sustainability

Article
A Study on the Improvement of Double-Skin Facade
Operation for Reducing Heating Load in Winter
Uk-Joo Sung 1 and Seok-Hyun Kim 2, *
1 Center for Climatic Environment Real-scale Testing, Korea Conformity Laboratories, Jincheon 27872, Korea;
suj21c@kcl.re.kr
2 Energy ICT·ESS Laboratory, Korea Institute of Energy Research, Daejeon 34101, Korea
* Correspondence: ksh7000@kier.re.kr




Received: 29 September 2019; Accepted: 28 October 2019; Published: 7 November 2019


Abstract: A double-skin facade makes it possible to gain irradiance through the glass on the outer
side in summer, and to increase the temperature of air flowing in the cavity so as to induce the flow
of air current. Therefore, a double-skin facade is able to reduce the load of the outer skin, which is
delivered from the outside to the inside in summer, and to serve as a buffer space for the internal
and external environments in winter, and thereby prevent heat loss from the building envelope.
Theoretical analysis was conducted to review the heat effects of a double-skin facade and to evaluate
the performance of a plan for indoor load reduction. This study carried out a field measurement
of a building with a double-skin facade and then analyzed the thermal phenomenon occurring in
between the outer skin of the outside and the skin of the inside facing the building surface, according
to the effects of irradiance going into the double-skin facade cavity. In order to propose an indoor air
conditioning energy reduction plan using preheated air through the double-skin facade, this study
utilized a building simulation to be implemented on the target building and then analyzed the
effects of the improvement plan for the double-skin facade. A simulation model was suggested that
implemented the aforementioned airflow network and analyzed the ventilation performance and
energy performance according to the application of alternative plans and thermal effect. To find
the actual state of operation of the double-skin facade in winter, this study measured the target
building. A solar chimney-based double-skin facade was analyzed in winter. As a result, with the
application of a solar chimney and a rise in its height, the available capacity of relatively larger solar
heat increased, and therefore the proposed plan had excellent performance in terms of heating energy
saving. When the thermal effect was applied to the solar chimney, the heating energy use effect of the
solar irradiance of the double-skin facade was larger. When thermal effect was applied to a three-floor
solar chimney, the heating energy use increased to about 7.6 times higher than that of the original
performance of the double-skin facade.

Keywords: double skin facade; ventilation; heating load; solar chimney; Energy Simulation

1. Introduction
In order to save heating energy in a building in winter, passive techniques for enhancing building
insulation can be applied. In particular, a double-skin facade makes it possible to gain irradiance
through the glass on the outer side in summer, and to increase the temperature of air flowing in the
cavity so as to induce the flow of air current. Therefore, a double-skin facade is able to reduce the load
of the outer skin, which is delivered from the outside to the inside in summer, and to serve as a buffer
space for the internal and external environments in winter [1,2], and thereby to prevent heat loss from
the building envelope. To verify the effects of double-skin facades with multiple functions, there are

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238; doi:10.3390/su11226238 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 2 of 24

many studies focusing on various aspects. By analysis of the results, the energy saving effects have
been verified.
Research on the evaluation of double-skin facade applicability draws its conclusions through
testing and simulation. Generally, results drawn from tests are used as a verification tool to secure
the validity of a simulation model. Stec et al. analyzed the effects of double-skin facades on air
conditioning systems [3,4]. With the use of the SimulinkTM program, they analyzed the performance
of air conditioning systems in terms of whether or not to apply a double-skin facade, the application of
blinds, and control. Based on the measurement results of the test cell applied to a real building, they
proved the validity of their analysis model in comparison. In addition, these researchers proposed a
simulation model in which plants are applied to a double-skin facade cavity, established the test facility
to verify the proposed model, and proved the simulation model on the basis of the test results. As a
result, the research concluded that a double-skin facade whose cavity had plants improved the comfort
and energy saving of the internal environment of building. There has been research to quantitatively
evaluate the energy of irradiance going through double-skin facades and to effectively analyze heat
transfer in consideration of radiative heat transfer. In the case of double-skin facades, the SHGC (solar
heat gain coefficient) of the total system, which includes the outer skin of the internal side along with
the transparent outer skin with solar heat transmittance, is a main indication needed to judge the
optical performance of the building envelope, just as the window and door with a general outer skin
of transmittance. Chou et al. established the SHGC calculation test system based on the Hot Box
method in order to analyze the influence of double-skin facades in terms of the energy management of
buildings, and then calculated the SHGC of each azimuthal angle of the installation of a double-skin
facade [5]. In addition, these researchers analyzed the correlation between the WWR (Window to Wall
Ratio) of the inner wall of a double-skin facade and the ETTV (Envelope Thermal Transfer Value),
the heat performance judgment indication of the outer skin according to the SHGC of the whole
outer skin.
In order to find the effects of double-skin facades in winter, Lei Xu et al. utilized the double-skin
facade of a two-floor residential building and analyzed the cooling effect through ventilation in summer,
the greenhouse effect in winter, and the internal environment through the natural air conditioning
effect and energy saving in the intermediate period [6]. Their field test showed that the cooling load
reduced by about 10–15% thanks to natural ventilation in summer, and the cooling load reduced by 20%
and lower in winter. Simulation-based research was conducted to optimize the system of a double-skin
facade. Elisabeth Gratia et al. evaluated a variety of options by utilizing the multistory double-skin
facade of the building suggested in IES (Illuminating Engineering Society) TASK 27 ‘Performance of
solar facade components’ [7–13]. A typical applicability evaluation item was the performance of the
natural ventilation that occurred in the double-skin facade cavity. These researchers analyzed the
performance of the ventilation of the double-skin facade in the daytime and nighttime according to
installation direction, wind direction, and wind velocity. In addition, they evaluated applicability
differently depending on what type of double-skin facade was selected out of eight different types, and
thereby drew the optimal design plan of the double-skin facade to be installed in the south side and
compared the cooling and heating energy consumption. As a result, they suggested the possibility
of inefficient operation, which means that if the natural ventilation of the double-skin facade cavity
during a cooling period is not active, the application effect can be lowered. In addition, in order
to analyze the greenhouse effect of the double-skin facade, they drew passive design factors and
thereby looked into the temperature distribution of the double-skin facade cavity. The design factors
of the double-skin facade were the external environment and components of the double-skin facade,
including the intensity of inflow irradiance, external wind direction and wind velocity, azimuthal
angle of the installation of the double-skin facade, awning apparatus and its color, width of the cavity,
inlet and outlet areas of ventilation [14,15], and window-to-wall ratio and window type of the inner
skin. The temperature concentration problem of the double-skin facade cavity in summer by inefficient
operation was able to be solved by improvement plans, such as appropriate inlet and outlet areas of
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 3 of 24

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ventilation, an appropriate size of cavity, and an appropriate position of the awning apparatus. All of
the previous studies used the Tas building energy analysis simulation program of the EDSL company
position of the awning apparatus. All of the previous studies used the Tas building energy analysis
so as to draw results.
simulation program of the EDSL company so as to draw results.
Based on the results of the previous studies, this research tries to suggest an improvement plan
Based on the results of the previous studies, this research tries to suggest an improvement plan
for double-skin facade operation in order to save indoor load in winter. More specifically, it tries to
for double-skin facade operation in order to save indoor load in winter. More specifically, it tries to
analyze the current operation state of a double-skin facade in winter through the field measurement of
analyze the current operation state of a double-skin facade in winter through the field measurement
a double-skin facade installed in a real building, to propose an improvement plan, and to verify the
of a double-skin facade installed in a real building, to propose an improvement plan, and to verify
proposed plan. Figure 1 illustrates the flow chart of this research.
the proposed plan. Figure 1 illustrates the flow chart of this research.

Figure 1.
Figure 1. Research
Research method.
method.

2. Theory of Double-Skin Facade Performance Evaluation

Theoretical analysis was conducted
conducted to review the heat effects of double-skin facades and to
evaluate the
theperformance
performanceofof thethe
plan for indoor
plan load load
for indoor reduction. This study
reduction. This reviewed the basicthe
study reviewed theories
basic
of heat transfer
theories of heat andtransfer
airflow network models,
and airflow which models,
network were applied
whichto evaluate an improvement
were applied to evaluate plan.
an
improvement plan.
2.1. Analysis of the Basic Theory of Double-Skin Facade Heat Transfer
2.1. Analysis of the Basicfacade,
In a double-skin Theory of Double-Skin
fluid Facade
flow occurs in Heat Transferdirection of the cavity. Since solar
the vertical
radiation
In a goes in the fluid
double-skin flow fluid
facade, path, flow
double-skin
occurs facade
in the heat transfer
vertical theoryofreacting
direction to theSince
the cavity. airflow of
solar
the cavity takes into account the direction of airflow. Airflow is taken into consideration
radiation goes in the fluid flow path, double-skin facade heat transfer theory reacting to the airflow in the one
dimension
of the cavityoftakes
building height direction.
into account Each
the direction one of the
of airflow. factors
Airflow is of cavity
taken intospace—outer
considerationskin,
in thespace
one
media (air, etc.), and inner skin—have constant physical and thermal properties
dimension of building height direction. Each one of the factors of cavity space—outer skin, space and temperature.
The
media sky(air,
is viewed as a
etc.), and black
inner body, and constant
skin—have the temperature
physicalof thethermal
and groundproperties
surface is and
viewed as the air
temperature.
temperature.
The sky is viewedFigureas2 illustrates an overview
a black body, and the of the basic theory
temperature of theofground
heat transfer
surfacein is
double-skin
viewed asfacades.
the air
temperature. Figure 2 illustrates an overview of the basic theory of heat transfer in double-skin
facades.
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Figure2.
Figure Overviewof
2.Overview ofthe
thebasic
basictheory
theoryof
ofheat
heattransfer
transferin
indouble-skin
double-skinfacades.
facades.

Theheat
The heattransfer
transfer equation
equation of heat
of the the heat flow direction
flow direction in eachin each
zone zone is presented
is presented as the
as the Equations
Equations
1, 2, and 3, (1)–(3), respectively,
respectively, each of each
whichofiswhich is the of
the formula formula of the
the outer skin,outer
cavityskin,
flowcavity
space,flow
and space,
inner
skin. In this case, the transfer rates of conduction, convection, and radiation coming to the inside to
and inner skin. In this case, the transfer rates of conduction, convection, and radiation coming the
from
inside
the from
inner theare
skin inner skin are into
integrated integrated into one coefficient.
one coefficient. If the
If the cavity cavity is
is closed, α closed, = 1;the
= 1; if itαhas if itstate
has the
of
state of airflow,
airflow, α = 0. α = 0.

∂Tv1
Kv1 == Q+
1+(1(−
1 − α)Q+
2 + αQ+
5 + Q+ +8 + Q
5+Q +9 + Q+12 + αv1 Sol (1)
(1)
∂t
∂T f s ∂T5s
K(f s ++ Vfs = −(1
= −−(1 − α)Q−2 (1
− (−
1 − α)Q−
3 − αQ−
5 − αQ6 (2)
(2)
∂t ∂Y
∂Tv2
Kv2 1 − α)Q+
(1(−
== 4 + αQ
3 + Q+ +6 + Q
+7 + Q+10 + Q+11 + Q
+12 + Q Q14 +∙ τv1 ·αv2 Sol
+13 + + (3)
(3)
∂t

2.2. Airflow Network Model

2.2. Airflow Network Model
An EnergyPlus building energy analysis simulation that implemented the airflow network was
An EnergyPlus building energy analysis simulation that implemented the airflow network was
applied in order to analyze the improvement effects. The airflow network model of EnergyPlus is based
applied in order to analyze the improvement effects. The airflow network model of EnergyPlus is
on AIRNET developed by Walton in 1989. In integration with the EnergyPlus Air Heat Balance Manager
based on AIRNET developed by Walton in 1989. In integration with the EnergyPlus Air Heat Balance
module in EnergyPlus, a complex calculation is made by air mass and energy equilibrium equations.
Manager module in EnergyPlus, a complex calculation is made by air mass and energy equilibrium
In the ‘Pressure and airflow calculations’ step, external wind pressure and the node pressure and
equations.
airflow by forced ventilation are calculated. Based on pressure and airflow calculations, the enthalpy of
In the ‘Pressure and airflow calculations’ step, external wind pressure and the node pressure
space is calculated through the temperature and absolute humidity of each node, the enthalpy of each
and airflow by forced ventilation are calculated. Based on pressure and airflow calculations, the
air infiltration rate is totaled, and thereby the sensible heat and latent heating load of space are defined.
enthalpy of space is calculated through the temperature and absolute humidity of each node, the
Up to now, only the ‘single heating and cooling system’ using the ‘single air distribution system’ is
enthalpy of each air infiltration rate is totaled, and thereby the sensible heat and latent heating load
applicable, and the heat capacity of the air duct is ignored. In a case where two zones are connected
of space are defined. Up to now, only the ‘single heating and cooling system’ using the ‘single air
with components (air inlet and outlet areas) that have the relationship of airflow and pressure, it can be
distribution system’ is applicable, and the heat capacity of the air duct is ignored. In a case where two
presented according to the airflow network model shown in Figure 3.
zones are connected with components (air inlet and outlet areas) that have the relationship of airflow
In order to verify and prove the performance improvement plan for the double-skin facade
and pressure, it can be presented according to the airflow network model shown in Figure 3.
installed in the target building on the basis of the simulation theory for airflow analysis, this research
investigated the overheating problem of the upper side of the double-skin facade through field
measurement and analyzed the effects of the improvement plan.
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Figure3.
Figure 3.Concept
Conceptmap
mapof
ofthe
theairflow
airflownetwork
networkmodel.
model.

In order
In order toto verify
verify and
and prove
prove the
the performance
performance improvement
improvement plan
plan for
for the
the double-skin
double-skin facade
facade
installedin
installed inthe
thetarget
targetbuilding
buildingon
onthe
thebasis
basisofofthe
thesimulation
simulationtheory
theoryfor
forairflow
airflowanalysis,
analysis,this
thisresearch
research
investigated the
investigated the overheating
overheating problem
problem of of the
the upper
upper side
side of
of the
the double-skin
double-skin facade
facade through
through field
field
measurement and
measurement and analyzed
analyzed the
the effects
effects of
of the
the improvement
improvement plan.
plan.

3. Verification
3. Verification of
of the
the Current
Current State
State of
of Double-Skin
Double-Skin Facade
Facade Operation
Operation by
by Field
Field Measurement
Measurement in
in
Winter
Winter Figure 3. Concept map of the airflow network model.
Figure 3. Concept map of the airflow network model.
3. Verification
This studyof
This study the Current
carried
carried out Statemeasurement
out aa field
field of Double-Skin
measurement of aaFacade
of Operation
building
building by Field Measurement
with aa double-skin
with double-skin facade and
facade and then
then
in In order to verify and prove the performance improvement plan for the double-skin facade
Winter
analyzedthe
analyzed thethermal
thermalphenomenon
phenomenonoccurring
occurringin inbetween
betweenthe theouter
outerskin
skinof
ofthe
theoutside
outsideandandthe
theskin
skinofof
installed in the target building on the basis of the simulation theory for airflow analysis, this research
theinside
the inside facing
facing
This study the
the building
building surface
surface according
according to
to the
the effects
effects of
of irradiance
irradiance going
going into
into the
the double-skin
double-skin
investigated the carried out aproblem
overheating field measurement
of the upper of aside
building
of thewith a double-skin
double-skin facadefacade andfield
through then
facade
facade cavity.
cavity.
analyzed the thermal phenomenon occurring in between the outer skin of the outside and the skin of
measurement and analyzed the effects of the improvement plan.
the inside facing the building surface according to the effects of irradiance going into the double-skin
3.1.
3.1. The Current
The Current State
State of
of Double-Skin
Double-Skin Facade
Facade Installation
Installation and
and Field
Field Measurement
Measurement Methodology
Methodology
3.facade cavity.
Verification of the Current State of Double-Skin Facade Operation by Field Measurement in
Winter This study
This study chose
chose as as its
its target
target building
building thethe double-skin
double-skin facade
facade installed
installed in in the
the research
research and
and
3.1. The Current State of Double-Skin Facade Installation and Field Measurement Methodology
business facility
business facility of
of KK Research
Research Institute
Institute inin Daejeon,
Daejeon, South
South Korea.
Korea. This
This building
building withwith aa steel-frame
steel-frame
This study carried out a field measurement of a building with a double-skin facade and then
structure
structure has
Thishas onechose
one
study flooras
floor below
below theground
the
its target ground
building and
and five
thefive floorsabove
floors
double-skinabove ground.
ground.
facade Thein
The
installed 1st
1st floor
floor
the is4.5
is 4.5m
research min
andinbusiness
height,
height,
analyzed the thermal phenomenon occurring in between the outer skin of the outside and the skin of
and
and the2nd
the
facility 2nd to
of Kto 5thfloors
5th floors
Research are3.9
are
Institute3.9in
mmDaejeon,
inheight.
in height.South
Asshown
As shown inthe
in
Korea. theoverview,
This overview, thebuilding
the
building with building hasits
has
a steel-frame its multistory
multistory
structure has
the inside facing the building surface according to the effects of irradiance going into the double-skin
double-skin
double-skin facade
facade
one floor below the onon the
the south
ground south
and five side,
side, andabove
and
floors the architectural
the architectural information
ground. The information
1st ofmthe
floor is 4.5of the target building
target
in height, building
and is
is
the 2nd
facade cavity.
presented
presented in Table
in
to 5th floors Table
are 1.m in height. As shown in the overview, the building has its multistory double-skin
3.91.
facade on the south side, and the architectural information of the target building is presented in Table 1.
3.1. The Current State of Double-Skin Facade Installation and Field Measurement Methodology
Table1.
Table 1.Details
Detailsof
ofmeasurement
measurementfactors.
factors.
This study chose as its target building the double-skin factors.
Table 1. Details of measurement facade installed in the research and
Summerand
Summer and
Overview
Overview
business facility of K Research Institute in Daejeon, South Korea. Winter
This buildingWinter
with a steel-frame
Overview Summer Intermediate
Intermediate
and Intermediate Winter
structure has one floor below the ground and five floors above ground. The 1st floor is 4.5 m in height,
and the 2nd to 5th floors are 3.9 m in height. As shown in the overview, the building has its multistory
double-skin facade on the south side, and the architectural information of the target building is
presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Details of measurement factors.

Summer and
Overview Winter
Intermediate

Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions 16m
16 16 mⅩ
m(W)
(W) Ⅹ 23.5
23.5
(W) m(H)
m
× 23.5(H) Ⅹ 1.2
Ⅹ
m (H) ×1.2 mm
m
1.2 (D)
(D)
(D)
Direction
Direction South
South
Direction South
Exterior:99mm
Exterior: mmGN GNGreen(Glazing)
Green(Glazing)++Aluminum
AluminumCurtain
Curtainwall
wall(Frame)
(Frame)
Windowcomposition
Window composition
Exterior:
Interior: 9 mm
Interior:22
22 mmGN
mm Green(Glazing)
Clear
Clear + Aluminum
(Glazing)++Aluminum
(Glazing) Aluminum Fix&
Fix Curtain
&PJ wall (Frame)
PJ(Frame)
(Frame)
Window composition
Interior: 22 mm Clear (Glazing) + Aluminum Fix & PJ (Frame)
Inner wall finish 30 mm granite burner finishing
Lower air inlet area 44.6 m2
Dimensions 16 m (W) Ⅹ 23.5 m (H) Ⅹ 1.2 m (D)
Upper air outlet area 37.1 m2
Direction South
Exterior: 9 mm GN Green(Glazing) + Aluminum Curtain wall (Frame)
Window composition
Interior: 22 mm Clear (Glazing) + Aluminum Fix & PJ (Frame)
Inner wall finish 30 mm granite burner finishing
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 6 of 24

The actual state of double-skin facade operation was analyzed. The inlet and outlet areas of the
upper and lower sides of the double-skin facade are opened in summer. In this case, internal air with
increased temperature by irradiance is emitted outside through natural ventilation. In winter, the outlet
of the upper side of the double-skin facade is closed, and internal air with increased temperature
is made to flow through the OA (outdoor air) inlet of the air conditioning system. At this time,
the double-skin facade is used as the preheating path of outdoor air. In this way, it is possible to reduce
outdoor air load and prevent heat loss. Therefore, if the double-skin facade is operated as shown in its
design, it is possible to save energy.
In order to analyze the environmental factors of the double-skin facade influenced by the external
environment, measurement factors and measurement points were chosen. Irradiance, regional surface
temperature, and internal air temperature, which influence the inside of the double-skin facade,
were measured. In order to quantitatively analyze the effects of the natural ventilation that occurs in
the double-skin facade, the wind velocity of each one of the air inlet and outlet in the upper and lower
sides of the double-skin facade was measured. Table 2 presents measurement factors and the applied
measuring device.

Table 2. Details of measurement factors.

Class Measurement Factor Measuring Device

The Epply laboratory Inc.
Pyranometer
Insolation on external vertical surface (IVS_E)
(Wavelength range: about
300–2800 nm)
External
Environment EI-1050
Outdoor dry bulb temperature (OT)
(Temperature range: −40–120 ◦ C)
Outdoor relative humidity EI-1050 (Range: 0~100%)
External SAHTC meter Making referenced to NFRC 201
Air temperature at Inlet and outlet
Temperature of outer glazing
(OGT)
Temperature of intermediate air T-type thermocouple wire
Measurement Factors (IAT) (Temperature range: −200–350 ◦ C)
for Each Floor
Temperature of inner glazing
(IGT)
Internal
Environment Temperature of inner wall (IWT)
Kanomax multi-channel
Air velocity at inlet and outlet anemomaster
(0.1–50 m/s)
The epply laboratory Inc.
Pyranometer
Insolation on internal vertical surface (IVS_I)
(Wavelength range: about
300–2800 nm)
Internal SAHTC meter Making referenced to NFRC 201

Figure 4 illustrates each measurement point of the measuring device, and the installation of
the measuring sensor. In terms of irradiance, the irradiance on the external vertical surface of the
double-skin facade was measured. As the measurement factors of the internal side, the surface
temperature of the double-skin facade (outdoor side), air temperature, the surface temperature of the
wall, and the temperature of the center of the glass window were measured on each floor. In the air
inlet and outlet, air temperature and wind velocity were measured.
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Figure 4. Photographs of Measuring Devices.

3.2. Analysis of the Current StateFigure

of Double-Skin Facade
4. Photographs of Operation
Measuringin Winter
Devices.

Field measurement
3.2. Analysis of the CurrentwasStatecarried out from
of Double-Skin JuneOperation
Facade to December in order to analyze the actual
in Winter
3.2. Analysis of the Current State of Double-Skin Facade Operation in Winter
operation state of the double-skin facade. As shown in Figure 5, daily average outdoor air
Field measurement was carried out from June to December in order to analyze the actual operation
Field measurement
temperature and accumulated was irradiance
carried outoffrom June to December
the multistory double-skin in facade
order were
to analyze
analyzedtheduring
actual
state of the double-skin facade. As shown in Figure 5, daily average outdoor air temperature and
operation
the state of
measurement the double-skin
period. facade. As shown
Outdoor air temperature graduallyin decreased
Figure 5, with
dailya seasonal
average change
outdoorfrom
air
accumulated irradiance of the multistory double-skin facade were analyzed during the measurement
temperature
summer and
(June) to accumulated irradiance
winter (December), andofthethe multistory
irradiance of double-skin facade
the vertical side were
of the analyzed during
double-skin facade
period. Outdoor air temperature gradually decreased with a seasonal change from summer (June) to
the measurement
slowly increased as period. Outdoor
solar altitude air temperature
lowered. gradually
To find the decreased
actual operation with
state ofathe
seasonal change
double-skin from
facade
winter (December), and the irradiance of the vertical side of the double-skin facade slowly increased
summer
in winter,(June) to winter
the results of (December),
measurements andwhich
the irradiance
were made of the vertical
from side 26
October of the double-skin
to December 30facade
were
as solar altitude lowered. To find the actual operation state of the double-skin facade in winter, the
slowly increased
analyzed. The main as solar altitude
influence lowered.
factors of theTo find the
thermal actual operation
environment werestate of thefor
analyzed double-skin facade
the categories of
results of measurements which were made from October 26 to December 30 were analyzed. The main
in winter, the results of measurements which were made from October 26 to December
irradiance level (high, middle low) on the basis of the irradiance of the vertical side, as shown in Table 30 were
influence factors of the thermal environment were analyzed for the categories of irradiance level (high,
analyzed.
3. AnalysisThe main
days for influence
each rangefactors of the thermal
were selected, environment
and then the actualwere analyzed
operation stateforof the
the categories of
double-skin
middle low) on (high,
irradiance the basis of the irradiance of the vertical side, as shown in Table 3. Analysis days for
facade waslevel
analyzed. middle low) on the basis of the irradiance of the vertical side, as shown in Table
each range were
3. Analysis days selected, and then
for each range theselected,
were actual operation
and then state of theoperation
the actual double-skin facade
state of thewas analyzed.
double-skin
facade was analyzed.

Figure 5. Solar
Solar irradiance
irradiance and
and outdoor
outdoor air
air temperature
temperature during the measurement period.

Figure 5. Solar irradiance and outdoor air temperature during the measurement period.
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Table 3. Analysis days in winter with temperature and solar irradiance.

Table 3. Analysis days in winter with temperature and solar irradiance.
Solar
Solar
Irradiance
Irradiance High Middle Low
High Middle Low
Season
Winter
Season 0–2000 Wh/m2 ·day 2000–4000 Wh/m2 ·day 4000–6000 Wh/m2 ·day

Winter 0–2000 Wh/㎡·day

Accumulated solar Average weekly outdoor
Category Analysis day2000–4000 Wh/㎡·day 4000–6000 Wh/㎡·day
irradiance (Wh/m2 ·day) temperature (◦ C)
Accumulated solar
November 2 irradiance 5253.41 Average weekly 10.17
Category Analysis day
outdoor temperature (℃)
November 12 (Wh/㎡·day) 4929.56 12.76
High
December
November 2 16 5253.41 5583.18 10.17 −0.36
November 12
December 24 4929.56 5553.91 12.76 −5.01
High
December 16
November 14 5583.18 3529.87 −0.36 2.13
December 24 5553.91 −5.01
Winter November 20 3627.01 5.29
Middle November 14 3529.87 2.13
December 22 3452.95 4.1
November 20 3627.01 5.29
Winter Middle December 31 3467.31 −4.09
December 22 3452.95 4.1
November 27
December 31 3467.31
1153.65 −4.09
5.85
December 8
Nov. 27 1153.65 1301.80 5.85 2.01
Low
Dec.December
8 13 1301.80 345.42 2.01 3.74
Low
Dec. December
13 17 345.42 1591.55 3.74 0.32
Dec. 17 1591.55 0.32

As shown in Figures 6 and 7, outdoor air temperature and irradiance were analyzed. When solar
As shown in Figures 6 and 7, outdoor air temperature and irradiance were analyzed. When solar
irradiance was at the high level, average outdoor air temperature and daily average accumulated
irradiance was at the high level, average outdoor air◦ temperature and daily 2average accumulated
irradiance in the daytime (8:00–17:00) were 5.79 C and 5249.49 Wh/m ·day. When irradiance was
irradiance in the daytime (8:00–17:00) were 5.79 ℃ and 5249.49 Wh/㎡·day. When irradiance was at
atthe
themiddle
middle level, they were ◦ C and 3519.29 Wh/m2 ·day. When irradiance was at the low level,
level, they were 1.9 1.9
℃ and 3519.29 Wh/㎡·day. When irradiance was at the low level,
they ◦ Wh/m2 ·day.
they were
were 2.04
2.04 ℃C andand1102.23
1102.23Wh/㎡·day. Outdoor
Outdoor air temperature
air temperature in winter
in winter was lowerwasthan
lower
in than in
summer
summer and theintermediate
and the intermediate period.
period. However,
However, the inflow
the inflow irradiance
irradiance of the multistory
of the multistory (vertical (vertical
side) side)
double-skin facade increased in winter as solar altitude was lowered.
double-skin facade increased in winter as solar altitude was lowered.

Figure6.6.
Figure Average
Average outdoor
outdoor air temperature
air temperature andirradiance
and solar solar irradiance in winter.
in winter.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 9 of 24
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 24

Figure 7. Average outdoor air temperature and

and solar
solar irradiance
irradiance measurement
measurement results.
results.

As
As presented
presentedinin Figure 8, the
Figure 8, internal air temperature
the internal for irradiance
air temperature was analyzed.
for irradiance When irradiance
was analyzed. When
was at the high level, the analysis date was December 16. Average outdoor
irradiance was at the high level, the analysis date was December 16. Average outdoor air temperature air temperature in the
◦ (max: ℃ ◦
daytime (8:00–17:00)
in the daytime was −0.36
(8:00–17:00) wasC –0.36 3.13(max: 3.13 ℃,
C, 13:00), and13:00),
the daily
and total
theaccumulated irradiance of
daily total accumulated
the multistory double-skin 2 ·day (max: 823.87 Wh/m2 , 13:00). When solar
irradiance of the multistoryfacade was 5583.18
double-skin facadeWh/m
was 5583.18 Wh/㎡·day (max: 823.87 Wh/㎡, 13:00).
irradiance
When solar was at the middle
irradiance was atlevel,
the the analysis
middle date
level, thewas December
analysis 31. Average
date was December outdoor air temperature
31. Average outdoor
in
airthe daytime (8:00–17:00)
temperature in the daytime −4.09 ◦ C (max:
was(8:00–17:00) −2.62℃
was –4.09 ◦ C, 15:00), and the daily total accumulated
(max: –2.62 ℃, 15:00), and the daily total
irradiance
accumulated of the multistory
irradiance double-skin
of the multistory facade was 3491.63
double-skin facade was23491.63
Wh/m ·day (max: (max:2 ,760.55
760.55 Wh/m
Wh/㎡·day 12:00;
min: 13.69 Wh/m 2
Wh/㎡, 12:00; min:, 8:00).
13.69 When
Wh/㎡,solar irradiance
8:00). When solar wasirradiance
at the lowwaslevel,
atthe
theanalysis date
low level, thewas December
analysis date
13. ◦ C (max: 5.29 ◦ C, 16:00), and
wasAverage
Decemberoutdoor air temperature
13. Average outdoorinair thetemperature
daytime (8:00–17:00) was 3.74
in the daytime (8:00–17:00) was 3.74℃ (max:
the ℃, 16:00),
5.29daily total accumulated
and the dailyirradiance of the multistory
total accumulated irradiance double-skin facade double-skin
of the multistory facade2 ·day
was 345.42 Wh/m was
(max: 2
345.4274.75 Wh/m (max:
Wh/㎡·day , 13:00).
74.75 Wh/㎡, 13:00).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 10 of 24
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Figure 8.
Figure Air temperature
8. Air temperature at
at double
double skin
skin façade
façade by
by solar
solar irradiance
irradiance in
in winter.
winter.

In winter, the
In winter, the outlet
outletofofthe theupper
upperside side is is closed.
closed. TheThe cavity’s
cavity’s air with
air with increased
increased temperature
temperature is in
is in connection with the OA (available air volume: 9600
connection with the OA (available air volume: 9600 CMH (cubic meter per hour)) of CMH (cubic meter per hour)) of the
the air
air
conditioning system in the upper side. In other words, the double-skin
conditioning system in the upper side. In other words, the double-skin facade is used not only as the facade is used not only as the
preheating
preheating path path ofof OA
OA to to reduce
reduce outdoor
outdoor air air load,
load, but
but for
for the
the complex
complex function
function of of preventing
preventing heatheat
loss from the inside to the outside resulting from air with increased
loss from the inside to the outside resulting from air with increased temperature. In terms temperature. In terms of of the
the air
air
temperature of the cavity, with a rise in solar irradiance, the temperature
temperature of the cavity, with a rise in solar irradiance, the temperature difference between the difference between the upper
and
upperlowerandairlower
inlet and
air outlet
inlet andareasoutlet
increased,
areasand the floor-to-floor
increased, and thestratification
floor-to-floor of air temperature
stratification ofwas
air
more distinct. On December 16 (when solar irradiance was at the high
temperature was more distinct. On December 16 (when solar irradiance was at the high level), the level), the temperature difference
between the upper andbetween
lower airthe
inlet andand outlet areas ◦ C at 13:00, the maximum time of
temperature difference upper lower airwas
inlet24.15
and outlet areas was 24.15 ℃ at 13:00,
solar irradiance.
the maximum Onof
time December 31 (whenOn
solar irradiance. solar irradiance
December was at solar
31 (when the middle level),
irradiance wastheattemperature
the middle
difference ◦
level), the temperature difference between the upper and lower air inlet and outlet areas maximum
between the upper and lower air inlet and outlet areas was 24.31 C at 12:00, the was 24.31
time
℃ atof solarthe
12:00, irradiance.
maximum Ontime
December
of solar13irradiance.
(when solar Onirradiance
Decemberwas at the low
13 (when solarlevel), the temperature
irradiance was at the
difference ◦ C at 13:00, the maximum
low level),between the upperdifference
the temperature and lowerbetween
air inlet and outlet areas
the upper was 24.15
and lower air inlet and outlet areas was
time of solar irradiance. Therefore, the overall temperature
24.15 ℃ at 13:00, the maximum time of solar irradiance. Therefore, the overall difference was large in winter, compared
temperature
to other seasons. The stratification of cavity air temperature on each
difference was large in winter, compared to other seasons. The stratification of cavity air temperaturefloor (height) was the most
distinct
on each when solar irradiance
floor (height) was the mostwas at the high
distinct when level in winter,
solar irradiance justwas
likeat inthe
summer.
high level Thein floor-to-floor
winter, just
temperature gradient was reduced as solar irradiance was lowered. The
like in summer. The floor-to-floor temperature gradient was reduced as solar irradiance was lowered. temperature gradient of the
second and third floors was relatively larger in winter than in other seasons,
The temperature gradient of the second and third floors was relatively larger in winter than in other and the temperature
seasons, and the temperature from the fourth floor to the exit was somewhat concentrated. It is
judged that in winter, compared to other seasons, this temperature concentration was attributable to
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 11 of 24

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

from the fourth floor to the exit was somewhat concentrated. It is judged that in winter, compared to
the seasons,
other reason thatthisthe low floorsconcentration
temperature had more distinct stratification
was attributable duereason
to the to inflow andlow
that the interference
floors hadof
outdoor
more air stratification
distinct with low temperature,
due to inflowbutandtheinterference
high floorsof had their air
outdoor outletlow
air with closed and did not
temperature, have
but the
high floors had their air outlet closed and did not have enough preheated air through the double-skinair
enough preheated air through the double-skin facade in the way of utilizing OA of the
conditioning
facade in the way system in the OA
of utilizing duct in order
of the to constantly
air conditioning systemkeep in the stratification
the duct in order tostructure.
constantlyThe
temperature
keep of eachstructure.
the stratification region of The the temperature
cavity was analyzed on theofbasis
of each region of thewas
the cavity average temperature
analyzed on the
measured at 11:00–16:00, a time slot that accounts for just over 60% of
basis of the average temperature measured at 11:00–16:00, a time slot that accounts for just over 60%the daily accumulated
ofirradiance of the multistory
the daily accumulated double-skin
irradiance facade. Just
of the multistory as in other
double-skin seasons,
facade. Just asininwinter, the surface
other seasons, in
temperature
winter, of the
the surface outer skinofexposed
temperature the outerto skin
solarexposed
irradiance was irradiance
to solar the highest. However,
was on the
the highest. analysis
However,
onday
thewhen solarday
analysis irradiance
when solarwas irradiance
at the low level,
was at there
the was
low the lowest
level, theretemperature
was the lowest distribution due to
temperature
the interference
distribution due toof low
the outdoor air
interference temperature
of low outdoor air fortemperature
low irradiance heatirradiance
for low absorption. With
heat regard to
absorption.
the temperature difference of each region, the temperature of indoor
With regard to the temperature difference of each region, the temperature of indoor window glass
window glass relatively
vulnerable to heat resistance was high due to heat loss, since indoor heating air conditioning was
relatively vulnerable to heat resistance was high due to heat loss, since indoor heating air conditioning
applied. For this reason, the temperature difference of each region on the low floors was the largest.
was applied. For this reason, the temperature difference of each region on the low floors was the largest.
It was somewhat reduced on higher floors because of a rise in cavity air temperature. Just as with
It was somewhat reduced on higher floors because of a rise in cavity air temperature. Just as with
cavity air temperature, the temperature difference of each region was decreased as solar irradiance
cavity air temperature, the temperature difference of each region was decreased as solar irradiance
was lowered.
was lowered.
As shown in Figure 9, the wind velocity of the air inlet in the lower side in winter was analyzed.
As shown in Figure 9, the wind velocity of the air inlet in the lower side in winter was analyzed.
Unlike in other seasons, in winter, the air outlet in the upper side was closed and the preheated air
Unlike in other seasons, in winter, the air outlet in the upper side was closed and the preheated air
through the double-skin facade was used as OA. For this reason, although the wind velocity of the
through the double-skin facade was used as OA. For this reason, although the wind velocity of the air
air inlet in the lower side was somewhat different due to buoyancy according to irradiance, it
inlet in the lower side was somewhat different due to buoyancy according to irradiance, it remained at
remained at 0.8–1.2 m/s on average in the daytime (8:00–17:00).
0.8–1.2 m/s on average in the daytime (8:00–17:00).

Figure 9. 9.Wind
Figure Windvelocity distribution
velocity ofof
distribution the Outlet
the inin
Outlet winter.
winter.

InInterms
terms ofofmeasuring
measuring the
thedouble-skin
double-skinfacadefacadecavity
cavityininwinter,
winter, the
theoutlet ofof
outlet the theupper
upper side
sidewaswas
closed in order to use the facade as the preheating path of air conditioning
closed in order to use the facade as the preheating path of air conditioning OA, and the cavity OA, and the cavity andand
airair
conditioning system interacted in terms of OA. According to the field
conditioning system interacted in terms of OA. According to the field measurement, the air with measurement, the air with
increased
increased temperature
temperature through
through thethedouble-skin
double-skin facade
facade had
had little OA
little OA utilization
utilizationsosothat
thatairair
stood
stood still
still
from the 4th floor to the exit area, and consequently temperature concentration
from the 4th floor to the exit area, and consequently temperature concentration occurred in the upper occurred in the upper
side.
side.Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,ininwinter,winter,the thedirection
directionofofintensive
intensiveheat heatflowflowininthetheupper
upperside
sidewas waslostlosttotothe
the
outside, not to the inside, due to the influence of low outdoor air temperature,
outside, not to the inside, due to the influence of low outdoor air temperature, and therefore, overheatand therefore, overheat
transfer
transfer was
was notnotfound
found ininthe upper
the upper side.
side.InInwinter,
winter, if if
outer
outerskin
skinload
loadand
andoutdoor
outdoor airair
load
loadare arereduced
reduced
ininthe
thewaywayofofapplying
applying anan appropriate
appropriate airair
volume
volume control
control strategy
strategy forfor
OAOA utilization
utilization ofofthe
the preheated
preheated
airair
through
through thethedouble-skin
double-skin facade,
facade, it is possible
it is possibleto to
save
savea great
a great deal
dealof of
energy.
energy.

4. Analysis of the Effects of the Improvement Plan for Double-Skin Facade Operation
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4. Analysis of the Effects of the Improvement Plan for Double-Skin Facade Operation
In order to propose an indoor air conditioning energy reduction plan using preheated air
In order to propose
through an indoor
the double-skin air conditioning
facade, energyareduction
this study utilized plan using
building energy preheated
analysis air through
simulation to be
the double-skin
implemented on the target building and then analyzed the effects of the improvement plan for theon
facade, this study utilized a building energy analysis simulation to be implemented
the target building and
double-skin thenAn
facade. analyzed the effects
EnergyPlus of the model
simulation improvement plan for that
was suggested the double-skin
implementedfacade.
the
An EnergyPlus simulation
aforementioned model
airflow was suggested
network thatthe
and analyzed implemented the aforementioned
ventilation performance and energy airflow network
performance
according
and analyzed thetoventilation
the application of alternative
performance andplans and performance
energy thermal effect. according to the application of
alternative plans and thermal effect.
4.1. Target Building Modeling and OA-Based System Design
4.1. Target Building
Through Modeling and OA-Based
target building System
modeling Designthe building energy analysis simulation that
(baseline),
implemented a double-skin facade was executed. In comparison with the results of the
Through target building modeling (baseline), the building energy analysis simulation that
aforementioned field measurement, the validity of the simulation model was verified. Table 4
implemented a double-skin facade was executed. In comparison with the results of the aforementioned
presents information on the building modeling. As alternative plans(ALT) for activating the internal
field measurement,
airflow of thethe validity of
double-skin the simulation
facade, model
double-skin was
facades verified.
with Table 4systems
solar chimney presents information
were suggested,on
the building modeling.
as illustrated As alternative
in Table 5. plans(ALT) for activating the internal airflow of the double-skin
facade, double-skin facades with solar chimney systems were suggested, as illustrated in Table 5.
Table 4. Input information of the baseline simulation model.
Table 4. Input information of the baseline simulation model.
Thickness U-value
Part Material SHGC Baseline Model
Thickness (m) (W/m2K)
U-Value
Part Material 9 mm green SHGC Baseline Model
① External glass (m) (W/m2 K) 5.38
0.009 0.521
glass
9 mm green
O
1 External glass
6 mm0.009
clear 5.38 0.521
glass
glass
6 mm clear
② Internal glass glass 12 mm air gap 0.024 2.7 0.701
O
2 Internal glass 12 mm air gap 6 mm0.024
clear 2.7 0.701
6 mm clear glass
glass Granite stone
Granite stone Air layer
Air layer Metal sheet
③ Outer wallMetal sheet 0.32 0.395 -
O
3 Outer wall Air layer
0.32 0.395 -
Air layer Insulation
Insulation
Gypsum board
Gypsum board
Aluminum
④ Wall of the upper side of the
Aluminum
O
4 Wall of the upper side of sheet 0.083 0.465 -
double-skin
the double-skin facade facade sheet 0.083 0.465 -
insulation insulation

Plain concrete Plain concrete

Mortar Mortar
Waterproof Waterproof
O5 Roof ⑤ Roof 0.368 0.368
0.418 0.418 - -
sheet sheet
Concrete slab Concrete slab
Insulation Insulation
○ Inner
# Inner skinskin
window-to-wall
window-to-wall ratio: 0.5.0.5.
ratio:
# Internal heat generation conditions: device load 25 W/m 2 , lighting load 17 W/m2 , occupancy density 8 m2 /person.
○ Internal heat generation conditions: device load 25 W/㎡, ◦lighting load 17 W/㎡, occupancy density 8 ㎡
# Cooling and heating set temperature: cooling 28 C, heating 20 ◦ C (08:00–18:00).
/person.
# Simulation time step: 1 min.
○ Cooling and heating set temperature: cooling 28 ℃, heating 20 ℃ (08:00–18:00).
○ Simulation time step: 1 min.

Table 5. Solar chimney systems as alternative plans.

Type Baseline ALT1 ALT2 ALT3

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 13 of 24

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24
Type Baseline ALT1 ALT2 ALT3

Concept
Concept map Concept
Concept
map mapmapmap
Concept
Concept map

Each Each Each

alternative alternative
alternative
planplan plan plan
replaced replaced
replaced the the the
outlet outlet
outlet
heightheight height
(TOP) (TOP)(TOP)
position ofposition
position ofofbaselineof the baseline model. According
Each
Each Eachalternative
alternative
alternative plan
plan replaced
replaced
replaced the
theoutlet
the outlet
outlet height
height
height (TOP) (TOP)
(TOP) position
position
position the
oftheof
the
the the
baseline
baseline
model.
baseline
baseline model.model.
model.
model. According
According According
According
According
to the to the
to installation
the
to theinstallationinstallation
installation
height heightheight
of height
theof solar
the
of theofchimney
solarthe
solar solar
chimney chimney
chimney
(SC), (SC),
the (SC), (SC),
the the the
temperature
temperature temperature
temperatureof the of inside
the
of theof of
the
inside inside
inside of the
of double-skin
the the
of thedouble-skin double-skin
double-skin
to the
to the installation
installationheight heightof of the
the solar
solar chimney
chimney (SC), (SC), the the temperature
temperature of of the
the inside
inside of of thethe double-skin
double-skin
facade,facade, facade,
facade,
airflow,airflow,andairflow,
airflow, and and
indoor and
indoorindoor
load indoor
load load
were load
were were
analyzed.were
analyzed. analyzed.
analyzed.
The The The
outlet The
outletoutlet
height outlet
heightheight
(TOP) height
(TOP) (TOP)
of (TOP)
of the
the of
of the
upper upperthe
upper
side upper
side ofside
of side
the the of the
of the
facade, airflow,
facade, airflow, and indoor
and
double-skin indoor
facade load
load
in the were
were
baseline analyzed.
analyzed. model TheTheoutletoutlet height
height (TOP)from
(TOP) ofof the
the upper
upper side
side a ofof the
the
double-skin
double-skin double-skin
facade facadefacade
in in baseline
the the
in the baseline
baseline
model model model
showed showed noshowed
showed no great
great nodifference
nodifference
great great difference
difference
fromfrom thefromthe the
height the
height aheight
height
of of aofreference
aofreference
reference reference
double-skin
double-skin
floor. floor.
floor. facade
floor.
Therefore,
Therefore, in
Therefore,in the
Therefore,
this thisthe
study baseline
this baseline
studythis
study model
study model
established
established established showed
established showed
the the
the following the no
following no
followinggreat
great
following difference
plans—the
plans—the difference
plans—the
plans—the
2nd2nd floor from
2nd from
2nd
floor the
floor
heightheight height
the
floor
height
of height
height
of SC
the theof a reference
of
of the
of (ALT1:
the
SC a SC
(ALT1: reference
7.5 (ALT1:
SC (ALT1: floor.
7.5 7.5 7.5
Therefore,
floor.
m),Therefore,
m),m),
the the
3rd this3rdstudy
m),
the
floor this
the
3rd
floor 3rd
floor
height established
study
floor
heightheight
of established
height
theof SCthe the
of
of (ALT2:
the
SC SCfollowing
the
(ALT2: the
SC
(ALT2: following
11.6(ALT2:
11.6
m),11.6
m),
and plans—the
11.6
m),
and plans—the
them), theand
and
thermalthe 2nd
the
thermal
thermal
effect floor
2nd
thermal
effect height
floor
effecteffect height of theof
implementation
implementation
implementationimplementation SC
forthe for(ALT1:
SC
for (ALT1: 7.5 7.5
m),
for increasing
increasing
increasing increasing
thethe
m), 3rd
the thefloor
3rd
solarthe
solar height
floor
the
solar height
solar of
transmittance
transmittance the
transmittance SC
ofofthe
transmittance
theofSC(ALT2:
of(ALT2:
the
outer ofskin
the
outer 11.6
the
outer 11.6
outer
skin
and m),
skin
andand
m),
skin
the and
the the
and
and
the thermal
the
the
insolation
insolation thermal
insolation effect
insolation effect
absorptance
absorptance implementation
ofimplementation
absorptance
absorptance of inner
the the
of theofwall
innerthe
inner for
inner
wall increasing
for
wall
(ALT3) increasing
wall
(ALT3) in the
in (ALT3)
(ALT3) in in
solar
the order
solarorderorder
to order
transmittance
to
activate
transmittance tobuoyancy-induced
activate
to activateactivate
of the thebuoyancy-induced
outer
buoyancy-induced
ofbuoyancy-inducedskinskin
outer and
airflow and by airflow
theairflow
airflow insolation
the byinsolation
by by
increasing
increasing increasing
absorptance
increasing the the
theabsorptance the
temperature
temperature temperature
of the
temperatureofinner
of wall
of inner
the
the the
of
SC of
the the
SC(ALT3)
SC
path—and SC
path—and
wall path—and
in
path—and
(ALT3) orderin
to analyzed
analyzed
activate analyzed
analyzed
their their their
buoyancy-induced their
effects.
effects. effects.
effects. airflow by increasing
order to activate buoyancy-induced airflow by increasing the temperature of the SC path—and the temperature of the SC path—and analyzed
In In
In their
their effects.
analyzed winter, In
winter, the
effects. winter,
winter, the the
double-skinthe
double-skin double-skin
double-skin
facade facade facadefacade
securessecures
secures
the secures
the
outerthe the
outer outer
skin outer
skin skin skin
insulation
insulation insulation
insulation performance
performance performance
performance of theof of the of
the the
installation installation
installation
installation
side side
to side
to
reduce side
reduce
to to reduce
reduce
outer outerouter
skin outer
skin
load,skin skin
load,
asload,
asload,
shown shown
as asFigure
shown
in shown
in Figure
in in Figure
Figure
10, 10,
and 10,
and
is 10,
and
is
used and
used
is
as isasused
used
the the
as as the
the
preheating
preheating preheating
preheating
path path path path
In winter,
In winter,the thedouble-skin
double-skin facadefacade secures the outer
secures the skin outerinsulation
skin insulation performance of the installation
performance of the
of OA of OAof OA
flowingof OA
flowing in flowing
flowing in internal
the the
in thein the
internal AHUinternal
internal AHU AHU
(Air AHU
(Air (Air
Handling (Air
Handling Handling
Handling
Unit) Unit)
inUnit) inUnit)
order order in
intoorder order
to
reduce reduce to reduce
to reduce
the the the
outdoor the
outdoorairoutdoor
outdoor air load
load air air
of loadofload
air of air
of air
side to reduce
installation side outer skin load,
to reduce outer asskin
shown load, in Figure
as shown 10, in and is used
Figure 10,asand the is preheating
used as the path of OA flowing
preheating path
conditioning. conditioning.
conditioning.
conditioning.In thisIn this
In In
this
study, this
study,study,
the study,
the
SC theSCthe SC SC
proposed
proposed proposed
proposed
to to improve
improve tothe
to improve improve
the
heatthe heat the
heat heat
performance
performance performance
performanceof theof theof the of the
double-skin
double-skin double-skin
double-skin
inOA
of the facade
internal
flowing facadeAHU
in the (Air
internal
increases Handling
the AHU
solar Unit)
(Air
heat in
Handling
use order
capacity to
Unit)
andreducein
OA orderthe
preheating outdoor
to reduce air
the load of
outdoor air conditioning.
air load so air
of
facade
facade increases increases
increases
the the the
solar solar solar
heat heat
use heat
use use
capacity
capacity capacity
and and
OAand OA OA
preheating
preheating preheating
amount amount of amount
amount the of the
of double-skin
the
of the
double-skindouble-skin
double-skin
facade facade
facade
so facade
so so
In that
thisthat
conditioning.study,
it that
that
it can canthe
In
it can
save saveSC
this
itmore
can
saveproposed
study,
save
more more
heating morethe
heating to
heatingSC
energy improve
heatingproposed
energyenergyenergy the
in winter.
in winter. heat
to
in
in winter. performance
improve
winter.
Therefore,
Therefore, the
Therefore,
Therefore, heat
in winter
in winter of the
in winter
in winter double-skin
performance
evaluation,
evaluation, evaluation,
evaluation, of
the the
the indoor facade
the
indoorthe increases
double-skin
indoor
indoorheating
heating heating
heating
theload
facade solar
load
and heat
increases
load
andload
the use
thethe
and and capacity
the solar
the
OA-based
OA-based OA-based
heatheat
OA-basedand
heat useOA
heat
throughthrough preheating
capacity
heat
through
the through
the the and the amount
OA
double-skin
double-skin double-skin
facade of
preheating
double-skin facade the
facade double-skin
facade amount
according
according to of
according
according
to tothefacade
to OA-based
OA-based
OA-based OA-based
air sovolume
double-skin
air
volume that
air air itvolume
volume
were can
facade
were save
wereso
were
more
that heating
it analyzed
analyzedcananalyzed
save
in energy
inmore
analyzed
each each
in each
proposedin
heating
eachwinter.
inproposed energy
proposed
proposed
alternative Therefore,
in winter.
alternative
alternative
alternative
plan plan in
plan
using winter
Therefore,
plan
using
anusing using
an
SC. SC.
anevaluation,
anin
SC. SC.winter the indoor heating
evaluation, the indoor load heating
and the
OA-based
load heat
and the throughheat
OA-based the through
double-skin facade according
the double-skin facadetoaccording
OA-basedtoair volume were
OA-based analyzed
air volume in
were
each proposed
analyzed in eachalternative
proposedplan using an
alternative SC.using an SC.
plan

Figure
Figure 10. Figure
Figure
10.
Concept 10.
Concept Concept
10. Concept
of the of simulation
the model
ofsimulation
the
of the simulation
simulation model
model
for model
for for
outdoor outdoor
for outdoor
outdoor air (OA)-based
air (OA)-based
air (OA)-based
air (OA)-based air conditioning
air conditioning
air conditioning
air conditioning in winter.
in winter.
in winter.
in winter.

The The The

total The
total
total
area oftotal
area ofarea
area
the the
air of the
air air conditioning
of conditioning
the conditioning
air conditioning
zonezone ofzone
ofzone
the the of the
of the double-skin
double-skin
double-skin
double-skin facade
facade facade
facade
was was was ㎥. As
was
19,440
19,440 ㎥.shown
19,440
19,440 As ㎥. shown
㎥. shown
As As
in shown
in in in
the the
the table, the
table,
the table,
table,
the the
indoor the
indoor indoor
indoor
heating
heating loadheating
heatingload
andloadload
and andand OA-based
OA-based
OA-basedOA-based
heatheat ofheat
of heat
the the of the
of the installation
installation
installation
installation sideside of side
side
of the the of the
of the double-skin
double-skin
double-skin
double-skin facade
facade facade
facade
Figure
Figure10.
10.Concept
Conceptof
ofthe
thesimulation
simulationmodel
modelfor
foroutdoor
outdoorair
air(OA)-based
(OA)-basedair
airconditioning
conditioningin
inwinter.
winter.

The total area of the air conditioning zone of the double-skin facade was 19,440 ㎥. As shown in
the table, the indoor heating load and OA-based heat of the installation side of the double-skin facade
were calculated according to the OA-based air volume (air changes 0.2/h–2/h) through the double-
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 14 of 24

The total area of the air conditioning zone of the double-skin facade was 19,440 m3 . As shown in
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24
the table, the indoor heating load and OA-based heat of the installation side of the double-skin facade
were calculated according to the OA-based air volume (air changes 0.2/h–2/h) through the double-skin
skin facade in each alternative plan with an SC. The indoor heating load and OA-based heat were
facade in each alternative plan with an SC. The indoor heating load and OA-based heat were added
added together (OA-based heat-indoor heating load), and then an appropriate air volume for the
together (OA-based heat-indoor heating load), and then an appropriate air volume for the designed
designed air change in each alternative plan was selected. On the basis of the baseline model (OA-
air change in each alternative plan was selected. On the basis of the baseline model (OA-based air
based air volume: 9600 CMH) actually operated by the double-skin facade, the relative energy
volume: 9600 CMH) actually operated by the double-skin facade, the relative energy performance
performance improvement value of the selected appropriate air volume in each alternative plan with
improvement value of the selected appropriate air volume in each alternative plan with an SC was
an SC was analyzed. According to the daily accumulated irradiance of the multistory double-skin
analyzed. According to the daily accumulated irradiance of the multistory double-skin facade as the
facade as the dominant influential factor on the thermal behavior of the double-skin facade, they were
dominant influential factor on the thermal behavior of the double-skin facade, they were divided
divided into high (4000 Wh/㎡ and more), middle (2000–4000 W/㎡), and low (2000 Wh/㎡ or less)
into high (4000 Wh/m2 and more), middle (2000–4000 W/m2 ), and low (2000 Wh/m2 or less) types.
types. The simulation period was 95 days of heating operation from Nov. 1 to Mar. 15. Heating load
The simulation period was 95 days of heating operation from 1 November to 15 March. Heating load
was calculated only in the south air conditioning zone (1F–5F) directly influenced by the double-skin
was calculated only in the south air conditioning zone (1F–5F) directly influenced by the double-skin
facade. In terms of climate data, outdoor air temperature and humidity, measured data of solar
facade. In terms of climate data, outdoor air temperature and humidity, measured data of solar
irradiance, and wind direction and velocity data of relevant regions, which are offered by Korea
irradiance, and wind direction and velocity data of relevant regions, which are offered by Korea
Meteorological Administration, were used.
Meteorological Administration, were used.
4.2.
4.2. Analysis
Analysis Results
Results of
of the
the Operation
Operation Improvement
Improvement Plan
Plan
Figure
Figure 11
11 shows
shows thethe measurement
measurement results
results on
on the
the x-axis
x-axis andand the
the simulation
simulation results
results onon the
the y-axis
y-axis
in
in the same time zones, reacting to the same external environments on the selected analysis days,
the same time zones, reacting to the same external environments on the selected analysis days,
according
according toto the
the solar
solar irradiance
irradiance levels
levels inin terms
terms of
of cavity
cavity airair temperature
temperature in in order
order to
to verify
verify the
the airflow
airflow
network
network simulation
simulation baseline
baseline model
model in in summer.
summer. Based
Based onon thethe linear
linear equation
equation withwith aa y-intercept
y-intercept ofof ‘0′,
‘0’,
if the coefficient of x value and R2 value are close to ‘1′, it is proved that the measurement
if the coefficient of x value and R2 value are close to ‘1’, it is proved that the measurement values are values are
highly
highly consistent
consistent with
with simulation
simulation values.
values. According
According toto the
the comparison,
comparison, the the coefficient
coefficient to
to xx value
value was
was
0.98, and R2 was 0.96. As a result, there was a considerably high level
0.98, and R2 was 0.96. As a result, there was a considerably high level of consistency. of consistency.

Figure 11.
Figure Comparison of
11. Comparison of air
air temperature
temperature between
between measurement
measurement and simulation results.

Figure 12
Figure 12 shows
shows thethe double-skin facade-based heat
double-skin facade-based heat and
and indoor
indoor heating
heating load
load for
for the
the period
period
(November to
(November to March)
March) according
according to
to the
the OA-based
OA-based air
air volume.
volume. InIn terms
terms of
of double-skin
double-skin facade-based
facade-based
heat, when solar irradiance was at the high and middle levels, each alternative plan showed
heat, when solar irradiance was at the high and middle levels, each alternative plan showed that that with
with
aa rise
rise in
in OA-based
OA-based airair volume,
volume, the
the double-skin
double-skin facade-based
facade-based heat
heat gradually
gradually increased
increased and
and remained
remained
almost unchanged in the range of about 26,000 CMH and above. When solar irradiance wasthe
almost unchanged in the range of about 26,000 CMH and above. When solar irradiance was at at low
the
low level, each alternative plan showed that with a rise in OA-based air volume, the double-skin
facade heat gradually increased, and remained almost unchanged and then decreased to a value in
the range of about 15,000 CMH and above. In each alternative plan, with the application of an SC and
a rise in its height, the double-skin facade-based heat also increased. The ALT3, which implemented
thermal effect, showed the highest heat value. On balance, with an increase in the amount of
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 15 of 24

level, each alternative plan showed that with a rise in OA-based air volume, the double-skin facade
heat gradually increased, and remained almost unchanged and then decreased to a value in the range
of about 15,000 CMH and above. In each alternative plan, with the application of an SC and a rise in
its height, the double-skin facade-based heat also increased. The ALT3, which implemented thermal
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 24
effect, showed the highest heat value. On balance, with an increase in the amount of irradiance of the
double-skin facade, the OA-based air volume also went up. Additionally, with the application of an SC
irradiance of the double-skin facade, the OA-based air volume also went up. Additionally, with the
to the upper side of the double-skin facade, solar heat was used more, and therefore the OA utilization
application of an SC to the upper side of the double-skin facade, solar heat was used more, and
through the double-skin facade was larger.
therefore the OA utilization through the double-skin facade was larger.

Figure12.
Figure 12.Heat
Heatgain
gainand
andheating
heatingload
loadfrom
fromsimulation
simulationresults.
results.

Interms
In termsofofannual
annual heating
heating load
load according
according to the
to the double-skin
double-skin facade-based
facade-based air volume,
air volume, with with
a risea
inrise in OA-based
OA-based air volume,
air volume, the temperature
the temperature distribution
distribution by cavityby cavity
height andheight and the
the surface heatsurface heat
resistance
ofresistance
the innerof the inner wall were lowered and therefore indoor heating load gradually increased, but
wall were lowered and therefore indoor heating load gradually increased, but it was lower
it was
than lower
of the thethan of the the
double-skin double-skin
facade-based facade-based
heat. Comparedheat. to theCompared to the each
baseline model, baseline model,plan
alternative each
alternative
showed that plan
with showed that with
the application theSC
of an application
and a rise of in an
its SC and the
height, a rise in its height,
buoyancy of the the buoyancy
air of the cavity of
the airheat
caused of the cavity caused
concentration heat
on the SCconcentration
path and thereby on the
the 1FSCtopath and thereby
5F cavity the 1F towas
air temperature 5F relatively
cavity air
temperature
lowered was relatively
and indoor loweredincreased.
load somewhat and indoor load somewhat
Nevertheless, ALT1, increased.
ALT2, and Nevertheless, ALT1,
ALT3 had a similar
ALT2, and ALT3
distribution had heating
of annual a similarload
distribution
without anyof annual heating load without any great difference.
great difference.
Figure13
Figure 13illustrates
illustratesthetheanalysis
analysisresults
resultsofofthe
thedouble-skin
double-skinfacade-based
facade-basedheat heatproduction
productioninineacheach
alternativeplan
alternative planaccording
accordingtotoOA-based
OA-basedheat heatandandsolar
solarirradiance.
irradiance.TheThedouble-skin
double-skinfacade-based
facade-basedheat heat
productionproposed
production proposedin inthis
thisstudy
studyisisthe
thetotal
totalofofthe
thedouble-skin
double-skinfacade-based
facade-basedheat heatand
andindoor
indoorheat
heat
lossload
loss loadbybyeach
eachOA-based
OA-basedair airvolume.
volume. ItIt refers
refers toto the
the net
netheat
heatproduction
productionatatthe thetime
timewhen
whenthe the
double-skin facade is used as the preheating path of OA. When the daily accumulated irradiance of
the multistory double-skin facade was 2000 Wh/㎡ and more, the double-skin facade-based heat was
larger than the indoor heat loss load. When it was less than 2000 Wh/㎡, indoor heat loss load was
relatively larger, and therefore, general loss occurred. In the analysis of each alternative plan, the heat
produced by the double-skin facade increased in the order of Baseline < ALT1 < ALT2 < ALT3 as an
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 16 of 24

double-skin facade is used as the preheating path of OA. When the daily accumulated irradiance of
the multistory double-skin facade was 2000 Wh/m2 and more, the double-skin facade-based heat16was
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 24
larger than the indoor heat loss load. When it was less than 2000 Wh/m2 , indoor heat loss load was
relatively larger, and
SC was applied andtherefore,
its heightgeneral
went up.loss
Theoccurred. In theimplemented
ALT3, which analysis of each alternative
thermal plan,
effect on thethe
SCheat
path,
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 24
produced by the double-skin
produced the highest heat. facade increased in the order of Baseline < ALT1 < ALT2 < ALT3 as an
SC was
SC wasapplied
appliedand and itsitsheight
heightwent up.The
went up. TheALT3,
ALT3, which
which implemented
implemented thermal
thermal effecteffect
on theon
SCthe
path,SC path,
produced the highest
produced the highest heat. heat.

Figure 13. Heat gain of the double skin facade by ALT and solar irradiance.
Figure 13.Heat
Figure13. Heat gain of the
gain of thedouble
doubleskin
skin facade
facade by by
ALTALT
andand
solarsolar irradiance.
irradiance.
Figure 14 presents the air temperature of the cavity in each alternative plan on the analysis days
Figure
of solar 14 14
Figure presents
irradiancepresentsthetheair
airtemperature
selected at the timeofof
temperature of themeasurement.
the cavity
cavity in in
eacheach alternative
alternative
With riseplan
a plan in on
on the the irradiance,
analysis
analysis
solar days days
the
of solar
oftemperature
solar irradiance
irradiance selected
selected at at time
the the time
of of measurement.
measurement. With With
a rise ainrise
solarinirradiance,
solar irradiance,
the the
temperature
difference between the upper and lower sides in the double-skin facade was larger. With
temperature
difference between difference
the between
upper and the upper
lower andin
sides lower
the sides in the double-skin
double-skin facade was facade was
larger. larger.
With anWith
increase inof
ananincrease
increase
ininthe
the
installation
installation
height
height of
of the
the
SC,
SC,
there
there was
was
no
no great
great
difference
difference in the
in
air
the air temperature
temperature of close
the installation
thethe
cavity height of the(1F–5F)
SC, there was no great difference inairthe air temperature of the cavity
cavityclose
closeto to indoor
indoor (1F–5F) inineach
each plan.
plan. However,
However, thetemperature
the air temperaturein the SCin the
pathSC path gradually
gradually
toincreased
indoor (1F–5F) in each plan. However, the highest
air temperature in theincrease
SC pathoccurred
graduallyinincreased with a
increasedwith
withaariserise in theSC
in the SC height.The
height. The temperature
highest temperature increase occurred in ALT3. ALT3.
rise in the SC height. The highest temperature increase occurred in ALT3.

Figure 14. Heat production of the double skin facade by the OA airflow of the ALT.

Figure
This study
Figure 14.Heat
14.
chose aHeat
rangeproduction
of constant
production ofofthe
thedouble
increase of skin
double skinfacade
facadeby
double-skin bythetheOAOAairflow
facade-based heatof
airflow ofthe
with aALT.
the rise
ALT. in OA-
based air volume as an appropriate OA-based air volume range. Therefore, when solar irradiance
This
was at study
This the high
study chose aa range
and middle
chose of constant
rangelevels,
of constant
2600 CMH increase ofofdouble-skin
was chosen
increase double-skin
as the maximum facade-based
OA-based
facade-based heatheat
air
withwith
volume; a rise
a rise in
in OA-
OA-based
whenair
based atair
the volume
volume asasan
low level, anappropriate
1500 appropriate
CMH was chosen OA-based
OA-based air
as theair volumeOA-based
maximum
volume range.
range. Therefore,
air volume.when
Therefore, Whensolar
when irradiance
the solar
solar irradiance
was at the
irradiancehigh of and
all themiddle
air levels,
conditioning 2600
zones CMHof was
the chosen
building
was at the high and middle levels, 2600 CMH was chosen as the maximum OA-based air as
was the
at themaximum
high and OA-based
middle levels,airthevolume;
volume;
when at
number the oflow level,
maximum 1500 CMH
air changes was
waschosen as
1.3 times/h; the maximum
when the solarOA-based
when at the low level, 1500 CMH was chosen as the maximum OA-based air volume. When the solar
irradiance airwasvolume.
at the low When
level,theit solar
was 0.7 of
irradiance times/h.
all all These
thethe numbers met
air conditioning the ventilation
zones requirement
of theofbuilding was atof the0.7high
times/h and
andhigh above
middle prescribed
irradiance of air conditioning zones the building was at the andlevels,
middle thelevels,
number the
in
ofnumber‘Rules
maximum of Building
air changes Facilities
was Standards,
1.3 times/h; Etc. (2006)’
when theof the
solarMinistry of
irradiance Land,
was Transport
at the and
low Maritime
level, it was 0.7it
Affairs. of maximum
Air changes air
formet changes
introducing was 1.3 times/h;
fresh outdoor when
air canof the
be0.7 solar
different irradiance
depending was at the
onprescribed low
the operation level,
times/h.
was 0.7These
times/h. numbers
Theseand the ventilation
numbers met the requirement
ventilation requirement times/h and above
of 0.7 in ‘Rules
intention of building on irradiance. Therefore, when solar irradiance wastimes/h andand
at the high above
middle prescribed
ofinBuilding
‘RulesthreeFacilities
of Building Standards,
Facilities Etc. (2006)’
Standards, of the Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs.
levels, operation plans (number of airEtc. (2006)’0.7,
changes: of 1,
theand
Ministry of Land,
1.3 times/h) wereTransport
established, andand Maritime
Affairs.
then the Air changes for
temperature, introducing
pressure, and heat fresh outdoor
production of air
the can be different
double-skin facadedepending
cavity wereon the operation
analyzed
according
intention ofto the number
building andofonairirradiance.
changes. Therefore, when solar irradiance was at the high and middle
levels, three operation plans (number of air changes: 0.7, 1, and 1.3 times/h) were established, and
then the temperature, pressure, and heat production of the double-skin facade cavity were analyzed
according to the number of air changes.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 17 of 24

Air changes for introducing fresh outdoor air can be different depending on the operation intention
of building and on irradiance. Therefore, when solar irradiance was at the high and middle levels,
three operation plans (number of air changes: 0.7, 1, and 1.3 times/h) were established, and then the
temperature, pressure, and heat production of the double-skin facade cavity were analyzed according
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 24
to the number of air changes.
The
The cavity
cavity air air temperature
temperature on on the
the analysis
analysis days
days forfor solar
solar irradiance
irradiance in in winter
winter was was analyzed
analyzed
according to the number of air changes. Figure 15 shows the average cavity
according to the number of air changes. Figure 15 shows the average cavity air temperatures in the air temperatures in
the daytime
daytime (11:00–16:00)
(11:00–16:00) on on analysis
analysis days
days when
when solarirradiance
solar irradiancewas wasatatthe
the high
high and
and middle
middle levels
levels
according
according to the number of air changes. The lower the solar irradiance was, the smaller thethe
to the number of air changes. The lower the solar irradiance was, the smaller cavity
cavity air
air temperature
temperature difference
difference and and overall
overall temperaturedistribution
temperature distributionininthe theupper
upperand and lower
lower sides
sides of
of the
the
double-skin
double-skin facade facade were.
were. The
The cavity
cavity air
air temperatures
temperatures in in each
each alternative
alternative plan
plan were
wereanalyzed.
analyzed. AsAs aa
result, in all alternative plans, a similar temperature rise inclination remained from
result, in all alternative plans, a similar temperature rise inclination remained from 1F to TOP. With 1F to TOP. With the
application of an SC and a rise in its height, the temperature rise inclination found
the application of an SC and a rise in its height, the temperature rise inclination found in the lower in the lower side of
the
sideSCof(1F–TOP)
the SC (1F–TOP)remainedremained
constant,constant,
and the temperature in the SC zone
and the temperature in thegradually increased. increased.
SC zone gradually However,
in
However, in the ALT 3 that implemented thermal effect, the temperature rise inclination in thewas
the ALT 3 that implemented thermal effect, the temperature rise inclination in the SC zone SC
relatively larger, and thereby the temperature was the highest. With an increase
zone was relatively larger, and thereby the temperature was the highest. With an increase in the in the number of air
changes,
number of theairtemperature
changes, the rise inclination in
temperature allinclination
rise zones of the in double-skin facade
all zones of the became smaller
double-skin facade and the
became
temperature went down overall.
smaller and the temperature went down overall.

Figure
Figure15.15. Air
Air temperature
temperature distribution
distribution by
by ACH
ACH (air
(air change
change per
per hour)
hour) with
with high
high and
and middle
middle levels
levelsof
of
solar
solar irradiance.
irradiance.

Figure
Figure16 16 illustrates
illustratesthe
theaverage
averagecavity
cavitypressure
pressureininthe
the daytime
daytime (11:00–16:00)
(11:00–16:00)on onthethe analysis
analysis days
days
when
whensolar
solarirradiance
irradiancewaswasat atthe
thehigh
highlevel,
level,according
accordingto tothe
thenumber
numberof ofair
airchanges.
changes. With
With aa decrease
decrease
in
in solar
solar irradiance,
irradiance, thethe pressure
pressure difference
difference and
and overall
overall pressure
pressure inin the
the upper
upper and
and lower
lower sides
sides of
of the
the
double-skin facade were smaller. Each alternative plan had the following
double-skin facade were smaller. Each alternative plan had the following cavity pressure: cavity pressure:
In
In all
all the
the alternative
alternative plans,
plans, aa similar
similar pressure
pressure rise
rise inclination
inclination remained
remained from
from 1F1F to
to TOP.
TOP. With
With the
the
application
application of an SC and a rise in its height, the pressure rise inclination found in the lower side
of an SC and a rise in its height, the pressure rise inclination found in the lower side of
of
the
the SC
SC (1F–TOP)
(1F–TOP) remained
remained constant,
constant, andand the
the pressure
pressure inin the
the SC
SC zone
zone gradually
gradually increased.
increased. However,
However,
in the ALT 3 that implemented thermal effect, the pressure rise inclination in the SC zone was
relatively larger, and thereby the pressure was the highest. With an increase in the number of air
changes, the temperature difference and air density difference in the vertical direction of the double-
skin facade became smaller and the pressure went down overall.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 18 of 24

in the ALT 3 that implemented thermal effect, the pressure rise inclination in the SC zone was relatively
larger, and thereby the pressure was the highest. With an increase in the number of air changes,
the temperature difference and air density difference in the vertical direction of the double-skin facade
became smaller and the pressure went down overall.
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 24

Figure 16. Pressure distribution by

Figure 16. by ACH
ACH with
with high
high and
and middle
middle levels
levels of
of solar
solar irradiance.
irradiance.

Figure
Figure 17 17 presents
presents the
the average
average cavity
cavity air
air temperature
temperature and and pressure
pressure in
in the
the daytime
daytime (11:00–16:00)
(11:00–16:00)
when
when solar irradiance was at the low level. In terms of cavity air temperature, in
solar irradiance was at the low level. In terms of cavity air temperature, in all
all the
the alternative
alternative
plans,
plans, aa similar
similar temperature
temperature riserise inclination
inclination remained.
remained.However,
However,with withthe
theapplication
applicationofofan anSCSCand
anda
arise
riseininits
itsheight,
height,the
thetemperature
temperaturein inthe
theSCSC zone
zone remained
remained almost
almost same
same asas the
the temperature in the
temperature in the
TOP
TOP with
with no no temperature
temperature rise. In the
rise. In the ALT
ALT 33 thatthat implemented
implemented thermal
thermal effect,
effect, the
the air
air temperature
temperature
somewhat
somewhatincreased
increasedininthetheSCSCzone,
zone, butbut
its its
temperature
temperature riserise
waswas smaller thanthan
smaller that in thein1F–TOP
that zone.
the 1F–TOP
The overall temperature distribution was lower than that at the time when solar
zone. The overall temperature distribution was lower than that at the time when solar irradiance was irradiance was at the
high
at theandhigh middle levels.levels.
and middle In terms of cavity
In terms air temperature,
of cavity the application
air temperature, of an SC
the application and
of an SCa and
rise ainrise
its
height and thermal effect were not influential. In all the alternative plans, a small
in its height and thermal effect were not influential. In all the alternative plans, a small and similar and similar pressure
rise inclination
pressure remained remained
rise inclination in each vertical
in each zone. As the
vertical temperature
zone. difference difference
As the temperature and air density
and airdifference
density
in the vertical
difference direction
in the verticalofdirection
the double-skin facade became
of the double-skin smaller,
facade the smaller,
became pressurethewaspressure
lower than wasthat
lowerat
the time when solar irradiance was at the high and middle
than that at the time when solar irradiance was at the high and middle levels. levels.
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24

Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 19 of 24

Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24

Figure 17. Air temperature and pressure distribution with low solar irradiance.

Figure 18 illustrates the temperature difference and pressure difference on the top and bottom
in each alternative plan on the basis of the average cavity air temperature and pressure in the daytime
Figure 17. Air temperature and pressure distribution with low solar irradiance.
(11:00–16:00) on analysis
Figure 17. Air days when solar
temperature irradiance
and pressure was at the
distribution withhigh,
low solarmiddle, and low levels. A
irradiance.
temperatureFiguredifference is the
18 illustrates thereference
temperaturetodifference
judge the available
and pressure heat of
difference thetop
on the double-skin
and bottom facade,
Figure
presenting 18 illustrates
the
in each difference
alternative the temperature
between
plan difference
the oftop
on the basis averageand
the temperature pressure
cavity and difference
outdoor
air temperature air on
and the top
temperature
pressure in and
the inbottom
each
in each alternative
daytime
alternative plan on the
(11:00–16:00)
plan. A pressure on basis of the
analysis
difference days average
means when cavity airbetween
solar irradiance
the difference temperature
was at the andpressure
high,
the top pressureand
middle, in the
and thedaytime
low bottom
levels.
(11:00–16:00) A temperature
oneach analysis difference
days when is the reference to judge the available heat of the double-skin facade,
(1F) pressure in alternative plan. solar
With irradiance
a rise in thewas solar at irradiance
the high, middle, and low levels.
of the double-skin A
facade,
presenting the difference between the top temperature and outdoor air temperature in each alternative
temperature
the temperature difference
and pressureis the differences
reference tobetween judge the the available
top and bottom heat of in theeachdouble-skin
alternativefacade,
plan
plan. A pressure difference means the difference between the top pressure and the bottom (1F) pressure
presenting
increased. Inthe
in each difference
particular,
alternative the between
plan. ALT
With a3 rise
thatthethetop
solartemperature
inimplemented irradiance of theand
thermal effectoutdoor
showed
double-skin air
facade, the temperature
thelargest in each
temperature
temperature
alternative
and and plan.
pressure pressure A pressure
differencesdifferences difference
by available
between the airmeans
and the
volumes,
top bottomdifference
showing between
the highest
in each alternative the top pressure
possibility
plan increased. of andproduction.
heat the bottom
In particular,
(1F) pressure
When the ALT
solar in3 that
each
irradiance alternative
implemented
was at the plan.
thermal With
loweffect aallrise
showed
level, inlargest
the the solar
alternative irradiance
temperature
plans ofsimilar
and pressure
showed the differences
double-skin by facade,
temperature and
available
the temperature air volumes,
andsopressure showing the highest
differences possibility
between of heat
the use production.
top ofand When
bottom solar
in eachirradiance was
alternative plan
pressure differences, that energy production with the solar heat was not different in each
at the low level, all alternative plans showed similar temperature and pressure differences, so that
increased. In
alternative particular, the ALT 3 that implemented thermal effect showed the largest temperature
plan.
energy production with the use of solar heat was not different in each alternative plan.
and pressure differences by available air volumes, showing the highest possibility of heat production.
When solar irradiance was at the low level, all alternative plans showed similar temperature and
pressure differences, so that energy production with the use of solar heat was not different in each
alternative plan.

Figure 18. Air temperature and pressure difference by ACH.

Figure 18. Air temperature and pressure difference by ACH.
The annual indoor heating load according to the application of an SC and OA-based air volume
Thewas
annual indoor
analyzed. Tableheating
6 shows load according
the heating to the application
air conditioning time in each of an SC and
alternative plan.OA-based air volume
BASE(O) is the
was analyzed. Table 6 shows the heating air conditioning time in each alternative plan. BASE(O) is
the heating air conditioning
Figuretime when
18. Air the original
temperature andOA-based air volume
pressure difference was applied to the double-
by ACH.
skin facade used in this study. The lower the solar irradiance was, the higher the OA-based air
Thewas
volume annual
and indoor heating
the greater theload according
heating to the application
air conditioning time was.of an
So,SC
theand OA-based
baseline airhad
model volume
the
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 20 of 24

heating air conditioning time when the original OA-based air volume was applied to the double-skin
facade used in this study. The lower the solar irradiance was, the higher the OA-based air volume was
and the greater the heating air conditioning time was. So, the baseline model had the smallest heating
air conditioning time overall. Based on the ALT1 with the greatest heating air conditioning time,
Sustainability
the average 2019, 11, x FOR
outdoor PEER REVIEW of heating air conditioning time in each one of the high, middle,
air temperature 20 of 24

and low levels of solar irradiance was calculated. As a result, the outdoor air temperature was highest
temperature was highest in the order of low level (3.44 ℃) > middle level (0.65 ℃) > high level (−3.54
in the order of low level (3.44 ◦ C) > middle level (0.65 ◦ C) > high level (−3.54 ◦ C) of solar irradiance.
℃) of solar irradiance.
Table 6. Air conditioning time (h) by ALT and AHC.
Table 6. Air conditioning time (h) by ALT and AHC.
Category BASE(O) 1) AHC Baseline ALT1 ALT2 ALT3
Category BASE(O)1) AHC Baseline ALT1 ALT2 ALT3
0.7 153 156 157 157
0.7 153 156 157 157
High High 148 148 1.0
1.0 156
156 158 158 163 163
158 158
1.3
1.3 159
159 162 162 166 166164 164
0.7
0.7 182
182 187 187 185 185
187 187
Middle Middle 176 176 1.0
1.0 185
185 191 191 196 196
190 190
1.3
1.3 190
190 193 193 198 195
198 195
Low Low 398 398 0.7
0.7 398
398 420 420 403 403
403 403
0.7
0.7 733
733 763 763 745 747
745 747
Total Total 722 722 1.0
1.0 739
739 769 769 762 751
762 751
1.3
1.3 747
747 775 775 767 762
767 762
1)1)ACH (OAairflow
ACH 0.4 (OA airflow9600
9600 CMH)
CMH).

Figure
Figure19 19shows
showsthe theannual
annual indoor
indoor heating
heating load
load in each alternative plan according
alternative plan according to to solar
solar
irradiance. Compared to the BASE (O) model, all alternative plans had relatively higher
irradiance. Compared to the BASE (O) model, all alternative plans had relatively higher heating heating loads.
Figure
loads.20 presents
Figure the total the
20 presents heating
totalload (including
heating indoor heating
load (including indoorload) according
heating to solar irradiance.
load) according to solar
As shown inAs
irradiance. theshown
figure,inwith the application
the figure, of an SC and
with the application a rise
of an in its
SC and height,
a rise in itsand also and
height, an increase
also an
inincrease
OA-based air volume,
in OA-based the load the
air volume, wasload
high overall.
was However,
high overall. the ALT3
However, the that
ALT3applied thermal
that applied effect
thermal
toeffect to had
the SC the SC had a somewhat
a somewhat lower
lower load load
than than Therefore,
ALT2. ALT2. Therefore,
ALT2 had ALT2thehad the highest
highest annualannual
indoor
indoor load.
heating heating load.

Figure 19. Annual

Figure19. Annual heating
heating load
load of
of ALT
ALT by
by solar
solar irradiance level.
irradiance level.
 Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 21 of 24
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 24

Figure 20. Heating load distribution by ACH of ALTs.

Figure 20.
Figure 20. Heating
Heating load
load distribution
distribution by
by ACH
ACH of
of ALTs.
ALTs.
Figure 21 illustrates the annual
Figure double-skin
20. Heating facade-based
load distribution heat in
by ACH of each
ALTs.alternative plan according
to solar irradiance.
Figure 21
Figure All
21 illustrates alternative
illustrates the
the annual plans had
annual double-skin higher heat
double-skin facade-based than
facade-based heatthe BASE(O)
heat inin each model. Figure
each alternative
alternative plan22
plan presents
according
according
the
to
to total
solar
solar Figure available
irradiance.
irradiance. heatalternative
21 illustrates
All (including
the annual
alternative the
plans
plans heat
hadusing
double-skin
had higher
higher the solar
facade-based
heat
heat than
thanheat
the
the of
heat the
BASE(O)
BASE(O) double-skin
in each model.
model. facade)
alternative
Figure
Figure 22according
plan according
presents
presents
to
to solar
solar
the total
the irradiance.
irradiance.
totalavailable
availableheat As
All shown
heat(including in
alternative
(includingthe the figure,
plans
theheat had with
heatusing the
higher
usingthe application
heat
thesolar
solarthan
heat
heat the
ofofof an
BASE(O)
thethe SC and a
model.
double-skin
double-skin rise in
Figure
facade)
facade) its height,
22 and
presents
according
according to
an
tothe increase
solar
solar total in
available
irradiance.
irradiance. OA-based
heat
AsAs shown
shown air volume,
(including
in the
in the thethe
figure,
figure, heat
heat
withwithwas
using
thethe high
the overall.
solar heat
application
application The
ofSC
of
of an an ALT3
theSC
and that
and applied
double-skin
a rise
a rise thermal
facade)
in
in its effect
according
its height,
height, andandan
to
an the
toincrease
solar
increase SCin had the highest
irradiance.
in OA-based
OA-based As
airshown
airannual
volume,
volume, double-skin
in the figure,
the
heatheat
was facade-based
with
was the
highhigh heat.
application
overall.
overall. TheThe of ALT3
ALT3 an that
SCthat
and a risethermal
applied
applied inthermal
its height, and
effect
effect to
toanthe
the SCincrease
SC
hadhad theinthe
OA-based
highest
highest air volume,
annual
annual the heat
double-skin
double-skin was high heat.
facade-based
facade-based overall.
heat. The ALT3 that applied thermal effect
to the SC had the highest annual double-skin facade-based heat.

Figure 21. Annual heat production of ALT by solar irradiance.

Figure 21. Annual heat production
Figure 21. production of
of ALT
ALT by
by solar
solar irradiance.
irradiance.
Figure 21. Annual heat production of ALT by solar irradiance.

Figure 22. Heat production distribution by ACH of ALT.

Figure 22. Heat production distribution by ACH of ALT.
Figure 22. Heat production distribution by ACH of ALT.
Figure 22. Heat production distribution by ACH of ALT.
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 24

Figure2019,
Sustainability 23 11,
shows
x FORthe heating
PEER REVIEWenergy use rate of each alternative plan for the BASE (O) model in
22 of 24
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238
terms of the original OA-based air volume of the double-skin facade. With the application of an SC 22 of 24

and Figure
a rise 23in shows the heating
its height, energycapacity
the available use rate of each alternative
the solar plan for
irradiance of the BASE (O) model
double-skin in
facade
terms of the original OA-based air volume of the double-skin facade. With
increased, and thereby the use rate of heating energy increased. With a rise in the OA-based airthe application of an SC
Figure 23 shows the heating energy use rate of each alternative plan for the BASE (O) model
and a rise
volume in itsalternative
in each height, the available
plan, the usecapacity
rate alsoof the solarThe
increased. irradiance
ALT3 that of applied
the double-skin facade
thermal effect to
in terms of the original OA-based air volume of the double-skin facade. With the application of an
increased,
the SC hadand the thereby
highest the use energy
heating rate of use
heating
rate.energy
When ACHincreased. With
was 1.3, a rise
it was in the to
possible OA-based air
use heating
SC and a rise in its height, the available capacity of the solar irradiance of the double-skin facade
volume in each
energy about 7.6alternative
times higherplan, thethe
than useBASE(O)
rate alsomodel.
increased.
FigureThe24ALT3 thatthe
presents applied thermal
annual heatingeffect
energyto
increased, and thereby the use rate of heating energy increased. With a rise in the OA-based air
the SC had the
production highest
capacity of heating energy use
the double-skin rate. in
facade When
eachACH was 1.3,
alternative it was
plan possibletotoOA-based
according use heating air
volume in each alternative plan, the use rate also increased. The ALT3 that applied thermal effect to
energy
volume. about
The 7.6 timesenergy
heating higherproduction
than the BASE(O)
capacitymodel.
of theFigure 24 presents
double-skin facade the annual the
presents heating energy
heating loss
the SC had the highest heating energy use rate. When ACH was 1.3, it was possible to use heating
production
load ratio incapacity of the double-skin
the installation facade in each
side of the double-skin alternative
facade plan
for the net according
solar to OA-based
heat-based air
energy of the
energy about 7.6 times higher than the BASE(O) model. Figure 24 presents the annual heating energy
volume. The facade
double-skin heatingofenergy production
the building, whichcapacity
uses theof cavity
the double-skin facade presents
as the preheating path of the heating loss
air conditioning
production capacity of the double-skin facade in each alternative plan according to OA-based air
load
OA. ratio in the installation side of the double-skin facade for the net solar heat-based energy of the
volume. The heating energy production capacity of the double-skin facade presents the heating loss
double-skin facade of the building, which uses the cavity as the preheating path of air conditioning
load ratio in the installation side of the double-skin facade for the net solar heat-based energy of the
OA.
double-skin facade of the building, which uses the cavity as the preheating path of air conditioning OA.

Figure 23. Heat energy using rate by ACH.

Figure 23. Heat energy using rate by ACH.
Figure 23. Heat energy using rate by ACH.

Figure 24. Heating energy production by ALTs.

Figure 24. Heating energy production by ALTs.
The heating energy production capacity of the double-skin facade varies depending on the
Figure
indoor plain type, volume, and 24. Heating
insulation energy production
performance by ALTs.
of the outer skin in the installation side of the
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 23 of 24

double-skin facade. Nevertheless, when the capacity exceeds ‘1’ at least, it is judged that the heating
energy generated by the double-skin facade has productivity. According to the analysis, the BASE(O)
model with the original OA-based air volume of the double-skin facade used in this study had a
heating energy production capacity of 1.23. With the application of an SC and a rise in its height,
the heating energy production capacity increased. With an increase in OA-based air volume in each
alternative plan, the heat production capacity also went up. In the ALT3 that applied thermal effect to
the SC, when the ACH was 1.3, the heating energy production capacity was the highest, at 2.74.
In the winter evaluation, the indoor load according to the OA-based air volume and the OA
based-heat through the double-skin facade was analyzed in each SC-based alternative plan proposed
to improve the heat performance of the double-skin facade. The higher the OA-based air volume
was, the higher the double-skin facade-based heat was. The range that began to make the increase in
double-skin facade-based heat remain constant was chosen as the appropriate OA-based air volume
range (the high and middle levels of solar irradiance: 26,000 CMH or less, the low level of solar
irradiance: 15,000 CMH or less). In the chosen OA-based air volume range, as solar irradiance increased,
the temperature difference and pressure of the cavity in the upper and lower sides of the double-skin
facade increased, and thereby the available heat through the double-skin facade went up. In addition,
with the application of an SC and a rise in its height, the available capacity of the solar irradiance of
the double-skin facade rose and the heating energy use rate increased. Among the alternative plans,
the ALT3 that applied thermal effect had the highest heating energy use rate. In ALT3, when the ACH
was 1.3, it was possible to use heating energy about 7.6 times higher than the original performance of
the double-skin facade operated with ACH 0.4. Therefore, the heating energy production capacity in
ALT3 was the highest, at 2.74. According to the winter evaluation, with the application of an SC and a
rise in its height, the heating energy saving was excellent. When thermal effect was applied to the SC,
the heating energy utilization effect of solar irradiance of the double-skin facade was large.

5. Conclusions
In order to propose an improved operation plan for a double-skin facade for reducing the indoor
load in winter, this study analyzed the thermal phenomenon through the field measurement of the
double-skin facade of a real building. In addition, with the use of an energy analysis tool, it verified
the effect of the improvement plan. This study came to the following conclusions:

(1) To find the actual state of operation of a double-skin facade in winter, this study measured the
target building. As a result, if an appropriate air volume control strategy is applied to reduce the
outer skin load and outdoor air load, in terms of the OA use of the preheated air through the
double-skin facade, it is possible to save a great deal of energy. Accordingly, this study proposed
a solar chimney-based double-skin facade as a passive alternative plan to improve ventilation
and energy performance across the seasons.
(2) The solar chimney-based double-skin facade was analyzed in winter. As a result, with the
application of a solar chimney and a rise in its height, the available capacity of relatively larger
solar heat increased, and therefore the proposed plan had excellent performance in terms of
heating energy saving. When thermal effect was applied to the solar chimney, the heating energy
use effect of solar irradiance of the double-skin facade was larger. When thermal effect was
applied to the three-floor solar chimney, the heating energy use increased to about 7.6 times
higher than that of the original performance of the double-skin facade.

Author Contributions: U.-J.S. managed the project and wrote the manuscript. S.-H.K. wrote and edited
the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP)
and the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea (No. 20162010104270).
Sustainability 2019, 11, 6238 24 of 24

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Energy Technology Evaluation
and Planning (KETEP) and the Ministry of Trade, Industry & Energy (MOTIE) of the Republic of Korea
(No. 20162010104270).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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