300 378 511 60 4 x 23.8 13600 900 10500 400

Boeing
747-200 352 511 60 4 x 21.3 13900 900 9500 387

Douglas
Dc-10-30 256 368 50 3 x 23.1 10400 900 9900 248

Airbus
A310 139 219 44 2 x 22.7 5500 860 6400 200

Boeing
737-300 57 105 29 2 x 9.1 2700 800 4200 124

Fokker
F-100 43 94 28 2 x 6.7 2400 720 1800 101

Fokker
F-28 33 79 25 2 x 4.5 2500 680 1700 80

Figure 1.7 Aircraft performance (from The Simple Science of Flight, by H. Tennekes)

For aircraft engines it is often convenient to break the overall efficiency into two parts:
thermal efficiency and propulsive efficiency where the subscripts e and o refer to exit and
inlet:
m˙ e u 2e m ˙ o u o2 
 −
rate of production of propellant k.e.  2 2 
ηthermal = =
fuel power ˙ fh
m

propulsive power Tu o

ηprop
= =
rate of production of propellant k.e.  m 2
˙ e ue m ˙ o u 2o 
 2 −
 2 
such that

ηoverall = ηthermal ⋅ ηprop

During the first semester thermodynamics lectures we will focus largely on thermal
efficiency. In next semester’s propulsion lectures we will combine thermodynamics with
fluid mechanics to obtain estimates for propulsive and thus overall efficiency. The data
shown in Figure 1.6 will give you a rough idea for the conversion efficiencies of various
modern aircraft engines.

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 Overall Efficiency
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0.8
0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 SFC
Future
Trend
0.7

'777'
Core Thermal Efficiency
Engines Advanced
0.6 UDF
CF6-80C2

0.5 Low BPR UDF

Engine
Turbojets Current
High BPR
0.4

0.3

Whittle
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Propulsive x Transmission Efficiency

Figure 1.8 Trends in aircraft engine efficiency (after Pratt & Whitney)

30
B707-300

B720-000

25 B727-200/231A

BAC111-400 DC9-40 F28-4000/6000

BAE146-100/200/RJ70
CV880 DC9-10 F28-1000
DC9-50 B737-300
DC9-30 B737-100/200 BAE-146-300
20 MD80 & DC9-80 RJ85
TSFC (mg/Ns)

F100 D328 EM170

B767-300/ER EMB145
DC10-30 L1011-500 B737-400 B737-500/600
B747-100 B757-200
F27 B747-200/300 RJ200/ER RJ700
L1011-1/100/200 B747-400 EMB135
CV600 DC10-40 B767-200/ER MD11
DC10-10 A300-600
L188A-08/188C A310-300 A320-100/200 B777
J31
15 SA226
DHC7
B1900 SA227
J41
CV580 S360 EMB120
ATR42 ATR72 D328
DHC8-100
BAE-ATP DHC8-300
DHC8-400
S340A

10

Turboprops
5 Regional Jets
Large Jets
New Regional Jet Engines
New Turboprop Engines
0
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
Year

Figure 1.9 Engine efficiency for commercial aircraft: specific fuel consumption
(Babikian, R., The Historical Fuel Efficiency Characteristics of Regional Aircraft From
Technological, Operational, and Cost Perspectives, SM Thesis, MIT, June 2001)

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The accuracy of the range equation in predicting performance for commercial transport
aircraft is quite good. The Department of Transportation collects and reports a variety of
operational and financial data for the U.S. fleet in something called DOT Form 41.
Operational data for fuel burned and payload (passengers and cargo) carried was
extracted from Form 41 and combined with the technological data shown in Figures 1.4,
1.6 and 1.9 to estimate range. In Figure 1.10 these estimates are compared to the actual
stage length flown (range) as reported in Form 41. The difference between the actual
stage length flown and the estimated stage length is shown in Figure 1.11. Figure 1.11
shows that the percent deviation between the Breguet range equation estimates and the
actual stage lengths flown is a function of the stage length. For long-haul flights, the
assumptions of constant velocity, L/D, and SFC are good. However, for short-haul
flights, taxiing, climbing, descending, etc. are a relatively large fraction of the overall
flight time, so the steady-state cruise assumptions of the range equation are less valid.

(16 short- and long-haul aircraft)

6000
Calculated Stage Length (miles)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Actual Stage Length Flown (miles)

Figure 1.10 Performance of Breguet range equation for estimating commercial aircraft
operations (J. J. Lee, MIT Masters Thesis, 2000)

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 160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

Stage Length
Figure 1.11 Deviation (%) of Breguet range equation estimates from actual stage length
flown is a function of the stage length (J. J. Lee, MIT Masters Thesis, 2000)

III. Questions:

A. How far can a duck fly?

B. Why don’t we fly on hydrogen-powered airplanes?

Fuel properties are listed below.
Fuel Density (kg/m3) Heating Value (kJ/kg)

Jet-A 800.0 45000

H2 (gaseous, S.T.P.) 0.0824 120900

H2 (liquid, 1 atm) 70.8 120900

C. Why is the maximum range for an aircraft on earth approximately

25,000mi? (Voyager: 3181kg of fuel is 72% of maximum take-off
weight, flight speed 186.1km/hr = 9 days to circle the earth)

D. What are the assumptions and approximations that underlie the

Breguet Range Equation?

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