Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

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Case Studies in Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/csite

Thermal performance of a double-skin façade exposed to direct

T
solar radiation in the tropical climate of Malaysia: A case study
Abdultawab M. Qahtan
Dep. of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering, Najran University, Najran, Saudi Arabia

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: With high incident solar radiations on the East-West facades under the tropical climate of
Double skin facade Malaysia, the indoor spaces adjacent to the glazed facades will become overheated. The appli-
Adjacent spaces cation of Double skin-facade (DSF) is one of the solar heat gain control techniques in the tropics.
West direct solar radiation This study aims to investigate the effectiveness of the DSF in controlling the heat gain under the
Glazing surface temperature
direct solar radiation of the West orientation in the tropics, Malaysia. Investigation was con-
Indoor/outdoor air temperature
ducted in a certified energy-efficient building with DSF. A general space of the lift lobby ad-
joining the DSF oriented west was investigated. Indoor/Outdoor air-temperatures, surface tem-
peratures, Global/Vertical-west solar radiation and indoor air velocities were measured during
the longest days of the summer solstice from 21st to 30th of June. The results indicated that the
double skin façade DSF is effective in controlling the heat gain occurrence due to the variation of
temperature between outdoor and indoor and the differences in surface temperatures. It is,
however, inadequate to protect indoor from the penetration of the tropical direct solar radiation.
The peak indoor air temperature varies from 26.4 °C to 27.6 °C in the adjacent general space to
the DSF, thus increasing the building cooling requirements.

1. Introduction

The architects and building designers have given more emphasis to the lightness and the transparency of buildings leading to
highly glazed office buildings. This increases the heat gain indoors, which eventually consumes excessive energy for space con-
ditioning and produces a negative impact on the environment due to the associated CO2 emissions.
The application of double-skin facades (DSF) is a notable solution in the tropics for many improvements such as a solar heat gain
control, thermal buffer zone, energy savings and aesthetics [1]. In terms of the role of DSF in reducing solar heat gain in the tropical
countries, it is useful to understand the two means that represent the total heat gain through glazing. The primary mode is the heat
gain due to direct solar radiation, whereas the second is the heat transfer due to the differences in temperature between outdoor and
indoor air temperature and the heat radiation by glazing surfaces [2]. However, preventing direct solar radiation from penetrating
the glazing surfaces is a main solution to be applied to the glazed buildings in the tropics [3].
Hence, a question may be raised as to what extent the double skin façade DSF in the “Security Commission Building” (SCB),
Malaysia, contributes to reducing the total heat gain indoors, under the direct solar radiation of West DSF. To answer the question,
this study aims to investigate the effect of DSF on the reduction of solar heat gain.

a) due to the difference in temperature between ambient and indoor spaces and,
b) due to the exposure of DSF to direct solar radiation that penetrates indoors, in addition to the differences in surface temperatures

E-mail address: amqahtan@nu.edu.sa.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csite.2019.100419
Received 12 January 2019; Received in revised form 13 February 2019; Accepted 16 February 2019
Available online 21 February 2019
2214-157X/ © 2019 The Author. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY-NC-ND/4.0/).
A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

of the DSF.

A general space of a lift lobby in a certified Energy Efficient Office Building (EEB), which is “Security Commission Building” (SCB)
in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, was the case study chosen to be investigated. The results of the investigation will enhance the efficiency
of the system design for future applications.

2. Double skin facades

Malaysian buildings receive high solar radiation, mainly in the west-façades in the afternoons, causing overheating and large
energy consumption of buildings, so the inclusion of fully glazed facade in buildings is conventionally not recommended [4]. The
application of DSF is an interesting solution for controlling solar heat gain thus enhancing the energy efficient design of the glazed
buildings besides to gain in the aesthetics aspects. However, DSF is a system consisting three elements: the skin construction of two
layers of glazing, the transparency of the bounding surfaces, and the cavity airflow [5].
Many studies on DSF were carried out under different climate regions to examine the appropriateness of the system in enhancing
the indoor environment of the glazed buildings. The study conducted by Ref. [6] involved an experimental and simulation method to
study a DSF on a commercial building in Dublin, Ireland. The DSF was south facing and was extensively observed during winter
months. The study concluded that DSFs are appropriate for passive, low energy architecture in temperate climates. Another study
investigated the energy performance of DSFs in two different climates, temperate and warmer region. A west facing DSFs were
compared. The study concluded that DSFs are more suitable for temperate climates than warmer one. It also found that DSFs are
capable of almost 50% energy savings in temperate and 16% in subtropical climates [7].
Building with DSF showed that the exterior surface temperature of the outer skin was high when the absorptive glazing was
placed outside [8]. A study conducted under a warm climate of Italy by Ref. [9] concluded that in summer, the solar heat is mainly
absorbed by the outer skin of the DSF and there is no significant influence on the inner skin and then on the internal environment,
thus, reducing building cooling requirements. In summary, high temperatures of the glass surface could result in uncomfortable
indoor conditions particularly the spaces near DSF [10].
However, in order to prevent an overheating of inside the cavity of DSF and then inside the building spaces, the protection from
direct solar radiation is recommended. Depending on the type of the glass, an advanced glazing could prevent the heat flow via
glazing surface into indoors [8]. The use of low emissivity (Low-e) glazing as an outer surface of the DSF is suitable. Low-e glass
(external) reflects the infrared wavelengths contributing to a reduction in solar load gain of 40% if glazing transmissivity was set to
55% [11].
With respect to the thermal performance of the cavity, [12] reported that under direct solar radiation of the hot-arid climate, the
temperature in the cavity of the DSF was found to be higher than outside air temperature. The temperature in the cavity remained
high during the night due to the greenhouse effect of the DSF. Another study reported that a temperature of the air in the cavity of
West DSF exposed to high solar radiation, remains higher than outdoor during the whole day. The differences between air tem-
perature in the cavity and the outdoor air temperature fluctuates between 2 °C (night) and 10 °C (day) [13].
Generally, buildings in Malaysia, as in tropics, have two means of heat gain. The first is due to the difference in temperature
between indoor/outdoor. In Malaysia this variation was found reaching to 5 °C peak, [14], which can be controlled effectively by
using low-e glass. This thin film of low-e have a high transmittance in visible range (light) and very high reflectance in long-wave
infrared range (heat) [17]. The second is the direct solar radiation, where Malaysia receives a high solar radiation [2]. The difficulty
of using low-e glazing under the direct solar radiation in the tropics is that the near-infrared radiation (NIR) is still able to transfer
through the glass. This NIR radiation heating up indoor surfaces and re-emitted heat as a long wave IR radiation which cannot
transmit through the low-e glass increasing indoor temperature due to the greenhouse effect [16]. This becomes a disadvantage to the
low-e glass in the tropics, even with extra solution of DSF. This study, as mentioned earlier, concerns on this matter through a field
investigation.

3. Climate and building description

3.1. Climate of Malaysia

Climate has a significant influence on a building's performance, therefore the climate parameters need to be understood. The
climate of Malaysia has the characteristics of a hot-humid tropical climate. It has been reported by Ref. [14] that Malaysia receives an
annual total radiation of above 4.31kwh/m2, and about 10h of sunshine per a day. This causes a higher indoor temperature, which
needs more energy for artificial cooling in order to succeed in providing thermal comfort in the workspace. The monthly sunshine
duration ranging from 9 to 13 h, with a monthly average of solar radiation according to the data from Subang Jaya station varied
from 4 to 4.6 kWh/m2. The highest monthly average was recorded in February and September with 4.52 and 4.6 kWh/m2 respec-
tively. The lower solar radiation occurs in December to January with 4 to 4.2kWh/m2 respectively. Moreover, with respect to the
solar radiation on the building façade in Malaysia, Ref. [18] has reported that the maximum of solar radiation which faces vertical
walls would vary from 300 Wh/m2 to 250 Wh/m2 throughout the year. This increases the heat gain in indoor spaces particularly the
spaces behind the fully glazed facades.
In general, the climate of Malaysia can be described as typical tropical climate, with no large variations in temperature during the
months of the year. According to the data from the meteorological station of Subang Jaya (10 years), the mean monthly temperature

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A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

Table 1
Monthly Dry Bulb temperature °C and Relative Humidity, average 10 years, (source: author based on Subang jaya Station).
Months 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Solar Radiation (Kwh-m2) 4.2 4.5 4.5 4.2 4.1 4.3 4.3 4.5 4.6 4.5 4.2 4.0
Temperature (° C) 27.2 27.5 27.9 27.8 28.4 28.0 27.7 27.8 27.5 27.3 27.0 27.1

was found to vary approximately not more than 1.4 °C difference, from the mean 27.0 °C in November to 28.4 °C in May as sum-
marises in Table 1. The variation significantly occurs throughout the day with approximately 7.4 °C difference found between the
daytime and night-time in February and March and approximately 6.5 °C difference between the daytime and night-time in November
and December as summarises in Table 2.
However, designing the energy efficient buildings (non-residential buildings) under the Malaysian climate are required to achieve
an acceptable indoor condition and conform the requirements of the Malaysian Standard, MS 1525: 2007, as summarised in Table 3.

3.2. Building description

The Securities Commission (SCB), is a mid-rise office building built in 1997. It is located at Bukit Kiara in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
It won the ASEAN Energy Award in 2001 [19]. The building has a gross floor area of 94,288 m2 and comprises 6-level podium (with a
three level below grade car park) and five level office tower Fig. 1. The SCB is constructed with double skin facades that comprises of
two layers of glass with a cavity of 1.2 m Fig. 2. The external skin is (12 mm) thick low-e tinted green glass and the internal one is
(8 mm) thick green glass. Air gap serving as a maintenance walkway and a cool buffer zone. Shading devices, both horizontal louvers
and vertical blinds, are installed within the DSF cavity. The vertical blinds protect the workspace from the direct solar radiation
particularly on the east and west facades and controlled by solar cell. Cooled air from the office space is recycled and exhausted at
ceiling levels into the DSF cavity.

4. Methodology

The study adapts a field investigation in order to make a thermal analysis of a DSF exposed to direct solar radiation in tropical
building during the longest days of the summer solstice, 21st to 30th of June. The study obtained the analysis of these “10” days
including the weekend measurements feedback. The field measurements were carried out in a selected general space of a lift-lobby,
adjoining a west-facing DSF of the SCB. The study collected data using 7 sensors connected to the “Babuc/A” data logger, for indoor
measurements and “Skye” data logger for outdoor measurements. The variables monitored are, indoor/outdoor air temperatures,
outer/inner glazing surface temperatures and global solar radiation (horizontal) and solar radiation on vertical surfaces orientated
west. The indoor sensors were placed on a tripod located at 1.0 m above the floor level and in the centre of the lift lobby space. The
outdoor sensor was located on the rooftop of the building as shown in Fig. 3. The data logger recorded the readings at 5 min intervals
for twenty-four hours duration. Manual readings were recorded from Thermometer's readings and infrared thermometer in order to
minimise errors. The investigation of this case study is an attempt to assess the thermal behaviour of the west double skin facade.

5. Results and discussion

Measurements were taken in summer, June 21st to 30th for a general space adjacent to the DSF that is exposed to west direct solar
radiation. Table 4 summarises the results of 10 days including the weekend. The 26th and 27th presented the weekend with no air-
conditioning, the remaining days are working days with air-conditioning. An average hourly (6am-6pm) of several variables were
plotted to illustrate the findings of the study. These measured variables are the outdoor/indoor air temperatures, indoor air velocity,
surfaces temperatures of the DSF (outer surface and inner surface), together with global solar radiation and direct vertical solar
radiation.

5.1. The outdoor/indoor air temperature variation of the DSF

The study started with monitoring the temperature variation between outdoor and indoor in the lift lobby adjacent to the DSF
facing west orientation. The results will be plotted for the daytime from 6am to 6pm. The emphasis of the discussion will be the
afternoon time when the direct solar radiation hits the façade of the investigated space, the lift lobby. Table 4, also, illustrates the
variation between outdoor and indoor air temperature. This table shows that the average hourly outdoor air temperature ranged from

Table 2
Hourly solar radiation (kWh/m2) and Dry Bulb temperature °C, average 3 years, (source: author based on Subang jaya Station).
Hours 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19

Average, Dry Bulb Tem. (° C) 24.7 24.6 24.9 26.4 28.2 29.6 30.6 31.3 31.6 31.4 30.8 30.0 29.1 28.3 27.5
Average, Solar Rad. (kWh/m2) 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 2.7 4.1 5.2 5.6 5.3 4.6 3.4 2.2 1.1 0.2 0.0

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A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

Table 3
The recommended indoor condition of MS 1525: 2007.
Recommended dry bulb temperature °C 23 °C - 26 °C
Recommended relative humidity (RH) 55%–70%
Recommended air movement 0.15 m/s to 0.5 m/s
Minimum dry bulb temperature 22 °C
Minimum air movement 0.7 m/s

Fig. 1. 3rd floor Plan showing the investigated lift lobby and perspective view for the SCB (Source: [15]).

Fig. 2. Detailed section (Source: SCB technical report) and View from the cavity walkway, showing vertical and horizontal shading (Source:
Author).

25.6 °C at 8am to 32.7 °C at 1pm. The air velocity fluctuates between 0.0 m/s on weekend to 0.1 m/s average 7 working days.
Fig. 4 shows the average indoor/outdoor air temperature and indoor air velocity during the daytime from 6am to 6pm. The plot
on the left side of Fig. 4 shows the results of the average 6 working days in the lift lobby where the air-conditioner was running, and
air velocity was fluctuating between 0.04 m/s to 0.06 m/s. It shows that indoor air temperature reached 26.4 C at 1:50 p.m. when the
outdoor air temperature was 32.1 °C, with variation of about 5 °C. At about 2:30pm the outdoor temperature dropped to 27.7C,
affected by rain and the changes of the sky condition. It is noticeable, although the outdoor air temperature decreases, the indoor air
temperature did not follow the outdoor air temperature. The indoor air temperature remained the same with a negligible reduction
from 26.4 C to 26.2 °C. The plot on the right side of Fig. 4 shows the results of two off-days (26th and 27th) in the lift lobby, where the
indoor air velocity appears to be almost 0.0 m/s, and the indoor air temperature gradually increased with the increase of outdoor air

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A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

Fig. 3. Setting up Data loggers indoor (left), and outdoor (right) (source: Author).

Table 4
Hourly average temperature for Working days and the non-working days of “8” tested days of June.
Date/time Measured parameters Average Hourly-(day time,8 a.m. – 6pm)

8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Working days Outdoor Air Temp. °C 25.6 27.1 28.5 30 30.7 31.7 31.1 28.3 28 27.9 27.4
21-25&28–30 June Indoor Air Temp. °C 25.3 25.3 25.5 25.7 26.0 26.2 26.4 26.3 26.2 26.2 26.1
Outer.-G-Surface-Te °C 26.1 28.0 30.5 32.6 34.7 36.2 35.3 32.4 33.7 32.7 29.6
Inner.-G-surface-Te °C 25.5 26.2 27.3 28.4 29.4 30.4 30.5 29.6 29.5 29.5 28.4
West solar Rad. W/m2 67.4 115.6 164.8 196.1 234.3 236.4 220.7 156.2 205.8 125.3 36.7
Ind-Air-Velo,.m/s 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02

Off-days Outdoor Air Temp. °C 24.3 26.8 29.6 31.3 32 32.7 31.8 32.2 31.6 30.8 29.9
6&27 June Indoor Air Temp. °C 25.2 25.4 25.6 25.8 25.9 26.2 26.5 26.8 27 27.5 27.5
Outer-G-Surface-Te °C 25.4 27.6 28.6 30 31.6 34.2 35.3 36.5 38.3 41.9 34.6
Inner-G-surface-Te °C 25.1 26.1 26.9 27.6 28.4 29.5 30.4 31 31.9 34 31.9
West solar Rad.,W/m2 67.4 147 151.7 156.7 174.8 225.4 213.2 281.9 236 304.1 73
Ind-Air-Velo., m/s 0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Fig. 4. The variation between indoor/outdoor in the lift lobby.

temperature reaching 26.4 °C at 1:50 p.m. where the outdoor air temperature was 33.1 °C, with variation of about 6.5 °C. At 2pm, the
Outdoor air temperature slightly decreases reaching 31.2 °C at 5:35pm. It is noticeable that on the average two off-days 26th & 27th,
although the outdoor air temperature decreases, the indoor air temperature kept increasing to reach 27.6 °C at 5:10pm where the
vertical west solar radiation was 585 W/m2 and the temperatures of outer-skin, inner skin and outdoor air temperature were 45 °C,

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A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

Fig. 5. The average 24 h for all investigated days, including working and weekend days.

34.3 °C and 31.2 °C respectively.

However, the high value of indoor air temperature is due to the exposure of indoor space of the lift lobby to the direct west solar
radiation in the afternoon. This increases the indoor air temperature behind the west oriented DSF through two ways: first the
penetration of direct solar radiation particularly the near infrared that hits indoor surfaces and re-emits as heat indoor, the second is
increasing of the surfaces temperature of the DSF that conducted heat into the cavity and then into the lift lobby space. The following
section illustrates more results and discussion regarding the surface temperature of the DSF that is exposed to the direct solar
radiation.

5.2. Effect of DSF surfaces temperature on the total solar heat gain indoors

When direct solar radiation hits the DSF a portion of solar energy is absorbed, reflected as well as transmitted indoors. As
mentioned earlier the outer skin of the investigated DSF is a low-e glass with high reflection to inferred energy. However, the study in
this context is to show how the direct solar radiation increases the surfaces temperature of the DSF. Then how the indoor air
temperature varies as a function of the direct solar radiation and surface temperature of the DSF.
Fig. 5 shows the measured variables of 8 different days, including the weekend, of June. These variables are the surfaces tem-
peratures of the DSF (outer surface and inner surface), together with the outdoor/indoor air temperature and the direct vertical solar
radiation. It can be seen from Fig. 5 that the outer low-e glass of the measured west façade of SCB has a high value of surface
temperature compared to the outdoor air temperature. The measurements were conducted in the afternoon time for 8 days, with
maximum variation between outdoor air temperature and outer surface temperature of about 15 °C on 28th and minimum variation
of 5 °C on 23rd of June. The surface temperature of the inner skin (tinted glass), was recorded during the 8 days, also remain high
under the direct solar radiation with a peak of 36 °C at 4pm on 28th of June. However, the changes of the results from day to day is

Fig. 6. The relation between indoor and surface temperature, lift lobby −12pm-7pm.

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A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

due to the Malaysia sky condition that fluctuates time to time.

Fig. 6 shows the relation between the outer and inner surfaces temperature of DSF and, also, shows the effect of glazing surface
temperature on indoor air temperature of the investigated SCB. The figure shows an evening time 12pm–7 pm at the lift lobby. The
result is an average of 6 working days and two weekend days side by side of summer June. The weekend days, representing a time
without air-conditioning when the air-velocity is almost zero value. Whereas the working days represent a time with air-con and air-
velocity reaches to 0.11 m/s. However, as the measurements were collecting at a place oriented west so that the variation between
surfaces temperatures will show high rates in the afternoon times. The peak variation of the temperature between the two surfaces of
the DSF with and without air-con remain almost the same with 6.5 °C higher on the outer glass (low-e green tinted). Even though the
outer skin is a low-e glass that has a high reflection to the solar heat (the far-infrared range of the spectrum), but it shows a high
temperature. Whereas the surface temperature of the inner skin (tinted glass) remains lower, compare to the outer one. The surface
temperature of the inner glass was affected by several variables lowering its temperature: the adjacent indoor air-conditioning space
and the cooled DSF cavity.
Fig. 6 shows the relationship between the surface temperature and the indoor air temperature in the spaces adjacent to the west
oriented DSF. It is clear that the direct solar radiation makes a significant contribution to both the surface temperature and indoor air
temperature compare to the effect of the heat gain due to the temperature variation between outdoor and indoor. In Malaysia, the
outdoor temperature remains with a maximum of 35 °C as cited by (Qahtan 2012), so that, the heat gain due to the differentiation
between outdoor and indoor air temperature is low. The plot on the lift side of Fig. 6, however, shows the results of 6 working days
12pm-6pm, with air-conditioning. It shows that the solar radiation affects the surfaces temperature of the DSF, which in turn in-
creases the indoor air temperature. It demonstrates that, even outdoor temperature drops down from 30.2 °C at 2:45 p.m. into 27.8 °C
at 3:40 p.m., the indoor air temperature remained high with almost the same rate of 26.4 °C. This is due to the greenhouse effect that
happens when direct solar radiation penetrates the glazing and is trapped indoors. In addition, high surface temperature contributes
to the indoor temperature to remain high. Similarly, the plot on the right side of Fig. 6 shows the results of two off-days, 12pm-6pm,
with no air-conditioning. It shows that when outdoor air temperature decreased from 31.1 °C at 4:30 p.m. to 30.1 °C at 6:15 and
continues decreasing, at the same time, indoor air temperature increased from 27.0 °C into 27.6 °C. This an increase of the indoor air
temperature occurred due to the high surface temperature of the two skins of the DSF that reached at 4:15 p.m. to 34.5 °C (inner
surface) and 46 °C (outer surface).
Fig. 7 shows the relationship between the horizontal solar radiation, direct vertical solar radiation (west), outdoor air temperature
and indoor air temperature. The results were plotted, side by side, for days of 26th and 28th of June with a highest intensity among
the measured days. The plot on the left side of Fig. 7 displays the 28th of June. It shows the vertical direct solar radiation that hits the
west facing DSF surfaces of the measured space. At 3:50, the vertical west solar radiation started to increase reaching to almost
700 W/m2 at 5:10 p.m., when outer skin (low-e glass) surface temperature, inner skin (tinted glass) temperature and the indoor air
temperature reached its maximum value of 50 °C, 37 °C and 27.8 °C respectively. This indicates the difficulty of controlling direct
solar heat gain on the west facades, even though the building is incorporated a DSF and uses a solar control glass of a low-e glass as an
outer skin. The figure shows that at 2:45 p.m. there was a sudden drop in solar radiation intensity from 942 W/m2 to 228 W/m2, due
to the cloud cover and rain. Then the solar radiation fluctuates between 200 W/m2 and 600 W/m2. The outdoor air temperature
follows the changes of solar radiation, varies from 34.5 °C at 2:45 p.m. to 31.0 °C at 3:30pm, whereas, indoor air temperature
increases even with the decreased of global solar radiation.
Similarly, the plot of the right side of Fig. 7 shows the results for 26th June with a highest intensity among the measured days
without air-conditioning in the lift lobby space. The figure shows a west vertical direct solar radiation that hits the DSF surfaces of the
measured space. At 3:10, the vertical west solar radiation reaching to almost 746w/m at 4:50 p.m., when outer skin (low-e glass)
surface temperature, inner skin (tinted glass) temperature and the indoor air temperature reached to its maximum value of 49.4 °C,
37 °C and 27.9 °C respectively. Although, the building is a DSF with a cavity of 1.2 m, the two layers of glass are (12 mm) low-e glass,
and (8 mm) tinted glass in addition to the horizontal louvers, but indoor air temperature exposed to direct west solar radiation clearly
and significantly showed increment. The results showed that the indoor air temperature reached to almost 28 °C on both days with
air-conditioning in working day and with no air-conditioning on the weekend. The figure shows that at 1:45 p.m. there was a sudden
drop in solar radiation intensity from 974 w/m2 to 270 w/m2, due to the cloud cover and rain. The solar radiation fluctuates and

Fig. 7. The relation between direct vertical solar radiations (west) and indoor air temperature.

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A.M. Qahtan Case Studies in Thermal Engineering 14 (2019) 100419

Fig. 8. Indoor air temperature in a lift-lobby and a workspace of the SCB.

outdoor air temperature decreased from 33.7 °C at 12:30 p.m. to 31.0 °C at 3:50 p.m., whereas, indoor air temperature kept gradually
increasing even with the decrease of both global solar radiation and outdoor air temperature.

5.3. Further discussion

It should be noted that this study does not give a measure of the condition at the workstations in SCB. It gives an image on the
thermal performance of the DSF and its effect on the general spaces adjoining the DSF of the investigated building. Fig. 8 shows the
behaviour of indoor air temperature in both spaces of the SCB, a general space of a lift-lobby and a workspace. The plot on the left
side of Fig. 8 shows the indoor air temperature in a lift lobby facing west oriented DSF. The indoor air temperature during the
working hours varies between 24 °C and 26.4 °C, when outdoor air temperature reached 32 °C. Whereas, the plot on the right side of
Fig. 8 shows the indoor air temperature in a workspace facing west oriented DSF as well. The indoor air temperature during the
working hours was maintained at 21 °C, when outdoor air temperature reached to 33 °C. This variation in temperature values is due to
the differences in a space volume and the air-conditioning system. However, the average temperature values in the lift-lobby space
remain within the thermal comfort range recommended by the Malaysia standards (MS 1525: 2007.) as given in Table 3. The results,
in general, confirm that the DSF of SCB contributes in reducing the solar heat gain through the west façade under the tropical climate
of Malaysia. Even though the DSF helps protecting indoors from excessive heat, the west orientation of DSF buildings in the tropics
still needs a direct shading to prevent a penetration of the direct solar radiation.

6. Conclusions and recommendations

The study adapts a field investigation methodology in order to make a thermal analysis of a DSF exposed to direct solar radiation
in a tropical building during the longest days of the summer solstice, 21st to 30th of June. The study obtained the analysis of these
“10” days including the weekend measurement feedback.
The study started with monitoring an adjacent space to DSF in relation to the temperature variation between outdoor and indoor
in the lift lobby facing west orientation. It is noticeable, although the outdoor air temperature decreases, the indoor air temperature
remained the same and in some cases, indoor air temperature kept increasing despite the reduction of outdoor air temperature.
The study showed that in the tropical climate of Malaysia, the contribution of outdoor air temperature to the heat gain through
DSF is almost non-existent. While the direct solar radiation and consequently the double-glazing surfaces temperature have a clear
impact in increasing the indoor air temperature. In the SCB, DSF in average plays a positive role in reducing heat gain as it integrates
additional strategies such as low-e film placed onto the exterior side of the glass, cooling the cavity, horizontal and vertical shading
devises. In summary, the western façade needs direct shading, so that the SCB incorporated motorized blinds for the workspaces.
It is advisable to introduce an advanced solar control glazing instead of the DSF with a large cavity in such a climate as that of
Malaysia, where the variations between outdoor and indoor air is not very high and the main contribution to the indoor temperature
is the direct solar radiation.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the University of Malaya under the project no RP009/2012A and RG 130/11SUS.

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