Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture.

Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22

September 2004 Page 1 of 6

The Vernacular and the Environment

Towards a Comprehensive Research Methodology

I.A. Meir1, S.C. Roaf2, I. Gilead3, T. Runsheng4, I. Stavi5, J. Mackenzie-Bennett6

1
DAUP, Dept. of Man in the Desert, Blaustein Institute for Desert Research (BIDR), Ben-Gurion University of the
Negev (BGU), Sede Boqer Campus, Israel
2
School of Architecture – Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington, Oxford, UK
3
Archaeology Division, Dept. of Bible and Ancient East Studies, Faculty of Humanities, BGU, Beer Sheva, Israel
4
Solar Energy Research Institute, Yunnan Normal University, Kunming 650092, PR China
5
Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies – Dept. of Man in the Desert – BIDR, BGU, Sede Boqer
Campus, Israel
6
MSc Studies Programme - School of Architecture – Oxford Brookes University, Gipsy Lane Campus, Headington,
Oxford, UK

ABSTRACT: Historical, traditional and vernacular housing prototypes have been considered as
inherently adapted to the constraints of the natural environment. Such a deterministic attitude has
often led to the wrong conclusions regarding appropriate technologies and solutions in general, and in
particular those relevant to low cost housing for developing countries. This paper analyses a number
of generic types of housing common around the Middle East and the Mediterranean, and assesses
their performance vis-à-vis different low-tech upgrade and retrofit strategies. A number of methods
and techniques were employed, including monitoring, modeling, numerical analysis, simulation, and
infrared thermography. Investigations included different building technologies and materials,
morphologies and details, under different arid conditions typical of the Middle Eastern climatic
regions.

Conference Topic: 8 Traditional solutions in sustainable perspective

Keywords: arid, climate, construction, comfort, energy, modelling, parametric study, vernacular

This, of course, is only an illustration. Similar

INTRODUCTION
It has become rather common to encounter in
architectural publications statements advocating the
study of vernacular and historical housing prototypes
as a base for environmentally conscious design. One
such typical statement is the following:
“…Temperatures (within Nabatean buildings)
were controlled by proper construction of the walls.
These were made three layers thick and were
hermetically sealed on the outside and the inside
with a porous insulating layer between. In addition,
all openings of the living rooms faced south and west
in order to benefit fully from the sun. Slot like
windows placed below the ceiling facilitated
ventilation but prevented, at the same time, the
penetration of dust. In this way temperatures were
always much higher in the rooms in winter and
considerably lower than the heat on the outside of
the building in the summer. The extremely small
courts around which were grouped the living rooms
only helped in this matter…” [1].
examples are numerous and can be encountered
throughout the professional (and academic)
literature.
To address such issues in a systematic way, the
paper presents a combined operation including
theoretical and fieldwork studies undertaken by the
Desert Architecture and Urban Planning Unit in the
Negev Desert, Israel, with theoretical, simulated
model studies undertaken within the Energy Efficient
Buildings program in Oxford Brookes University. The
parametric studies undertaken include in-situ
monitoring; 1:1 scale model monitoring; infrared
thermography; thermal and daylight simulations; and
numerical analysis. In several cases, 1:1 scale
models were used to calibrate simulation tools.
Investigations included different building
technologies and materials, morphologies and
details, under different arid conditions typical of the
Middle Eastern climatic regions, as well as semiarid
and drylands conditions typical of much of the
Mediterranean area. Indoor climate was analyzed
vis-a-vis visual and thermal comfort. The results
have been used to assess heating loads, and these
Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22
September 2004
were used to estimate the probable indoor air quality
due to and environmental implications of the use of
combustible fuels under poorly ventilated conditions.
This paper sums interim results of ongoing
research, parts of which have been presented at
previous PLEA and other conferences.
2. METHODS
In situ surveys, data collection and literature
survey indicated that although the overall number of
specific cases was relatively large, these could be
easily grouped under generic types. Such grouping
allowed the creation of a relatively limited - and
manageable - number of prototypes common
throughout the Middle East and the Mediterranean
[2-5]. These included various forms, morphologies
and geometries, materials and technologies,
geoclimatic location and dispersal, details and
variations. Their systematic study would eventually
need in situ monitoring, but first of all there was need
for the development of a methodology that would
allow control and coordination of actions. This
methodology would have to provide appropriate
strategies and solutions to overcome several
problems and limitations, such as access to potential
sites, partial preservation of buildings, monitoring
occupied buildings, security and safety, and a large
numbers of parameters. The solution chosen was a
multi-partite system based on the following
procedures and protocols:
. classification of types in time and space/climate
. monitoring of available/accessible case studies
. construction of scale and full size physical
models
. monitoring under real conditions
. use of model monitoring results for the calibration
of simulation programs
. simulation of case studies and variations
. infrared thermography for the verification of
simulation results
. numerical modeling combining parameters of
simplified physical and simulated models
. parametric studies of simulated upgrade and
retrofit
The prototypes examined up to the preparation of
this paper, and the procedures and protocols
followed are summed in Table I. They represent
hundreds of runs of simulated models (primarily with
Quick/Easy and Toolbox, but also Ecotect, Daylight,
and others), and hundreds of days of in situ
surveying, photographing and monitoring. Some of
the results have been discussed and analyzed,
many of them summed in a number of papers
submitted by graduate students as part of their
assignments. Many of these have already been
published as partial, type- or site-specific studies [6-
16].
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Interesting and sometimes even unexpected
results have been reached to day.
Page 2 of 6
3.1 Materials, thermal mass and thermal comfort
Most historical and vernacular prototypes are, by
nature, of high thermal mass, with very limited
fenestration area, usually unglazed. These
properties make them very inert in relation to
ambient daily fluctuations. However, this extreme
inertia is counterproductive due to the inability of
such structures to take advantage of solar gains in
winter and of night cooling by cross ventilation in
summer, primarily – but not only! – due to their
limited fenestration size. Thus, the construction
technology and building types traditionally
considered to be by default adapted to the
environmental constraints proved uncomfortably hot
in summer and very much so in winter for most of the
hours of the day.
The thermal performance of such buildings
proved to be better on highland and mountain
regions rather than the lowlands and more humid
coastal plains. No significant differences were found
between stone masonry and adobe construction.
3.2 Roofs and their thermal performance
Curved roofs were found to perform thermally
better than flat ones by promoting more comfortable
indoors. The geometric advantages of such roofs
were originally investigated experimentally [17] on
test cells with negligible mass roofs. Numerical
modelling undertaken within the broader framework
of the research described here showed similar
results for massive curved roofs modelled under arid
conditions [15,16]. Results showed that a domed or
vaulted roof will absorb more solar radiation than its
corresponding flat roof. This increases with the
increase of the half dome or vault angle but is
insignificantly affected by climate characteristics and
latitude of the location.
However, the main reason for improved indoor
conditions under a curved roof is exactly this
enlarged surface area, which allows for more heat to
be dissipated at night through radiation and
convection. This, of course, limits the suitability of
such geometry to areas with clear night skies, typical
of continental and especially highland deserts, but
not necessarily coastal ones.
Minor differences were found between vaults of
different orientations. To quantify such
discrepancies, numerical modelling was performed
to estimate the insolation absorbed by vaulted and
domed roofs, based on angular dependence of
absorptance and solar geometry. A south–north
facing vaulted roof was found to both reduce the
solar heat gain of buildings in summer months and
increase solar heat gain in winter months compared
to identical vaults facing east–west; the greater the
proportion of area exposed to the sun, the smaller
the amount of beam radiation that will be absorbed
by a curved roof. Furthermore, results showed that
even if absorptance is assumed to be constant this
would affect the total solar heat gain of the roofs
studied by less than 4% [15,16]. The role of the
seemingly negligible windows positioned on the
upper part of gable walls in such structures proved to
be of very significant importance in the overall
Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22
September 2004 Page 3 of 6

Table I: Types and parameters used in this study, and activities undertaken within this research up to the
preparation of this paper.

Coastal Lowlands Highlands Deep valleys

Building Type

subterranean (cave/complex/earth integrated) *+à *+Û *+Ã

conventional 1storey *+¯ *+ï *+ï› *+¯
conventional 2 stories *+¯ *+¯› *+ï *+¯
conventional 3 stories *+¯ *+¯ *+¯› *+¯

Building Material

adobe *+¯ *+¯ *+#ï *+¯

stone *+¯ *+¯ *+#¯› *+¯
light: woven fabrics, reeds etc *+ *+ *+ *
light: reused fabrics, metal sheets etc +¯ +¯ +ï

Plan

square *+¯ *+¯ *+ï *+¯

rectangular *+¯ *+¯ *+ï *+¯

Wall Section & Details

2 layers dry ± plaster (mud/lime) *+¯ *+¯ *+#ï *+¯

2 layers + mortar ± plaster (mud/lime) *+¯ *+¯ *+#ï *+¯

Fenestration

door only *¯ *¯ *¯ *¯

door + window (various orientations) *+¯ *+¯ *+¯ *+¯

door + windows (various orientations) *+¯ *+¯ *+ï *+¯

Roof

flat *+¯ *+­¯› *+­#¯ *+¯

vault *+¯ *­¯› *+­#¯› *+¯

dome *+¯ *­¯› *+­#¯› *+¯

light pitched *+¯ *+¯› *+­¯ *+¯

Courtyard
enclosed * *+Ã *+Ã *+

semi-enclosed *+ *+Ã *+Ã *+

adjacent *+ *+ *+Ã *+

portico *+ *+Ã *+ *+

peristyle *+ *+Ã *+ *+

Legend: * historical, + contemporary vernacular, ­ numerical modeling, # physical modeling, ¯ computer

simulation,à monitoring, › infrared thermography.

behavior of the structures, when ventilation was
applied to the model and the simulations.
The worst indoor temperature conditions
measured and simulated were within buildings with
light roofs. Simulation results showed that insulation
plays a significant role only when the typically high
thermal mass of the buildings is reduced. It was also
demonstrated that the shading of heavy flat roofs
can have a significant effect, lowering indoor
temperatures by up to 3°C under certain conditions.
Shading of roofs may have been a common practice
in the past and can still be seen in Middle Easters
Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22
September 2004
and Mediterranean villages, where vines provide
summer shading, or where temporary shading is
provided by “transient layers”, such as tobacco,
peppers and other agricultural produce dried on the
roofs. Fabrics may also have been used in the past,
as indicated by details identified on the parapets of
roofs.
3.3 Fenestration
Fenestration alterations and enlargement were
identified as vital for the improvement of thermal
performance, provided they were coupled with a
lower thermal mass.
Fenestration in such structures is typically
negligible. In many cases it is limited to one only – a
door. Where windows do exist they tend to be very
small – a fact dictated by the construction technology
and materials as mentioned previously. Traditionally
such apertures were unglazed, often totally blocked
in winter to avoid heat losses, thus also minimizing
daylighting, while not solving the problems of
infiltration. This lack of fenestration and proper
glazing materials did not allow the structures
monitored and simulated to take advantage of the
otherwise advantageous ambient conditions and
temperature differences. In cases simulated with
modified fenestration and operation regimes the
improvement was limited, again due to excessive
thermal mass.
One such case monitored and simulated is a
stone structure typical of the Roman period Negev
Highlands in Israel. It has an entrance door and four
narrow and high slots (15 by 85 cm) located at about
4 meters above the floor in the wall perpendicular to
that of the door. Both measured and simulated
temperatures (for different orientations and operation
modes of the windows and door) indicated a
marginal rise of indoor temperature in comparison
with an identical room simulated without windows.
This marginal rise of approximately 0.5°C was
similar in winter and summer and may be attributed
to air movement due to buoyancy differences and
wind [7].
Figure 1: Winter temperatures in historical and vernacular prototypes on the Negev Desert Highlands. Left – stone
masonry building with interior plaster, in four locations. Right – Transitional Bedouin dwellings. Vertical axis –
temperature in deg.C; horizontal axis – time in hours.
Page 4 of 6
3.3 Indoor climate, air quality, energy implications
Energy input for heating in winter - a necessity in
most drylands - turned out to be a significant burden.
The most common sources of energy are firewood
and dried dung. Whereas the use of the former is
considered one of the main contributors to
desertification in semiarid regions, the use of both
has serious health implications, especially when
burned within confined and poorly ventilated spaces,
where the pollutants produced (some of which may
well be carcinogenic) make respiratory complications
as high as 1000 times more likely than when such
biofuels are burned outdoors.
In many traditional settlements cooking is still
done outside the main living quarters, either in a
separate structure or in the open air courtyard.
However, winter heating is still a problem, since in
many cases it is still based on open fire. Although no
studies were done within this research regarding
particles and pollutants common in the stone, mud or
concrete buildings, or tin huts and tents, heated thus
in winter, the data available through parallel
investigations point to some very disconcerting facts.
Indoor air exposure to suspended particulate matter
increases the risk of acute respiratory infections, one
of the leading causes of infant and child mortality in
developing countries. In Asia, such exposure
accounts for between half and one million excess
deaths every year. In sub-Saharan Africa the
estimate is 300,000-500,000 excess deaths. Around
30-40% of cases of asthma and 20-30% of all
respiratory diseases may be linked to air pollution in
some populations [18]. Such cases may be linked to
poorly heated indoor spaces which encourage the
growth of moulds whose spores are often allergenic
[19].
3.4 Behavioral adaptation
The above results regarding indoor temperatures
in extra-massive buildings explain the phenomenon
of “intramural migration”, namely the use of different
parts of traditional housing prototypes for different
Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22
September 2004
Figure 2: Thermal stability (July) in subterranean
dwellings, Negev Desert Highlands. From top: entrance;
infrared images of entrance at noon, midnight, dawn.
Interior background temperature remains stable at appr.
24°C.
Page 5 of 6
parts of the year or the day, and especially the habit
of sleeping on rooftops, balconies or in patios, where
the summer night conditions may seem to be
significantly better than the indoor ones. Daylight
measurements and simulations substantiate the
common practice of performing house chores in
open spaces such courtyards.
3.5 Educational aspects
Many of the students had been aware of the
advantages of thermal mass in dry climates. Their
intuitive reaction to the poor indoor conditions
indicated by simulation was addition of more thermal
mass, which proved at best to have no effect. As a
result, students participating in the project developed
a much more realistic and practical attitude toward
traditional building technology and details, and
appropriate methods for the improvement of indoor
climate and energy conservation. In most cases it
was realized quite early on that that lowering the
amount of thermal mass was indeed a necessity,
and that the excessive thermal mass could be
effectively replaced by insulation in the centre or
outside of compound wall constructions resulting in
significant improvements to wall and building
performance.
The study also demonstrated that although
cooling needs in summer may be an important issue
for certain arid regions (especially the hot continental
valleys and the humid coastal plains), heating is vital
for most arid regions, extremely so for the highlands
and mountains.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
This ongoing study has shown the need for the
systematic research of historical, traditional and
vernacular building types and technologies towards
establishing the base for a better understanding of
living conditions in the past, as well as in the
present. Such an understanding is vital for the
upgrade of living conditions within a sustainable
development framework. This should take into
account commonly available materials, construction
methods and know-how, simple improvements and
alterations, and especially the possibility to create
comfortable indoor environments with minimum
auxiliary energy input. The ramifications of current
practices are more than worrying both from an
environmental and a health point of view. They are
exacerbated by the growing numbers of people living
in unsustainable housing types, by the enhanced
desertification processes witnessed in the last few
decades, and by the interface of these two.
One of the important outcomes of this study so
far stems from the counterintuitive results of
monitoring and simulation studies. It is such
“intuition” stemming from “common knowledge” and
theoretically “thoroughly established” historical
paradigms that cause misconceptions and assorted
problems, not least among NGOs and development
organizations operating in developing countries,
many of which are defined as deserts. Such
misconceptions have given birth to housing units
with massive walls and lightweight sheet metal
Plea2004 - The 21th Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture. Eindhoven, The Netherlands, 19 - 22
September 2004
roofing - as bad a solution as one could possibly
conceive.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Numerous individuals, groups and institutions have
contributed so far to this ongoing research. Parts of
the parametric studies were undertaken by graduate
students at the School of Architecture of Oxford
Brookes University, UK (2000-1), and the Albert Katz
International School for Desert Studies, at the
Blaustein Institute for Desert Research, Israel (2001-
3). Infrared thermography processing was done in
cooperation with Wolfgang Mutzafi-Haller. Access to,
and work in archaeological sites in Israel was
facilitated by the Israel Nature and National Parks
Protection Authority. The help of these and many
others is kindly acknowledged.
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