Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18

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Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences

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Original article

Impact of glazing to wall ratio in various climatic regions: A case study

Mamdooh Alwetaishi
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Taif University, Saudi Arabia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: It is architecturally accepted that glazing system is considered as the most fragile part of buildings in
Received 4 October 2016 terms of energy indoor performance. It is the only part of the building which has direct solar gain due
Accepted 19 March 2017 to the transparent materials. Consequently, this part of building envelope should reap high consideration
Available online 31 March 2017
by architects and engineers, particularly in regions where solar radiation is high. The research aims to
investigate the influence of glazing to wall ratio in different microclimate regions in Saudi Arabia which
Keywords: has been introduced by the author hot dry, hot humid and moderate climates. The research has studied
Impact of glazing ratio
the most possible glazing ration in the region based on previous work 5%, 10%, 20%, 30% and 40% out of
Glazing system in building
Building performance
the external wall. The paper used computer modelling TAS EDSL which has been validated using field
Microclimate monitoring study. Moreover, globe thermometer be used in order to investigate the impact of student’s
Building design in different climates position with respect to glazing system. Finally, questionnaire will be utilised to obtain actual thermal
comfort from students in the selected regions with maintaining the same PSBD. The study reveals that
south and east directions are the worst in terms of gaining the maximum amount of heat in all the loca-
tions. The research suggest that glazing to wall ratio is recommended to be 10% in both climate condi-
tions hot and dry and hot and humid.
Ó 2017 The Author. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University. This is an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
One of the major benefits of a building is to provide thermally
comfortable environment for the users. Recently, there has been
increase concern with regards to energy building performance by
designers, engineers and other specialist within the field. Gener-
ally, there are many publications on domestic and office buildings.
Whereas educational buildings have received minor effort. In Saudi
Arabia, the system of prototype school building design (PSBD) is
approved which has resulted in the establishment of fourteen
schools in the country which are seen as the role model design
schools. As a result, any error at the design stage would introduce
great repetition of any issue (Figs. 1 and 2).
Although the dominant climate in Saudi Arabia is hot and dry,
there is a variation in the local climate of each region. Generally,
the climate can be classified into three main variations 1. Hot
and dry which is representing the majority of the country, 2. Hot
and humid along the east and West cost of the country and 3.
E-mail address: alwetaishi.mamdooh@hotmail.com
Peer review under responsibility of King Saud University.
Production and hosting by Elsevier
Moderate climate for the higher land mountains located at the
south-west of the county.
This variation in climate region between these zones (see Fig 3)
will result in a considerable impact on the internal condition of the
same school located in each city.
There are abundant publication about windows contribution to
building energy and thermal performance worldwide.
In a similar climate, a study carried out by Hassouneh et al.
(2010) in Amman, where the author investigated eight types of
clear glass. The findings suggested that selecting large area of win-
dows facing south, east and west can result in saving more energy
and a reduction in heating cost in winter. On the other hand, north
facing classroom is preferable to save energy in summer. Another
research (need reference) was done in Tunisia which involved
studying curtain walls. The paper reveal that utilisation of such
walls can be beneficial considering glass type and proper orienta-
tion. Such walls can perform better than a normal walls with small
glazing to a wall ratio, no greater than 20%. A study (need refer-
ence) carried out in Turkey looked at the thermal performance
optimization in various climatic conditions. The study revealed
that south facing window size and insulation are the most remark-
able features to be considered. The study also suggested that, it is
preferable to maximise the elongation in east and west axis in hot
climates. Size of window of 25% is preferable in the same climate in
order to control the excessive heat gain in summer. For the colder

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jksues.2017.03.001
1018-3639/Ó 2017 The Author. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of King Saud University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18
Fig. 1. Geographical topography of Saudi Arabia.
Fig. 2. The location of the three selected cities in Saudi Arabia where: Riyadh
(representing hot and dry), Jeddah (representing hot and humid) and Abha
(representing moderate of high land climate). Note: The figure introduce a new
category of the geographical zones in Saudi Arabia based on topography, average
dry bulb temperature and humidity.
climates the paper suggested that south window size is acceptable
to certain extend, cities that were studied in the research were
Diyarbakir, Izmir and Antalya.
In a study carried out in Saudi Arabia (hot region) by
Mohammed and Ismail, 2015, the work was found that when
daylight is associated with artificial light significance reduction in
the annual cooling was observed. It was found that 14% with day-
light with double-glazed clear glass while 16% for double glazed
low windows. Study carried out by Nik (2016) in hot and humid cli-
mate of Malaysia, the author has concluded that various factors are
need to be studied such as window to wall ratio, material for the
glassing system, shedding devices and high quality of building con-
struction to obtain the optimum design to provide both thermal
comfort and better energy performance of the buildings.
With respect to work done in cold regions, a study carried out
by Kimmo et al. (2016) in Sweden stated that heating demand
7
Fig. 3. Max and min outdoor temperature of selected cities.
Fig. 4. Added glazed façade into existing brick wall building. Source: Kimmo et al.
(2016).
Fig. 5. The impact of glazing to wall ratio examined by Alwetaishi (2015).
was reduced by 5.6%–25.3% in added glazed façade into a brick
wall building (Fig. 4). On the other hand, in a work done by
Francesco (2016) in various climatic region in Europe to investigate
optimal window to wall ratio in office building. The research
revealed that even though there is an optimal glazing to wall ratio
in each climate, orientation was found the most value especially in
warm climates. Moreover, only south orientation in freezing
regions or in hot climates require quite sensitive percentage of
glazing to wall ration.
In contrast, Soojung et al. (2016) findings suggest that the
energy load increases as window to wall ratio increases and that
8 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18
Fig. 6. Elements affecting heat gain through window. Source: Green Spec.
window position has the largest influence on load when glazing to
wall ratio is greater than 20%. The work also highlights that west
orientation is the worst directions. Research by Ryan and Monjur
(2015) suggests that the decision should not only be limited to
glazing features but wall type has to be highlighted as well.
1.1. Impact of glazing system on energy internal condition in buildings
Glazing system is usually conceived the weak part of the envel-
ope of the building which is responsible for substantial quantity of
heat loss and gains, it is also considered as the friable part between
indoor and outdoor environments therefore having a major influ-
ence on energy consumption Roberto et al. (2011) and
Tsikaloudaki et al. (2012). Abdullatif (2002) has further suggested
that the significance of glazing system has the function to deter-
mine the amount of heat transmittance, direct solar gain and ther-
mal bridging through windows. Kamal et al. (2000) has suggested
in the case of heating, windows are responsible for 10–25% of heat
loss and it is also responsible for excessive heat gain depending on
outdoor temperature and size of windows. To summaries the win-
dow system is of prime importance in modelling buildings in order
to provide a thermally acceptable internal environment and also to
lower the energy consumption of buildings (Pal et al., 2009).
1.2. Window to wall ration
Window to wall ration can have a clear impact on energy saving
in terms of heating and cooling in buildings. This relies on the type
of glazing as glazing system has a great effect which is greater than
hollow. In addition to the solar heat gain and heat transfer coeffi-
cient will increase as the glazing to wall ratio rise (Xing and
Zhang, 2010). Modifying the window area will lead to greater influ-
ence than adjusting the thickness of external wall (Bouchlaghem,
2000). Andrea et al. (2011) has concluded that not only the size
of window, but also orientation has a great effect on internal con-
Fig. 7. A plan and perspectives of tested school type (Author).
dition. Lee et al. (2013) has suggested that all windows in each
direction should be minimised in all warm and hot regions (Fig. 5).
1.3. Thermal transmittance through windows
Thermal transmittance is an important element which has an
effect on both heat loss and gain in buildings. Tsikaloudaki et al.
(2012) findings show that in hot climate area, higher solar trans-
mittance will lead to worse performance. On the other hand, it is
better for cold regions or cooler periods during the year. Tsikalou-
daki further has suggested that the thermal coefficient should not
be lower than 2.0 W/m2 K, Unfortunately schools in Saudi Arabia
have a single clear glazing layer which is inefficient to reduce heat
exchange that occur across window system. There are many types
of materials which can be used in glazing system to ensure high
energy performance of the glazing, low-E glazed unit is considered
to be most effective (Nicola and Inger, 2016; Cinzia et al., 2012;
Tavares et al., 2014; Msnuela et al., 2016). Seunghwan et al.
(2013) has indicated that the use of low-E glazed unit can achieve
15.2% to 19.9% in total energy saving in South Korea. This depends
on the specification of the materials.
Similarly, Mohammed and Ismail (2015) supports this view as
his case study done in hot region suggest 14% reduction in total
energy building with the integration of daylight using double-
glazed clear glass while the reduction was as high as 16% using
low-E windows. Low-E unit in hot region can has a major impact
in improving energy performance with 82% of transmittance and
a very low emissivity of 8% (Msnuela et al., 2016). Weilong et al.
(2016) has compared the semi-transparent photolytic (STPV) with
low-glazing unit. The study reported that STPV system can save up
to 18% of the total electricity consumption per year in the city of
Hong Kong.
In the city of Hong Kong (cold region), the south-west orienta-
tion is the best for power generation obtained from the STPV while
south is the optimum orientation for energy performance for pas-
sive heating. In the case of Mediterranean climate, Tavares et al.
(2014) has looked at the performance of single, double-glazing
and electro chromic system.
The later system is more appropriate for west façade where
south facing façade shows no significance difference using the
same system. Aerogel system was investigated by Nicola and
Inger (2016) and Xaman et al. (2017). The research highlighted that
Aerogel is an effective system in reducing greenhouse emissions
regardless of the total window to wall ratio. However, other publi-
cations reported that thermal performance is not all about material
system used, it involve many features such as dimensional charac-
teristics and material properties of the entire components Cinzia
et al. (2012).
 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18 9

Table 1
Characteristics summary of the tested school.

Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area Total area
of of glazing of of of external of of of of of of of of external
external external external walls external external external external external external external walls
walls walls walls (South walls walls walls walls walls walls walls (South
(East (South facing) (South (South (South (South (South (South (South facing)
facing) facing) facing) facing) facing) facing) facing) facing) facing)
Data observed 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2 2111.0 m2

1.4. Factors affecting solar heat gain
There are three different methods for heat to be transferred
through window assembly, conduction, convection and radiation.
In addition, four major elements affect the total heat gained by
window system as following: heat transmittance, reflectance,
absorbance and emittance.
In terms of heat transmittance which is assign to the amount of
radiation that can actually pass through window assembly while
reflectance refer to the light which can be reflected on the surface
of the glazing. The latter is restricted to glazing type, coating and
angle incidence of light. In order to assess the performance of glaz-
ing system, Solar Heat Gain (SHC) is used which is the standard to
determine window ability. However, all the specialist are moving
now to use Solar Heat Gain Coefficient (SHGC) which refer to the
fraction of the entire energy that can enter the building through
window (Figs. 6 and 7).
U-value is commonly used in solar heat gain related to energy
performance of windows. However, it is highly insufficient for
accurate evaluation of actual benefit obtained from publications
(Adrian and Joanna, 2015). In contrast, Gunnlaug et al. (2016) is
against this. He considered U-value is an important tool in order
to evaluate energy performance of windows (Tables 1–3).
2. Validating computer modelling TAS EDSL
The main purpose to use TAS EDSL in this research is to measure
indoor air temperature, in order to insure high quality of results and
recommendations, a validation of the software was carried out.
In Taif city in Saudi Arabia, where four data loggers were set in
selective classrooms as shown in Figs. 8 and 9, and one was set out-
door to measure actual outdoor temperature and relative humid-
ity. The results show high accuracy of the predicted results

Table 2
The prince of Mohamed Al-Kabeer’ school: Orientation, AC system, windows consideration construction materials and solar access.

Orientation of school The location of any building at any location has a prime contrxbution toward the
performance of the building, especially, in determining the amount of solar gain that
could be observed by the envelope of that building.
The school’s main elevation is facing west. However, most of the spaces facing this
direction are offices, leaving most the classrooms facing east and south which receive
a considerable amount of solar radiation, particularly in the early morning when the
angle of the sun is quite low. In the part of school analysis more detailed will be
provided in terms of sunlight distribution.

Air conditioning
There is only one type of air conditioning in each single room in the school which
system is a split unit.

There are two units in each class.

There is a central cooling system in the closed playing area

Types of unit:
LG TITAN plasma Air conditioning
Capabilities of the system:
(5.04 kW cooling, 5.56 kW heating)
There are ‘94’ split units in the school (apart from the toilets and closed playing area).

60 units installed in the classes (two in each lass)

34 units installed in the offices (two/one in each office depending on the size of
the space).

The energy consumption of each unit per month is ( k), when the unit switched
on at 6.00am and off at 3.00 pm every day during the weekdays.

(continued on next page)

10 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18

Table 2 (continued)

Windows of school
(types and
dimensions)

It has been generally accepted that openings such as windows play a major role in exchanging heat between indoor and outdoor.
Consequently, heat loss and gain will take place. Controlling them can help in maintaining an acceptable environment depending on the
location of the house. The size and the location of these openings have the most effective aspects
1. Smaller size windows in some of the classrooms (two applied in one classroom)
2. Small windows in the offices (west facing)
3. Large openings in the corridors (provided a good daylight level)
4. Larger windows in some classrooms (one only applied in each classrooms)
5. Atriums opening (fixed and cannot be opened)
Construction materials
used in the external
wall
 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18 11

Table 2 (continued)

Solar access to all

facing classrooms

Building’s orientation is the main responsible technique in determining the amount

of sunlight exposure and hence the amount of direct heat gain that will affect the
internal space.State and condition of windows in school ‘‘100 where:

1. State and condition of windows ‘‘100

1.1. Partly shaded windows (afternoon), Direct sunlight takes place after 12:00
1.2. [There are ‘40 classes of this type in the school]
1.3. [There are ‘120 classes of this type in the school]
2. State and condition of windows ‘‘300
2.1. Direct sunlight most of the time on the glazing
2.2. [There are ‘60 classes of this type in the school]
3. State and condition of windows ‘‘2”
3.1. Shaded class from direct sunlight all around the year
3.2. [There are ‘8’ classes of this type in the school]
4. State and condition of windows ‘‘4”
4.1. Partly shaded windows (afternoon), Direct sunlight takes place from sunrise
to noon)
Design feature and
The colour used for the external surface of the school is Beige which was accept-
colour used able as a light colour.

The separation between the offices and the classes was good. But, it was not good
to have smaller windows size for the offices which are facing the north and west,
and very large openings for the classes which are mainly facing south and east.

Having the large courtyard in the middle of the school added a positive feature to
make the movement easier and also to provide an indoor environment for stu-
dents to act in, and avoiding the harsh environment outdoor. However!!Closing
the courtyard (completely) could lead to many problems in dissatisfaction, espe-
cially, in hot and humid climate like Jeddah.

Table 3
Proprieties of glazing examined.

Window Total area of window Glazing to wall ratio (window code)

1 1.5 m2 5%
2 3 m2 10%
3 (Base case) 6 m2 20%
4 8.2 m2 30%
5 11.4 m2 40%

Fig. 8. Actual and predicted IAT on Day 184 of main bedroom (MVR), boy’s bedroom (BBR) and office room (OR).

derived from the computer modelling with the actual data
recorded from the data loggers (Figs. 10 and 11).
3. Methodology
Today’s market is full of energy modelling simulation tools
(EMST) some of which are quite simple and straightforward and
others are in that sort of complexity. In terms of the simple pro-
grams they use steady-state type calculations while the advanced
ones apply what is called ‘admittance procedure’ which follow
the dynamic thermal response. In addition, there is some software
which has been created and designed for a special type of building
such as commercial, office or domestic. However very little data
was available on programs that were specially designed for school
12 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18

Fig. 9. Actual and predicted RH on Day 184 of main bedroom (MVR), boy’s bedroom (BBR) and office room (OR).

Fig. 10. A. [Validating the computer modelling with actual recorded data] Perspective of the building used for validation. B: A photo of the building in the city of Taif. D. The
data logger used to monitor indoor dry bulb temperature and relative humidity in a selective number of rooms shown in figure.

buildings or supposedly educational. When it comes to compare
and contrast some of the features of EMST such as accuracy of tool,
depth of tool, self-learning access and required outputs. TAS EDSL
will be one of the most likely tool to be used (Alwetaishi, 2015)
(Table 4).
Saudi Arabia’s climate is mainly hot. However, there are three
major regions which can be classified the local climate: hot dry,
hot humid and moderate. In this research the impact of glazing
ration on indoor air temperature (IAT) will be highlighted for North
and South facing classrooms in Prototype School Building Design
(PSBD) number 11.
It is to be mentioned that the buildings has been considered as
free running operation without utilising natural ventilation. The
only variable is the location within the kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Fig. 11. A Plan of the ground floor in selected Case Study, classroom number 14 highlighted which is facing south. Source: Ministry of Education.
 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18 13

Table 4
Characteristics of the existing School building evaluated by TAS EDSL.

Layers Width (mm) Conductivity (W/mK) Total U value (W/m2.°C)

External wall Block 100 0.85 0.43
Insulation 90 0.048
Block 100 0.85
Internal wall Block 100 175 4.4
Ground Concrete screed 50.0 1.28 0.316
Concrete 125.0 0.87
Crashed brick aggregate 75.0 0.55
Sand dry 1000.0 0.32
Roof Concrete 100 0.3 0.274
Roofing FELT 5.0 0.41
Slate GREY 10.0 2.0
Glazing type
Glazing Type of glazing Width mm Solar reflectance Solar absorptance Solar transmittance Emissivity Total U value (W/m2 K)
Single 10.00 0.070 0.115 0.7 0.845 5.53

Fig. 12. Jeddah’s indoor air temperature and relative humidity of C14 in summer Fig. 14. Fig. 8 Abha’s indoor air temperature and relative humidity of C14 in
for south facing classroom. summer for south facing classroom.

Fig. 13. Fig. 8 Riyadh’s indoor air temperature and relative humidity of C14 in
summer for south facing classroom.
where three different scenes representing three major local cli-
mates have been.
Clear emphasis will be implemented to the IAT of the selected
classrooms for both North and South where maximum and mini-
mum solar heat gain takes place. Furthermore, solar heat gain will
be featured as it is connected to glazing ratio and size of window.
The research will use equipment to measure some energy perfor-
mance variables in the school building such as globe thermometer
in order to investigate the significance of glazing system on stu-
dents with respect to user’s position within classroom. The result
of actual thermal comfort will be derived directly from student
using questionnaire which reflect their real satisfaction. All the
Fig. 15. Jeddah’s IAT and RH of C14 in winter for south facing classroom.
classrooms will be considered as unoccupied which will lead to
no occupancy sensible/ latent gain to be calculated. This is to focus
on only the pattern of the classrooms as space regardless of the
style of usage. There is only an infiltration value at 0.5 ach as it
is not logic to be neglected.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Impact of glazing to wall ratio on IAT and RH
4.1.1. Summer consideration
It seems that the impact of modifying glazing to wall ration
(GWR) in both Jeddah and Abha has clearer trend than the case
in Riyadh (Figs. 12–14). This is the result of the harsh dry climate
14 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18

Fig. 16. Riyadh’s IAT and RH of C14 in winter for south facing classroom.
in the capital of the country. It was also noticed that there is a pos-
itive link between the fluctuation of IAT and RH for all the exam-
ined classrooms in various regions. Although the peak of IAT for
both internal conditions in Jeddah and Riyadh is corresponding,
the minimum temperature is not.
In addition, having larger glazing to wall ratio in Jeddah climate
aid to lower the IAT at night. As a result, it is more beneficial to
have larger are of glazing in hot and humid climate rather than
hot and dry. In addition to that the city of Riyadh has large outdoor
temperature variations than the case in the city of Jeddah. This will
have a clear consequence on the amount of solar heat loss and gain
in between indoor and outdoor.
As far as the IAT in city of Abha is concerned, there is a quite dif-
ferent scenario in this city as it has a completely distinct local cli-
mate with latitude of over 2.000 m above sea level. The max IAT of
the 40% of GWR is just over 30 °C at 15:00. Furthermore, the min-
imum IAT is at a steady level of around 29 °C. It is obvious that, the
larger the GWR is, the larger fluctuation is expected to occur.

4.1.2. Winter consideration

Fig. 17. Abha IAT and Rh of C14 in winter for south facing classroom.
Surprisingly, winter has slightly different results out of the
selected locations. Jeddah’s IAT has similar performance compared
to the one in summer due to the similarity in OAT. In contrast, this
is not the case in terms of the city of Riyadh. The max temperature
of GWR in this city is less than 33 °C with 40% while it is above
40 °C in Jeddah. These results show that having larger GWR in
hot and humid climate is not recommended. Smaller window size
is for efficient natural ventilation. Similar reconditions for hot dry
and moderate climate as well. However, the impact of increasing
GWR in hot and dry climate (Riyadh) is greater than in moderate
(Abha).

Table 5
Significance of results (max temp, main temp, reducation in IAT) in both summer and witenr.

South facing classrooms in Jeddah

summer winter
Max temp Reduction in IAT Max temp Reduction in IAT

5% 37.46 °C -1.06 32.53 3.63

10% 37.86 °C -1.66 32.95 3.21

20% 38.52 °C - 36.16 -

30% 38.90 °C 0.38 37.34 1.18

40% 39.71 °C 1.19 39.32 3.16

South facing classrooms in Riyadh

summer winter

Max temp Reduction in IAT Max temp Reduction in IAT

5% 38.17 -0.72 25.03 3.55
10% 38.45 -0.44 26.35 2.23
20% 38.89 - 28.58 -
30% 39.14 0.25 29.87 1.29
40% 39.53 0.64 31.99 3.41
South facing classrooms in Abha
summer winter
Max temp Reduction in IAT Min temp Reduction in IAT
5% 29.2 -1.01 23.57 -2.23
10% 29.59 -0.62 24.40 -1.8
20% 30.21 - 25.80 -
30% 30.59 0.38 26.56 0.76
40% 31.35 1.14 27.62 1.82
 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18 15

Table 6
Significance of max and min temperatures obtained.

Maximum Peak in south summer Minimum peak in south winter

Jeddah Riyadh Abha Jeddah Riyadh Abha
5% 37.46 38.17 29.2 32.34 24.47 23.39
10% 37.86 38.45 29.59 32 24.8 23.76
20% 38.52 38.89 30.21 33.11 25.41 24.39
30% 38.9 39.14 30.59 33.32 25.7 24.67
40% 39.71 39.53 31.35 33.6 26.05 24.93

This experiment also reveal that the chance to exploit passive

Fig. 18. Actual thermal comfort of students in the school during the experiment in
summer in each climatic regions selected (%).
heating in Riyadh is more responding than in moderate climate.
It can be concluded that the GWR for hot dry and hot humid is rec-
ommended to be only 10% out of the total area of external wall
while it is recommended to be 20% in moderate climate in the city
of Abha. The 20% of glazing to wall ration in Riyadh and Jeddah will
ensure IAT at steady state of around 37 and 38, respectively in
summer whereas in winter at around 26 and 34, respectively.
These recommendations further confirm a study done by
Hassouneh et al. (2010) where the paper has suggested a glazing
to wall ratio to be no greater than 20% out of the total area of
the external wall. It can be noted that larger area of glazing in
the location of Abha and Riyadh is recommended in winter to
increase chance of passive heating. Hassouneh et al. (2010) find-
ings also suggest this. However, it is not recommended to have
lager area of glazing in the city of Riyadh due to the extremely high
outdoor temperatures which will resulted in large amount of heat
gain. In contrast, it might be beneficial to have larger glazing to
wall ratio of glazing in the city of Abha (Figs. 15–17).

4.2. Relative humidity consideration

RH and IAT have an inverse relationship, as IAT rises, RH ropes.

Fig. 19. Actual thermal comfort of students in the school during the experiment in
winter in each climatic regions selected (%).
The does not focus on thermal comfort which could require many
elements which influence the final indication of comfort such as
relative humidity, air speed and clothing level. However, it is
accepted that air temperature is the most affecting element among
the rest. However, relative humidity is an important aspect in this
research due to the selected local regions where each one has dif-
ferent RH. The city of Jeddah and Abha have a very humid pattern
almost all the year while Riyadh is quite dry in summer and rela-
tively humid in winter. This can have some contribution to the
overall internal condition. In order to investigate the impact of rel-
ative humidity on the internal condition in more details, a further
investigation on the impact of natural ventilation is required
(Tables 5 and 6).

5. Thermal comfort in school and impact of glazing system on

thermal comfort

In thermal comfort it is accepted that the actual state of thermal

comfort is subject to many factors including clothing level, age and
body shape. It can be noticed that the state of thermal comfort in
Riyadh and Jeddah is similar, and a clear difference can be seen
compared to Abha city. However, some surprising figures which
might not be accurate shown in results (Figs. 18 and 19). For
instance, in the hot and dry climate (Riyadh) the percentage of stu-
dent who voted neutral more than 10% while in Abha city the per-
centage was over 20% which is not reasonable. This indicates that
user’s thermal comfort responsive might not be accurate, and
Fig. 20. Picture of students during filling the questionnaire.
effected by many elements. Moreover, the ultimate and more accu-
rate results can be obtained from taking measurement of thermal
16 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18

Fig. 21. Thermal comfort and impact of students with respect to glazing system.

Fig. 22. Façade investigated in the school with dimensions.

Fig. 23. Colour distribution of globe temperature with respect of position of glazing system in each climatic zones.

comfort influential points which can be utilised to calculate ther-
mal comfort (Figs. 20–27).
In order to obtain accurate of actual thermal comfort from
users in school buildings, the position of student must be identi-
fied. Fig 13 which shows the measured globe temperature in
every one meter square within the classroom shows significant
variation between those who seated closer to the windows that
other who are far away. This factor cannot be neglected espe-
cially in a region such as Riyadh where outdoor environment is
quite harsh. The finding of the research suggest that windows
are should be minimised in hot dry and hot humid climates with
no more than 10% out of the total area of the external wall
whereas in moderate climate the percentage can be maximised
no more than 20%.
 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18 17

Fig. 24. Set of globe thermometer used in the school.

Fig. 25. Distribution of direct solar gain on external walls in each directions in the city of JEDDAH (Hot and Humid Climate). Source: Author.

Fig. 26. Maximum indoor air temperature distribution in various cities and climate Fig. 27. Minimum indoor air temperature distribution in various cities and climate
regions (Jeddah, Riyadh and Abha). regions (Jeddah, Riyadh and Abha).

5. Conclusion
amount of heat in all the locations. As a result, the glazing system
in these directions should be minimised especially in the city of
This research looked at the impact of modifying glazing to wall
Riyadh and Jeddah. Glazing to wall ratio is recommended to be
ratio in various climatic zones in Saudi Arabia where Jeddah is rep-
10% in hot and dry climate as well as hot and humid. This will
resenting hot and humid, Riyadh hot and dry and Abha moderate.
ensure an indoor dry bulb temperature of 37 °C and 38 °C in Jeddah
One of the most important PSBD has been taken into consideration
and Riyadh, respectively. On the other hand, 20% of glazing to wall
which is school number 11. The paper considered the south facing
ratio is recommended in moderate climate.
classrooms as it is the most direction receives solar radiation. As far
as the result and discussions are concerned, it is more beneficial to
Acknowledgment
have larger area of glazing in hot and humid climate than in hot
and dry due to the harsh climate of Riyadh. In hot and humid cli-
I would like to extend my thankful to Taif University which sup-
mate, indoor temperature swing is limited in between summer
ported my research and provided me with required tools in order
and winter and also day and night. The results reveal that south
to conduct my experiments.
and east directions are the worst in terms of gaining the maximum
18 M. Alwetaishi / Journal of King Saud University – Engineering Sciences 31 (2019) 6–18

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