Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Building and Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

A review of the influence of courtyard geometry and orientation

on microclimate
Jiayin Zhu a, Juanjuan Feng a, Jifu Lu b, c, *, Yu Chen a, Weilin Li a, Peiji Lian a, Xi Zhao d
a
Department of Water Conservancy and Civil Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
b
School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China
c
State Key Laboratory of Green Building in Western China, Xian University of Architecture & Technology, China
d
College of Architecture, Texas A&M University, Texas, 77843, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Courtyard design is a sustainable strategy for reducing energy consumption and improving thermal comfort. In
Courtyard microclimate addition, as climate-responsive buildings, courtyards can create microclimate on a local scale under specific
Geometry climatic conditions. The components that influence the microclimate of a courtyard are geometry, orientation,
Orientation
openings, wall materials and landscape elements. An integrated design strategy is an effective way to improve
Passive strategy
Natural ventilation
courtyard microclimate. However, many studies conducted empirical studies for specific climate regions or used
Shading simulation software to optimize a variable. The paper explored the effects of geometry and orientation on
shading and ventilation, as well as their combination on microclimate improvement in different climatic zones.
798 articles were screened from Science Direct, Scopus and Web of Science search engines, 92 articles were
selected for meta-analysis and synthesis. Results showed that courtyards with north-south orientation (within 45◦
of deviation) and high aspect ratios (greater than 2) achieve excellent shading performance for areas with hot
climates and intense heat. In temperate climate zones, square or round courtyards with an aspect ratio of around
1 allow for a better balance between solar radiation gain in winter and solar shading in summer, achieving
satisfactory thermal performance in both seasons. As for cold climate zones, square courtyards with north-south
orientation (within 15◦ of deviation) and high openness can obtain more solar radiation. Moreover, courtyards
with higher windward side enclosure can be effectively sheltered from the wind. Strategies in this paper can be
applied in the design planning stage to create a suitable microclimate for the courtyard.

reduce the over-dependence of residential buildings on active energy

1. Introduction
Climate change will persistently threaten people’s health and live­
lihoods, ecosystem health and biodiversity globally. UNEP’s Emissions
Gap Report 2021: The Heat Is On (EGR 2021), released ahead of COP26,
found that Nationally Determined Contributions leave the world on
track for a global temperature rise of at least 2.7 ◦ C this century. If net-
zero pledges were implemented, this rise would fall to 2.2 ◦ C [1].
Refrigeration and air conditioning consume around 15% of the world’s
total electricity [2]. However, air conditioning may become an impor­
tant source of indoor air quality problems. Heat waste from air condi­
tioning will exacerbate climate warming. Passive strategy is widely
recognized as one of the most cost-effective strategies for sustainable
buildings [3]. Courtyards are not only passive buildings [4], but also
representative of traditional residential buildings, which can availably
utilization. Different variants of design can improve natural cooling,
minimize the amount of energy needed to cool buildings, and effectively
reduce heat loss and heating needs. In addition, as more protective
spaces, courtyards create a suitable environment for heat, light, and
sound [5].
A courtyard is an enclosed or semi-enclosed space exposed to the sky
and surrounded by buildings or walls [6]. Rapoport [7] stated that this
tactic has been utilized throughout the history of architecture and was
found as a common design element in various places around the world,
including civilizations such as the Indus Valley (5000 B.C.), ancient
Greece and Rome, and Mesopotamia. Chinese courtyards can be traced
back as far as the Early Zhou site of Fengchui Village in Qishan, Shaanxi
Province, during the Western Zhou period [8,9]. In adapting to society,
variants of courtyard design in terms of size, number of floors, orien­
tation, exposure, wall type, orientation, etc. have been introduced [10]

* Corresponding author. School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001, China.
E-mail address: jflu@zzu.edu.cn (J. Lu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110269
Received 28 January 2023; Received in revised form 15 March 2023; Accepted 1 April 2023
Available online 6 April 2023
0360-1323/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

List of abbreviations W Width

H Height
UNEP United Nations Environment Programme L Length
EGR Emissions gap report P Perimeter
SVF Sky visibility factor T Top opening area
GT Global temperature G Ground area
MRT Mean radiation temperature SH Southern wall height
UHI Urban heat island PL Perpendicular length
PET Physiological equivalent temperature GA The total open ground area of a built-up unit or a cluster of
CFD Computational fluid dynamics units, excluding the roof area
RANS Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes WA The total area of the n bordering walls of a built-up unit or
LES Large Eddy Simulation of a cluster of units
PMV Predicted mean vote EFF Ratio of surface area of exposed envelope to floor area
DOE Design of experiments approach

(see Fig. 1).
Bioclimatology combines microclimate and architecture with human
thermal comfort [11,12]. As a climate-responsive design [4,13,14],
courtyard can create microclimate on a local scale under specific cli­
matic conditions (Fig. 2), thus achieving a “moderator” function [15].
Microscale usually refers to a horizontal range of less than 1 km, with an
upper limit of 2 km [16,17]. Such a tiny area with a distinctive climate
that differs from the surrounding area is called microclimate. Air tem­
perature, relative humidity, solar radiation, and wind characteristics are
the main factors determining the physical features of the microclimate
[18,19].
Outdoor thermal comfort is determined by meteorological (air tem­
perature, relative humidity, wind speed and mean radiation tempera­
ture) and personal factors (type of clothing and activity level) [20]. Air
temperature, wind speed, relative humidity, albedo [21] are the typical
input data used by the software to evaluate comfort indexes such as the
Predicted Mean Vote (PMV), the Physiological Effective Temperature
(PET) [22], Mean radiation temperature (MRT) [23], the Universal
Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) [24,25], effective Temperature (ET*)
[26] and the index of thermal stress (ITS) [27], Software for simulating
microclimate are Envi-met, CFD, RayMan and EnergyPlus, as follows.
● Envi-met is a three-dimensional microclimate model and was used
for simulating outdoor air temperature, mean radiant temperature
[28], wind speed and relative humidity [5,29]. It features the ability
to calculate PMV and has a good radiation calculation performance
[30].
● RayMan is a freely available radiation and human bio-climate model.
It can calculate PET and assess outdoor thermal comfort conditions
[31]. However, it is not applicable to the calculation of reflected
radiation in urban environments and has a large error [32].
● CFD models focus on the movement of air, and the convection, heat
conduction, and radiation are coupled and calculated. It is mainly
used to predict air temperature, wind speed and surface temperature
[33,34].
● Energyplus is mainly used for thermal comfort and energy con­
sumption analysis in buildings, it can be combined with outdoor
microclimate software such as Envi-met to assess the impact of
microclimate changes on indoor thermal comfort [35,36].
A study [37] showed that optimizing the courtyard to create a pos­
itive microclimate was realistic when key design variants were taken
into account. The courtyard microclimate is significantly influenced by
factors such as geometry [38], orientation [39], wall materials [40], and
landscape elements [41–45] (ponds, trees, grass). Among design vari­
ants, geometry has an important influence on solar radiation reception
and airflow, and plays a decisive role in shaping the microclimate [38].
The correct orientation reduces heat gain with effect, and the suitable
distribution of airflow directly affects air quality [46]. Fit combination
design can make a courtyard more energy efficient in hot and humid dry
climate zones than in temperate and cold climate zones [47–49].

Fig. 1. Early courtyard buildings around the world.

2
J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 2. Spatial characteristics of the courtyard microclimate [61].
A review of the literature showed that most studies have been con­
ducted for specific climatic zones, such as Abdulkareem [50] studied the
climatic response processes of traditional Middle Eastern courtyards
under dry and hot climatic conditions. Taleghani [5] showed that in the
Netherlands (temperate climate), courtyards could provide the most
protected microclimate. Deng [51] researched that in Jinan the heating
energy consumption of low-rise or multi-story residential designs with
primarily courtyard layout is lower than that of other types of layouts.
The studies did not provide a complete discussion of the design layout of
a courtyard in all climates. Secondly, most scholars conducted empirical
studies on a single climate region [52–55], or used simulation software
to explore and optimize the most influential variables [56–58]. The ef­
fects of multiple variables interacting with each other were rarely
explored. For example, the Almhafdy [59] assessed the microclimate
performance of the u-shaped courtyard of a general hospital in Malaysia,
elucidating that as the height of the wall increased, so does the shadow
area, leading to a decrease in air temperature within the courtyard.
Bekkouche [60] analyzed the thermal comfort of courtyards in desert
areas, showing that changing orientation had little effect. A more active
design with eaves and insulation was needed to achieve better thermal
comfort.
With regard to the courtyards discussed, there is no comprehensive
strategy and study of which factors influence the courtyard microclimate
and how they act, as well as the influence of the local climatic context.
For this reason, this paper provides an overview of the mechanisms at
play in terms of shading and natural ventilation by selecting the ge­
ometry and orientation that have the greatest impact on microclimate,
considering different climatic zones. Several variables are also inte­
grated, aspect ratio, plan aspect ratio, orientation, prevailing wind di­
rection and openings, in order to create a suitable microclimate.
2. Methodology
The Science Direct, Web of Science and Scopus search engines were
used to review research on courtyard microclimate, including consid­
eration of courtyard microclimate formation, influencing factors and
optimization. As courtyards are representative of Chinese architecture
and Chinese scholars have published extensively in the field in Chinese,
an analysis of the English literature alone does not provide an accurate
and comprehensive summary of global research on courtyard architec­
ture [62]. China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) is the largest
continuously updated Chinese academic literature database. It effec­
tively supplements the English-language databases to comprehensively
show Chin’s research situation.
1. Understand the definition of courtyard microclimate, what are the
formation mechanism and determining factors of microclimate.
2. Discuss and summarize the effect of geometric shape and orientation
on courtyard microclimate.
3 Consider how the local climatic background affects the geometric
shape, orientation and opening design of the courtyard.
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Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
2.1. Retrieval procedure
In the first phase of this review, different sources of information were
considered (peer-reviewed journals, conference articles and books,
research reports, and research articles). The search terms were then
defined and expanded to the following based on the topic of the article:
“Courtyard” AND “microclimate OR thermal comfort OR shading OR
ventilation OR geometry OR orientation OR shape”, the research field
was related to engineering, environment, energy and building subjects.
The search syntax of different databases is different. Search in the Sci­
enceDirect database using Title, abstract or author-specified keywords.
Using Topic in a Web of Science database means searching for titles,
abstract and indexing. Title-abstract-keywords search is used in the
Scopus database. Search in China National Knowledge Infrastructure
database using Topic.
As shown in Fig. 3, a protocol for this study was developed based on
the preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis
(PRISMA) protocol guidelines [63]. It comprises several stages: (a)
identify the publications, (b) screen the publications, (c) assess the
eligibility of the publications based on predefined criteria, and (d)
conduct the synthesis and meta-analysis. The inclusion and exclusion
criteria in order to select the papers to be analyzed.
1. Study indoor comfort and active strategies and techniques of litera­
ture exclusion.
2. Exclude papers that study daylight performance, noise, sociocul­
tural, and psychological aspects of courtyards.
3. The study focused on courtyard microclimate, thermal comfort, and
passive strategies as the main research topics.
4. The research relies on empirical data (field measurement or simu­
lation) to reach conclusions.
2.2. Analysis of retrieval results
The search and screening of articles were tracked and summarized
according to the PRISMA flow chart shown in Fig. 3. The first stage
removed duplicate literature, the remaining 365 articles. In the second
stage, articles on daylight, noise and pollution in courtyards were
removed, as these topics were not part of the review, leaving a total of
167 articles. In the third stage, articles that revealed the relationship
between “geometry and orientation” and the microclimate of courtyards
were selected, 75 articles were excluded and 92 articles were selected
for analysis and review.
The 92 articles that were eventually included in the analysis were
classified as shown in Table S1. Fig. 4 shows the number of articles by
year. Fig. 5 shows the number of articles for the different design vari­
ables affecting shading and ventilation. The categorization of the articles
revealed that, firstly, the methods used to study courtyard microclimate
included both field measurements and numerical simulations. Most of
the articles used both field measurements and numerical simulations.
The validity of the model was verified by the results of the field mea­
surements, and then the simulations yield extended results. This paper
contained 4 articles that analyzed the shading performance of the
J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 3. PRISMA flow diagram.
courtyard through numerical simulations only. 17 articles evaluated
thermal comfort by monitoring temperature, humidity and wind speed
in the courtyard through field measurements only. Numerical simula­
tions were more applied when studying ventilation performance, and 8
articles were included in the review. Secondly, the analysis revealed that
courtyards had a strong climatic aspect and it is, therefore, necessary to
explore the courtyard microclimate by climatic zones. The factors
affecting courtyard comfort were not only single factors, but the com­
bination of multiple variables, such as orientation and geometry,
openings and wind direction, is more practically relevant but also more
challenging. The process of synthesis in this paper was as follows.
● Formation and influencing factors of courtyard microclimate were
discussed.
● The influence of aspect ratio, plan aspect ratio and orientation on
courtyard shading was analyzed.
● The influence of geometry, orientation and openings on the natural
ventilation of the courtyard was investigated.
● The most effective designs for courtyards in different climate zones
were proposed, in terms of controlling solar gain to achieve a high
level of shading and optimizing ventilation to improve microclimate
and thermal comfort.
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Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
3. Formation and influencing factors of courtyard microclimate
The main components that make up the microclimate of a courtyard
are air temperature, humidity, solar radiation and natural ventilation.
Changes in temperature, humidity, or airflow are coupled, while the
effect of solar radiation is relatively independent. In the enclosed space
formed by the courtyard, including short-wave direct radiation, scat­
tered radiation, reflected radiation from the ground, and long-wave
radiation from the sky, as well as multiple reflections of long and
short-wave radiation from between the surfaces of the courtyard. These
components interact and work together, thus forming a complex thermal
process in the courtyard.
Yang [64] used a 3D predictive model to study the energy exchange
within the courtyard under ideal conditions (Fig. 6). Differences of the
amount of shading in the courtyard during the day led to temperature
differences between surfaces. The temperature difference caused
convective heat transfer between the surfaces and the air in the space
inside and outside the courtyard. A portion of the heat was stored in the
courtyard and released during the night, while the rest of the heat was
transferred by heat transfer. Natural ventilation then took place in the
middle of the courtyard and in the space above. The soil layer of the
sunken courtyard reduced the radiant permeability, as well as the
convective heat transfer and heat conduction between the courtyard
J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 4. Number of publications by year.
wall and the air in the courtyard. The soil layer also had favorable heat
storage properties, absorbing heat during the day and releasing it at
night, which not only regulated the indoor microclimate but also
contributed to the microclimate within the courtyard [65]. This resulted
in a different heat transfer mechanism and energy balance throughout
the courtyard than in above-ground courtyards [66].
Courtyard microclimate is significantly influenced by factors such as
geometry [38], wall materials [40] and landscape elements [41,42]
(ponds, trees, grass) (Fig. 7). Elements forming shadows include walls
and trees affected by geometry and orientation. Surfaces reflecting,
receiving, storing and transmitting longwave radiation include wall
surfaces, ground, grass, bodies of water and tree canopies. The influence
of geometry on microclimate is mainly reflected in the effective recep­
tion of solar radiation and natural ventilation. The heat reduction
mechanisms of landscape elements consist mainly of the following.
● Vegetation-covered ground has a higher albedo and a lower specific
heat capacity compared to building materials such as concrete or
asphalt [67].
● The evaporation of water surface has a great influence on air hu­
midity. The low emissivity and high thermal inertia of water result in
lower surface air temperature and mean radiant temperature [68].
● The cooling effect of trees is mainly due to shading, wind protection,
and transpiration [58].
The albedo of wall materials [53], heat capacity and porosity [68]
are essential factors affecting microclimate. The use of these techniques
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Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
to protect or prevent heat gain can minimize solar heat gain through the
building envelope and internal heat gain generated by transfer through
the courtyard to interior [69].
4. Influence of courtyard geometry and orientation on
microclimate: shading and natural ventilation
The Courtyard can improve thermal comfort in enclosed areas and
surrounding spaces by influencing air flow, daylight, ventilation, and
lifestyle. Studies have shown that geometry played a decisive role in
shaping the microclimate [38] and was a key factor influencing expo­
sure to sunlight and air. The geometry of the courtyard directly affects
the amount of incoming and outgoing radiation, as well as the distri­
bution of wind speed within the courtyard. The higher the enclosure, the
lower the wind speed, which tends to form low vortices and affects air
quality [70]. Previous studies have established that mean radiant tem­
perature and wind speed were the most effective parameters influencing
the thermal comfort of a courtyard [71]. Improving ventilation and
maximizing the shading effect of solar radiation can be achieved by
designing the geometry of the courtyard and analyzing the combined
availability of solar radiation and wind [72]. Therefore, determining the
geometry of the courtyard is a huge challenge [73].
4.1. Climate zones
Since the design of the courtyard for optimal thermal performance
depends on climatic factors [50], it is important to determine the main
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Fig. 5. Number of articles for the different design variables.

context for this study based on climatic conditions and thermal comfort humid climates, and provide more protection against cold winds in
requirements. To achieve this goal, the geographic locations of the case temperate and cold climates [44]. In hot and arid regions such as the
studies cited and papers reviewed were mapped on a world map to Middle East and Nigeria, where Islamic culture has played an important
better determine the influence of the geometry of the study factors on role in influencing architectural forms [72]. The courtyard form has
the courtyard microclimate (Fig. 8). survived and developed throughout history, mainly because it has been
In dry and hot climate zones, such as Kuwait [74], Iran, Tunisia, the adapted to contemporary architectural design and practice, in line with
Middle East [50], Nigeria [75], etc., the microclimate created by the religious values and thermal needs.
courtyard mitigated the effects of extreme heat in free-running condi­
tions, eliminating over 88% of the time of severe indoor discomfort and
4.2. Influence of courtyard geometry and orientation on shading
proving superiority in energy balance [76]. The courtyard is also very
common in warm Mediterranean climates such as Spain, France, and the
Shading of the courtyard is one of the most important factors in
Netherlands [53]. With global temperatures rising and the frequency of
reducing air temperature, affecting thermal and energy performance
heat waves increasing, courtyards, as open spaces with greater
[54,81,82], particularly in tropical and hot arid climate zones. In hot
convective and radiant cooling capabilities, effectively mitigate peak
summer conditions, intense solar radiation is a major factor in outdoor
temperatures during the day and promote cross-ventilation at night
comfort. Therefore, shading is a key strategy for mitigating heat stress
[77]. In addition, courtyards act as effective buffer spaces that can
outdoors [83–85]. The geometry of the courtyard is crucial to the
ameliorate severe weather extremes and provide valuable heat mitiga­
effectiveness of shade [56,86] and directly determines the level of
tion strategies for the city. In colder European regions [53], the UK [78],
exposure to solar radiation. In the Middle East of hot climate, additional
the harsh northern regions of China, Jinan [51], etc., better-enclosed
systems for courtyards are still required to provide satisfactory comfort,
courtyard buildings have a significant impact on reducing heat loss,
but courtyards in promoting natural cooling cannot be denied [50].
lowering heating demand [78] and improving wind sheltering effects
The geometric factors that influence the shading of a courtyard
[79].
include the sky visibility factor (SVF), aspect ratio, shape factor, per­
The analysis in Fig. 8 showed that most of the studies on courtyard
centage of top opening area, courtyard height, and orientation [57], as
microclimate were conducted in hot and arid climate and temperate
shown in Fig. 9 and Table 1. Several studies have quantified the effect of
climate zones, with some studies distributed in cold regions and humid
geometry changes on the sky visibility factor (SVF) and aspect ratios,
and hot regions. The advantages of courtyards for harsh climates are that
which were important parameters affecting global temperature (GT),
they create more shading in hot climates, enhance natural ventilation in
mean radiation temperature (MRT) and operating temperature (top)

6
J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 6. (a)Components of the sunken courtyard microclimate (adopted from
Ref. [65] b)Illustration of ventilation processes and heat exchange in a court­
yard [64].
[87]. MRT summarizes the effects of longwave and shortwave radiation
(direct, diffuse, reflected and emitted) on the human body as a single
temperature and serves as an essential thermal exposure indicator in
human biometeorology [88,89]. MRT is also used as a key environ­
mental parameter of thermal comfort indices such as UTCI, PMV [90],
PET, and SET* [91,92], which is mainly governed by shadow patterns
generated by trees, buildings, and topography and to a lesser extent by
differences in the thermal and radiative properties of the surrounding
surface materials, i.e., albedo, emissivity, and heat capacity [91]. SVF,
on the other hand, is often used as an indicator of the influence of ge­
ometry on climate and also depended on aspect ratio [93]. Aspect ratio
is therefore the largest parameter influencing courtyard shading [57].
4.2.1. Aspect ratio
Research has shown that a high aspect ratio can mitigate the heat
island effect (UHI) [94]. A strong correlation between the level of UHI
mitigation and human thermal comfort has been observed both indoors
and outdoors. High physiological equivalent temperatures (PET) will
occur more frequently in the future, leading to a higher likelihood of
experiencing heat stress during the warm season. However, as a key
thermal risk area, courtyards will exhibit high thermal stress risk with
limited shading measures [95]. Therefore, the courtyard geometry needs
to be optimized to maximize the shading effect.
The impact of the geometry of the courtyard on thermal comfort
shows incongruities, in terms of seasonality, with a high aspect ratio
ensuring protection from the sun in summer and low aspect ratios
7
Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
increasing solar energy utilization in winter. In terms of daily thermal
performance, high levels of shading can improve thermal comfort during
the day in summer but cause night-time heat stress [96]. Lower sky
visibility factor (SVF) can reduce long-wave radiation [97], lowering
ventilation efficiency at night and turbulent heat loss. Since wider
canyons have less shading, wall and air temperatures are usually higher
during the day, they are smaller and more evenly distributed at night
due to greater loss of long-wave radiation and more pronounced
convective cooling [98]. However, large daytime temperature ranges
and high summer temperatures are the most important issues in hot and
dry climate zones. Deeper courtyards and compact urban streets can be
effective in reducing solar radiation for tropical areas with high summer
heat stress and temperate areas with hot summers.
In temperate climate zones, the appropriate ratio of courtyards can
enable both a reduction in summer radiation and a reduction in winter
heat loss. Muhaisen and Gadi [13,99] found that for the mild and hot
climate of Rome, a deeper courtyard form corresponding to a higher
aspect ratio was most beneficial in reducing the cooling load in summer
and the heat load in winter while reducing energy consumption. This is
due to the reduced amount of deep radiation received in summer and
minimal heat loss to meet heating needs in winter. Yaşa and Ok [56]
analyzed the variation of thermal comfort in courtyards in three
different climate zones in Turkey, highlighting that the sensitivity of
thermal loads to the solar radiation received was higher than the
sensitivity of cold loads to shaded areas, that is, it is more critical to
acquire solar radiation in winter than to avoid it in summer. Thus, in
colder climate zones, lower courtyard aspect ratio allows winter solar
radiation to reach the internal walls of the courtyard space at a low
elevation angle [100]. For different climate zones, scholars have suc­
cessively investigated aspect ratio design options, as shown in Table 2.
It has also been shown that relying on a deep aspect ratio alone does
not solve the problem of overheating in summer and overcooling in
winter. In mid-latitude cities with relatively low solar altitude angles,
the low-depth urban canyons reduced the mean radiation temperature,
while in cities with larger solar altitude angles, deeper urban canyons
did not properly block solar radiation, and the mean radiation temper­
ature increased accordingly due to the overall increase in net radiation
[109]. The aspect ratio changes the sky visibility factor (SVF) of court­
yards, which is expressed as the reduction of direct solar radiation. In
summer, when the solar elevation is high, the reduction of direct solar
radiation has a significant cooling effect. In winter, when the sun’s
elevation is low, the impact of direct solar radiation is greatly reduced,
and the reflected radiation becomes more important [100]. It has also
been shown [110] that for deep open spaces, the decrease of solar
irradiance was mainly due to the decrease of envelope ratio (GA/(GA +
WA)), rather than the increase of shadow area. The reason was that the
decrease of ground solar input caused by the increase of shadow area
was offset by the increase of solar input at the wall. The cities with cold
winters in dry and hot climate zones, such as Fez, it is necessary to adopt
a compromise design solution that guarantees effective blocking of solar
radiation in summer and the reception of sufficient solar radiation in
winter. In the case of higher open spaces, self-shading devices such as
green “roofs” of vines or creepers above the courtyard, constructed
horizontal roofs [111], shade trees, arcades, or other types of horizontal
shading devices [112] are required.
4.2.2. Plan aspect ratio
In addition to the aspect ratio, the plan aspect ratio is also important
in shading of courtyards, which is also reflected in the shapes of the
courtyard. Representative courtyard shapes include the quadrangle in
Beijing, China [113] (square), the vernacular sunken courtyard in
Matmata, Tunisia [114] (circular), the sunken courtyard in Henan,
China (square), the Rare Book Library at Yale University [115] (rect­
angular), and many university underground space applications, such as
the semi-circular underground plaza in the Department of Civil and
Mineral Engineering at the University of Minnesota [115], as shown in
J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 7. Factors influencing the microclimate of the courtyard.
the diagram (Fig. 10). For different climate zones, scholars have suc­
cessively investigated aspect ratio design options, as shown in Table 3.
The proportions of the courtyard have a significant impact on the
received solar radiation and the shading areas created on the courtyard
facades, thus strongly contributing to influence the building heating and
cooling energy demand [116,117]. Making solar radiation gain during
winter is more critical (important) than evading this during summer.
The required annual energy demand increases in parallel with the in­
crease in courtyard length. Generally, the longer the courtyard shape in
the prevailing wind direction, the higher the annual energy
consumption.
Yaşa [56] studied and analyzed the thermal comfort state and energy
performance of seven different courtyard forms in the courtyard through
CFD program. The results showed that the plan aspect ratio of the
courtyard with the least sunshine in summer was 1 in dry and hot and
humid areas, and 3 in cold areas. At the same time, the plan aspect ratio
of the courtyard with the largest solar energy harvest in winter was 5 in
dry and hot and humid areas, and 3 in cold areas. According to the
comfort and energy gain indicators, in terms of heat gain, the courtyard
with a plane aspect ratio of 1 (square) was the best choice for the three
climatic regions.
There are also studies showed [118] that reducing the plan aspect
ratio in dry and hot climate zones led to a greater shading index, which
means that square courtyards provided better shading effect than rect­
angular courtyards. The shallow circular courtyard with high P/H value
(ratio of perimeter to height) provided a considerable wall shading area
in summer and received a large amount of solar radiation in winter
8
Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
[119]. The form of circular underground courtyard could reduce the
surface volume ratio and volume ratio, and solved the conflict between
orientation and plane shape [120]. This was the same as the conclusion
of Chen [113], that was, square and round courtyards were energy
efficient, while rectangular courtyards had a greater energy loss.
4.2.3. Orientation
Orientation is another important factor affecting the courtyard
microclimate [59]. Many studies [39,44] have shown that north-south
oriented courtyards had better thermal comfort than east-west ori­
ented courtyards. The optimum orientation differs in accordance with
the various climatic conditions and the need for the varying extents of
radiation absorption and reception of heat from the sun, as well as the
degree to which a building needs to be shaded or needs to receive
optimal levels of wind. Since the north-south orientation provides the
shortest duration of solar radiation, the east-west orientation has a
longer duration of direct sunlight [53]. In hot and dry climate zones,
such as Iran, most courtyards are arranged along the north-south,
northeast-southwest, or northwest-southeast directions, which are the
best directions for maximizing the use of summer and winter living
space [20]. Muhaisen [127] concluded that when the long axis of the
courtyard was along the east-west direction (the orientation angle is
zero), minimum shadows were generated in summer, and as the orien­
tation angle increased, the shaded area increased at a smaller rate
(Fig. 11). The azimuth angles were 60◦ and 70◦ when the maximum
shadow area was reached in Cairo and Rome, respectively. In Kuala
Lumpur, the angle to reach the maximum shaded area is 30◦ .
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Fig. 8. Map of the location and climate distribution of the study courtyard microclimate (map from Ref. [80]).

Fig. 9. Key geometric elements affecting the effectiveness of shading in courtyards [82].

requirements for cooling and heating loads.

Table 1
In order to create higher thermal comfort in a courtyard, a combi­
Geometric parameters of the courtyard.
nation of several variables is usually required. The most important
Geometrical Definition combination is the conjunction of direction and geometry. In the
parameters
Baghdad region, courtyard shading is mainly affected by aspect ratio,
W/L Ratio of width to length with orientation having the least influence [57]. Smaller enclosed
H/W Ratio of width to height
courtyards have more shading, but open courtyards have stronger
P/H Ratio of perimeter to height
T/G Ratio of the top opening area to the ground area
airflow due to better spatial porosity. Therefore, the goal of the shading
SH/PL Ratio of the southern wall height to the perpendicular strategy is a narrow and deep courtyard. The ideal canyon direction
length should be the same as the wind direction. However, in consideration of
GA/(GA + WA) Ratio of open area to envelope area the sun’s azimuth, the courtyard should not be directly exposed to the
EFF Ratio of surface area of exposed envelope to floor area
sun’s radiation.
In dry and hot climate zones, courtyards with south-north direction
In different climate zones, combined with different prevailing wind and high aspect ratios (greater than 2) have higher shading indices and
directions, some scholars have drawn the following conclusions about effective thermal stress relief [73,84,123], and the aspect ratio is more
the courtyard orientation, as shown in Table 4. In terms of solar tra­ influential than orientation. Considering the effects of solar position,
jectory and solar altitude angle, the results of this paper showed that prevailing wind direction and surrounding buildings, high courtyards
courtyards with a north-south orientation had shorter direct sunlight may adversely affect airflow unless carefully designed. In temperate
hours and showed better comfort. The deviation from the north-south climate zones with hot summers and cold winters, north-south orien­
orientation was within 45◦ , as different regions had different tation is better than east-west orientation for thermal comfort in

9
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Design studies on aspect ratios of courtyards in different climatic zones. Author Location climate Conclusion
Author Location climate Conclusion
threshold for
Ali-Toudert F, Mayer Algeria Arid climate The combination of assessing the
H [84]. north-south thermal comfort of
oriented streets high-rise urban
with high aspect streets in
ratios (equal to or Singapore.
greater than 2) Rodriguez-Algeciras Cuba Hot and humid Courtyards with
resulted in lower J, Tablada A, climate aspect ratio less
PET maxima and Chaos-Yeras M et al. than 1 were not
shorter high-stress [82] recommended,
cycles. unless shading
Jamei E, Ossen D R, Tropical East-west streets equipment was
Seyedmahmoudian with an aspect ratio added
M et al. [101] greater than 2 Muhaisen A S, Gadi M Rome Temperate In order to reduce
should only be fully B [13]. Climate the cooling load in
screened during the summer and the
hottest and coldest heating load in
months of the year. winter, the deep
North-south streets courtyard form was
should had an the most desirable
aspect ratio greater Kedissa C, Outtas S, Constantine, Semi-arid Taking into account
than 2, but not Belarbi R [106]. Algeria climate both the cold and
greater than 3, to warm seasons, only
avoid wind the spaces included
blockage. in the range 0.4 ≤
Akbaria H, Cheratia S Yazd, Iran Hot and arid Narrow, deep H/W ratio ≤0.6 and
M, Monazam N H climate courtyards were with a N–S
et al. [102] better suited to hot orientation
climates. satisfied our
Al-Hafitha O, Kb S B, Baghdad Subtropical In the Baghdad requirements
Bradbury S et al. desert climate area, deep and related to solar
[57] narrow courtyards radiation exposure
could provide Al-Hafith O, Satish B Baghdad Hot climate The higher and
higher levels of K, Wilde P D [107]. narrower the
shade. courtyard the lower
Nasrollahia N, Iran Desert climate Deep south-facing MRT. The most and
Hatamia M, Khastar courtyard with an least effective
S R et al. [71] aspect ratio of 3.1 factors were,
was the best respectively, H/W
solution to improve ratio and
the thermal orientation
performance of the Abdallah, Hassan A S New Assiut, Hot and dry Deep canyons with
area. [55]. Egypt climate H/W ratio of 4 led
Martinelli L, Italy Mediterranean For warmer to outdoor
Matzarakis A [100]. climate regions, a higher H/ temperature
W ratio (4:5 to 5:5) reduction of
was recommended, 6–9.4 ◦ C
while for cooler Abdallah A S H, Egypt Hot and dry Courtyards with a
climates, a lower Mohammad D A, Ali climate H/W ratio of 1.2
medium H/W ratio A M M [108]. achieved a sense of
(3:5 to 4:5) was the thermal
recommended. performance of
Achour-Younsi S, Tunisia Mediterranean The high aspect overlooking spaces
Kharrat F [54]. subtropical ratio and the south- and Acceptable
climate facing streets thermal comfort
provided better than
acceptable thermal courtyards with a
comfort in summer. H/W ratio of (0.7)
Chatzidimitrioua A, Thessaloniki, Temperate - North-south during the hot
Axarli K [103]. Greece Mediterranean oriented ravine period
climate with the moderate
or high aspect ratio
created more summers. It is more important to obtain thermal radiation in winter than
comfortable shading in summer, so shallower square or round courtyards can have
thermal conditions
more appropriate year-round comfort. In colder regions, north-south
in the summer.
Rivera-Gómez C, Diz- Southern Mediterranean- In warmer climate orientation (within 15◦ ) can effectively reduce heating energy con­
Mellado E, Galán- Spain type subtropical regions, a deep sumption. To get as much solar radiation as possible, a more open
Marín C et al. [104] climate courtyard with an courtyard is needed.
aspect ratio >3 was
a suitable solution
for improving 4.3. Influence of courtyard geometry and orientation on natural
thermal comfort.
Yang W, Wong N H, Singapore Tropical A H/W of 3 could
ventilation
Lin Y [105]. Rainforest be used as a
Apart from solar radiation, the most important influence on micro­
climate and thermal comfort is natural ventilation. The ventilation

10
J. Zhu et al.
Fig. 10. Representative courtyard shapes [114,115].
efficiency of the courtyard mainly depends on the chimney effect of the
outdoor wind condition and the indoor temperature difference. The
parameters affecting ventilation include the wind direction, the geom­
etry of the courtyard, the openings on the façade, and other architectural
features (wind towers), etc. In an early study of traditional Chinese
courtyards, Chen [113] found that the open courtyard could exert the
“chimney effect”. Cleaner and fresher air was brought into the courtyard
from the sky, carbon dioxide and dust were discharged from the court­
yard by gravity through the drains, and the cycle repeated. In addition,
the effect of enhanced natural ventilation resulted in a minimum con­
centration of pollutants in courtyard [133]. The wind pattern in the
courtyard is defined by the direction of the courtyard and the vortex
wind speed, which is directly perpendicular to the wind direction. The
effect of different courtyard layouts varies in different climate zones.
Geometry is the basic condition for the formation of the wind environ­
ment in courtyards. The direction of the wind incidence angle is influ­
enced by the combination of orientation, prevailing winds, and
surrounding buildings. The installation of openings can improve the
efficiency of air exchange in courtyards, as holes in the envelope reduce
the area of cyclonic winds in the center of the courtyard [134].
4.3.1. Geometry
The airflow inside the courtyard is another key factor in its ther­
modynamic behavior, which produces different patterns depending on
the geometry of the courtyard (Fig. 12). The structure and temperature
distribution of the flow depend on the aspect ratio (H/W) [134]. As the
aspect ratio increases, the internal air velocity [135] decreases, and the
incoming and outgoing radiation [136] decreases. At this point, the
courtyard has good wind protection and provides the highest wind
shelter for the occupants. On the other hand, it may also hinder the
ventilation effect of the courtyard. The aspect ratio of urban canyons
should be optimized to reduce heat storage without affecting the airflow
of natural ventilation [137].
Courtyards with different geometric proportions show different
ventilation potential in different climates. By analyzing the winter wind
environment of different courtyard layouts in Northeast China (cold
climate), Huang [70] concluded that the “L"-shaped courtyard had the
best wind environment by combining wind speed ratio, wind-access
area, and vortex number evaluation criteria. The wind environment of
“L" and “U" shaped courtyards was better than "一" shaped courtyards
(parallel courtyard), that is, the higher the degree of enclosure, the
lower the wind speed. The wind shadow area in the courtyard increases
with the increase of buildings on the windward side, providing residents
with a good space for outdoor activities. However, the high surround
11
Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
close degree often created low vortexes that led to dirt and affected the
outdoor environment.
In the hot and humid climate area in summer, the ventilation effect
of semi-open courtyards is better than that of closed courtyards [140].
Although hot outdoor air may enter the courtyards during the day, the
larger wind speed can be improved, and ventilation can effectively
reduce the overheating at night [141]. A high aspect ratio may lead to
reduce natural lighting and ventilation [142]. Wide and short canyons in
the summer wind direction have a stronger convective effect to reduce
heat stress in the afternoon [139]. In terms of wind speed, the (1:2) plan
aspect ratio showed better ventilation potential than the rectangular “U"
courtyard (north facing) with the (1:1) plan aspect ratio [143–145]. Li
[138] conducted CFD simulations of the wind environment of the
campus parallel courtyard by two performance indicators, wind ampli­
fication velocity and air age. The result showed that the optimal aspect
ratio of air quality and ventilation for a single parallel courtyard lied in
the range of 0.5–1.
The airflow condition in the courtyard is influenced by the direction
of the courtyard and its distance in the path of the wind. If the distance
between the enclosures of the courtyard is relatively large in the path of
the wind, there are fewer areas of air instability in the courtyard when
the aspect ratio is less than 0.5. When the aspect ratio is larger, such as
0.65, more vortices are generated in the courtyard [146]. The streamline
results obtained by Hall [147] in laboratory, were then verified this by
numerical simulation. Rojas [134] plotted the air flow lines inside the
enclosed courtyard for different aspect ratios. When the aspect ratio was
<0.3, the flow lines were highly obvious in the interior space of the
courtyard and there were no recirculation structures such as vortices or
swirls. In the courtyard with an aspect ratio = 0.3, elliptical vortices
appeared, the wind speed was minimized and ventilation was at a
minimum, which was the best ratio for the cold climate of northern
Spain while ensuring sufficient solar radiation. For a courtyard with an
aspect ratio = 1 (Fig. 13), the structure and heat distribution inside the
courtyard were different from that outside. The square structure of the
courtyard caused the formation of circular vortices, which were more
effective than elliptical vortices in renewing the air, the best climatic
conditions in the temperate climate of the Mediterranean region. Espe­
cially in autumn and spring, the airflow effect could avoid overheating.
The balcony could reduce the sunlight on the exterior wall and limit the
“heat source” effect of the courtyard. For deep courtyards with an aspect
ratio>1, the inflow of outside air in the lower part of the courtyard was
significantly reduced (see Fig. 13). As the vortex located in the central
area moved to the upper part of the courtyard, it became an obstacle for
the flow to penetrate deeper into the courtyard. At this time, the wind
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Table 3 Table 3 (continued )

Design studies on plan aspect ratios of courtyards in different climatic zones. Author Location Climate Conclusion
Author Location Climate Conclusion
dry climates and summer
Muhaisen A S, Gadi Courtyards with a plan season of warm-humid
M B [99]. aspect ratio equal to or climates
greater than 5 ensured M’Saouri El Bat A; Hot and arid The deep and less wide
greater indoor shadows Romani Z, climate; shape was more
in summer and sufficient Bozonnet, E et al. Temperate advantageous for hot
sunshine in winter. [126] climate; and arid climates
Yaşa E, Ok V [56]. Diyarbakır; Dry and hot The courtyard with the Cold climate (reduced the cooling
Antalya-ANT; climate; plan aspect ratio of 1 energy needs by about
Erzurum-ERZ Humid and (square) was the best 10%); For temperate
hot climate; choice for the three climate, the courtyard
Cold climate climate regions in terms with small width and
of heat gain medium depth was
Muhaisen A S, Gadi A shallow circular better (allowing about
M B [119]. courtyard with a high P/ 58% reduction in energy
H value (the ratio of demand); the square
perimeter to height) shape was more
Hassan A M, Lee H Egypt Hot and dry The use of a circular advantageous in cold
[120]. climate underground courtyard climates
form could reduce the
surface volume ratio and
volume ratio
Chen Q [113]. Square planes and
circular planes were
energy-efficient building
planes, and rectangular
planes had higher energy
losses
Rodriguez- Cuba Humid and The square courtyard
Algeciras J, hot climate received less solar
Tablada A, radiation than the
Chaos-Yeras M rectangular courtyard
et al. [82]
Teshnehdel S, Kashan, Iran Hot desert Increasing the length-to-
Soflaei F, climate width ratio, and
Shokouhian M lowering the courtyards’
[121]. height obtained a greater
shading index that
considerably improved
the outdoor thermal
comfort in this climate
Soflaei F, Kerman Hot-arid Square courtyards had
Shokouhian M, climate better shading
Abraveshdar H performance and
et al. [118] provided better comfort
temperature
Ibrahim Y, Cairo, Egypt Hot-arid Orientation 45◦ was
Fig. 11. Change of courtyard orientation from 0◦ to 90◦ [127].
Kershaw T, climate predominant in the
Shepherd P et al. square type, whilst speed in the courtyard was close to 0 [148].
[122] orientation 135◦ was
predominant in the
elongated types (W/L = 4.3.2. Orientation
2, 3) The orientation of the courtyard must take into account the local sun
Sözen İ, Oral G K Mardin Hot-arid The N–S elongated track and the direction of the prevailing wind. The principle is reason­
[123]. climate courtyard with a 1:2 able ventilation in hot and humid climate zones and good shelter in cold
ratio provided thermally
more comfortable
climate zones. In subtropical regions, it is more important to determine
conditions in the the appropriate angle between the courtyard and the sun than in tropical
courtyard and temperate climates [101]. In the tropics, the cooling effect of the
Soflaei F, Arizona Subtropical A courtyard with the shading and ventilation combination can be optimized by improving the
Shokouhian M, desert climate maximum height (9 m),
orientation according to the direction of the prevailing winds. For the
Tabadkani A 0◦ orientation, W/L =
et al. [124] 1.5 was proposed same aspect ratio, there is a significant reduction in physiologically
Tabadkani A, Melbourne Tropical arid Square-shaped equivalent temperature (PET) for parallel wind incidence compared to
Aghasizadeh S, and climate courtyards resulted in vertical wind incidence [84]. In cold areas, in order to reduce the impact
Banihashemi S Copenhagen climate improving both summer of winter wind on the courtyard, the higher wall in the courtyard should
et al. [125] Singapore Tropical and winter seasons of
be located on the windward side, and the angle between the street and
rainforest extremely hot-humid
climate locations and only the the dominant wind direction in winter should be between 45◦ and 90◦ ,
Tehran and Temperate summer season of a so as to reduce the cold wind speed and reduce the vortices behind the
Algiers monsoon warm-dry climate; street [149]. In hot summer and cold winter climate zones, adjust the
climate Rectangular-shaped
spatial layout of courtyards to maximize natural ventilation for free
courtyards could
perform better in the cooling in summer and to prevent/minimize cold wind in winter.
winter season of warm- Courtyard buildings can be oriented with an opening toward the
southeast to guide summer wind-pressure-driven ventilation and with

12
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Design study of courtyard orientation under different climate zones. Author Location (climate) Prevailing Conclusion
Author Location (climate) Prevailing Conclusion Winds
Winds
Rodriguez-Algeciras Cuba (Hot and wet East wind The courtyard in
Taleghani M, Netherlands Southwest North-south J, Tablada A, climate) the north-south and
Tenpierik M, (Temperate Wind orientation Chaos-Yeras M north-east-
Dobbelsteen A [44]. climate) provided a more et al. [82] southwest
Taleghani M, comfortable indoor directions had
Kleerekoper L, environment than better thermal
Tenpierik M et al. east-west conditions
[5] orientation. Othman H A S, Jordan (Hot and West wind; North-South streets
Chatzidimitriou A, Thessaloniki Northwest The most Alshboul A A [128]. semi-arid climate) North-west offered better
Axarli K [103]. (Temperate- westerly comfortable wind comfort in
Mediterranean wind summer conditions comparison to east-
climate conditions) occurred in west streets
moderate or high Soflaei F, Shokouhian Iran (Hot and dry The northeast-
aspect ratios in M, Soflaei A [129]. climate) southwest direction
north-south Hasehzadeh Haseh with slight rotation
oriented canyons, R, Khakzand M, from the north
while east-west Ojaghlou M [130]. could be considered
oriented canyons the appropriate
need improvement, orientation for
such as increased courtyards
shaded areas on the Mirabi E, Abarghuie F Yazd, Iran Considering the
exposed north side. A [131]. (Tropical desert effects of the
Andreou E, Kalogirou Greece North Wind North-south climate) orientation factor,
S A, (Mediterranean orientation was the south
Christodoulides P climate) more advantageous orientation
[39]. than east-west regardless of the
orientation. depth provided the
Taleghani M, Netherlands Southwest North-south- most desired
Tenpierik M, (Temperate Wind oriented canyons outcome regarding
Dobbelsteen A et al. climate) had the shortest energy savings.
[53] duration of direct Abdulbasit A, Norhati Malaysia (Hot and The U-shaped
sunlight in the I, Ahmad S S et al. humid climate) rectangular
center of the [132] courtyard open to
courtyard and the the south provided
longest duration in greater
the east-west opportunities for
direction. natural ventilation
Deng Q T, Wang G B, Jinan (Cold East- The building was and shaded areas
Wang Y T et al. [51] climate) northeast oriented to the
Southwest south, with a
by West deviation of 15◦ or closure towards the northwest to avoid cold currents in winter [150].
less, which could The angle between the different wind directions and the main axis of
meet the demand
the courtyard determines the vortex wind speed in the courtyard.
for daylight and
reduce heating Moonen [151] divided the airflow in the courtyard into two different
energy flow regimes based on the courtyard length-to-height ratio (Fig. 14).
consumption. Regardless of the length of the courtyard, the normalized exchange flux
Huang K T, Yang S R, Tainan, Taiwan Southwest The east-west was greatest when the prevailing wind direction was at an angle of about
Matzarakis A et al. (Hot and humid Wind shaded area made
[95] climate) better thermal
15–30◦ to the axis of the main courtyard. The normalized exchange flux
comfort than the increased with the length of the courtyard and tended to be optimal at an
north-south aspect ratio of 0.1. For double parallel courtyards, 0–15◦ was the most
direction, and recommended angle of approach for ventilation, corresponding to
during the hot
75–90◦ being the worst direction of inlet airflow138. For ring streets, the
season, the risk of
heat stress was small angles (0◦ and 15◦ ) of approach to the wind and the distance be­
greater in the east. tween the main streets resulted in higher average air velocities for most
Ali-Toudert F, Mayer Algeria (Hot and Rotation in the streets than the larger angles (30◦ and 45◦ ). There were also studies for
H [84]. dry climate) east-northeast or other architectural features integrated with the courtyard.
west-northwest
direction will bring
Mohammadabadi [152] found that the wind incidence angles of
better comfort 0◦ –30◦ and 120◦ –180◦ could promote the exchange of wind tower and
conditions. indoor air. Sharples [153] used different ventilation strategies through a
Almhafdy A, Ibrahim Malaysia (Hot and The air temperature wind tunnel study (Fig. 15) and combined with the effect of wind di­
N, Ahmad S S et al. wet climate) in the north-south
rection, the results showed that the ventilation of the courtyard was
[59] direction was lower
than that in the weakest for mode A1 when the oncoming wind direction was perpen­
east-west direction dicular to the courtyard (0◦ ). Mode A4 had the best courtyard ventila­
Ghaffarianhoseini A, Kuala Lumpur (Hot North-east The courtyard tion due to the courtyard being in negative pressure (suction) operation.
Berardi U, and wet climate) wind facing north had In oblique winds (45◦ ), there was no significant difference in the internal
Ghaffarianhoseini, good overall
A [30], thermal
ventilation of the courtyard for all modes. For cross-shaped open streets,
performance the 30◦ and 45◦ wind directions created a larger recirculation area and
provided better ventilation than the 0◦ and 15◦ sloping ambient winds
[154].

13
J. Zhu et al. Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269

Fig. 12. Courtyard forms (adapted from Refs. [70,138,139]).

Fig. 13. Flow patterns with different aspect ratios [134].

Fig. 14. Flow patterns along the courtyard in different situations [151].

Fig. 15. Different patterns of courtyard ventilation [153].

14
J. Zhu et al.
4.3.3. Openings
The openings can create either single-sided ventilation or cross-
ventilation. The performance of cross ventilation is better than that of
single-sided ventilation [4,155], as it channels large volumes of air be­
tween the exterior and the interior, thereby quickly and efficiently
re-moving pollutants and heat from the inside [156]. However, in
another study, as openings allowed cool air to enter the courtyard and
the interior in winter, adding openings to a closed courtyard did not
significantly alter thermal comfort in the courtyard (difference in PMV
values less than 0.5). Courtyards with openings had similar PMV values
to closed courtyards (similar results for 2:1 and 1:1 courtyards) [14,20],
thus closed courtyards were considered the better way [157]. However,
PMV models have been shown to underestimate the thermal sensations
of occupants in naturally ventilated buildings [158,159]. The SET* and
the extension of the PMV model were therefore proposed for buildings
with natural ventilation more precisely [160,161].
Fig. 16. (a) Ventilation rates for single-sided ventilation at different incident wind directions [162]
(b)Ventilation rates for cross-ventilation at different incident wind directions [162].
15
Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
In humid and hot climates, the chimney effect of the courtyards can
strengthen air convection [162], and the openings on the north and
south sides can increase the possibility of cross ventilation [163]. A
study [164] suggested that courtyards with an aspect ratio of 1:2, ori­
entations of openings at an angle of 0–20◦ to the predominant wind
directions and the overall percentage of openings between 15 and 30%
in buildings could enhance natural ventilation and thus improved the
thermal comfort of the occupants. The effectiveness of ventilation
through window openings in courtyard buildings was confirmed by Ok
et al. [165]. But in the hot and dry climate zones, continuous day and
night natural ventilation through outside windows was worse thermally
than keeping the building closed without ventilation [166].
The effect of direction change on wind speed ratio inside the court­
yard decreases as the distance from the opening increase [167]. The
captured air has either lost momentum before reaching the end of the
unit or changed direction and exited through the opening. Accordingly,
J. Zhu et al.
the ventilation performance can be improved when the courtyard
openings are oriented toward the prevailing wind. Zhang [162] used
numerical calculations to simulate unilaterally and cross ventilation in
courtyard buildings for different incident wind directions (Fig. 16),
yielding the predicted results shown in the figure. RANS (the
Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes) and LES (Large Eddy Simulation)
predicted steady decreases of 92.5% and 81.8% (single-sided ventila­
tion), and 52.6% and 37.2% (cross-ventilation) in ventilation rate as
incident wind direction varies from 0◦ to 90◦ . In the case of courtyards
integrated with buildings, the rate of cross ventilation into the courtyard
from the outside of the building increased with the height of the building
when the room openings were located on the leeward side of the
building [168].
For different courtyard forms, the orientation and openings have
different effects on the state of air flow within the courtyard.
● In parallel courtyards, when the openings do not coincide with the
meteorological wind direction, the wind speed is mainly influenced
by the layout of the building.
● In semi-enclosed courtyards, the wind speed is mainly influenced by
the meteorological wind direction.
● In enclosed courtyards, the wind direction in the courtyard changes
frequently due to turbulence caused by the ’gaps’ in the courtyard
[46], which is related to the geometry of the courtyard.
In temperate climate regions, the airflow effect generated by a
courtyard with an aspect ratio of 1 prevents overheating in summer. In
colder regions, courtyards with an aspect ratio of less than 0.5 have less
internal recirculation structures, pronounced flow lines and ensure
sufficient solar radiation. In hot climate zones, the aspect ratio of the
courtyard is larger in order to meet the shading strategy. However, semi-
open courtyards or the use of cross ventilation can be adopted, while the
angle of the prevailing wind direction to the axis of the courtyard is
reduced to enhance ventilation.
5. Discussion and conclusion
Climate change continues to affect the built environment as global
warming exacerbates extreme heat events. Active cooling techniques
can result in higher energy consumption, so it is important to exploit the
full potential of passive strategies. This paper began with an overview of
the formation of courtyard microclimate and the factors that influence
it. It then discussed the application of different design variants (aspect
ratio, plan aspect ratio, orientation, openings) and their interplay to
achieve a good courtyard microclimate in different climate zones,
emphasizing the importance of the initial phase of design for achieving
thermal comfort and its potential to reduce energy consumption in
courtyards.
The greatest potential for courtyard applications is found in hot
climate zones, where the most relevant research literature is available.
The high solar radiation intensity is a more pressing issue in this climate
zone and therefore shading strategies are given priority. The geometric
parameters of the courtyard include aspect ratio, plan aspect ratio and
envelope ratio, and the results of this paper show that aspect ratio, plan
aspect ratio and orientation are the most influential factors. However,
the envelope ratio and P/H values could be the target of further
research, as they are also important parameters for measuring solar
irradiance. Narrower and deeper courtyards have a higher shading index
during the day, effectively reducing long-wave radiation. Nevertheless,
considering the solar altitude angle, prevailing wind direction and the
influence of surrounding buildings, high courtyards tend to cause heat
stress at night. At the same time, ventilation can be limited, so im­
provements have to be made in conjunction with the prevailing wind
direction and ventilation patterns. Night-time ventilation is the better
ventilation pattern in hot and dry climates. In hot humid regions,
ventilation is even more important and this requires some restrictions on
16
Building and Environment 236 (2023) 110269
the aspect ratio of the courtyard. In order to balance the effects of
shading and ventilation in the tropics, the following strategies are
proposed.
● Courtyards with a north-south axis orientation (within 45◦ devia­
tion) and a high aspect ratio (greater than 2) mitigate strong solar
radiation during the day.
● Courtyards with an angle of 0–30◦ between the main axis of the
courtyard and the prevailing wind direction and an aspect ratio of
0.5–1 are more conducive to courtyard ventilation.
● Semi-open courtyards have higher wind speeds and better ventila­
tion than closed courtyards, and openings in the direction of the
prevailing wind can also be provided to promote cross-ventilation.
In temperate climates, where winters are cold and summers are hot,
access to solar radiation in winter is more critical than shading in
summer. It is important to consider the effects of both shading and
ventilation to ensure that the degree of demand for hot and cold loads
can be balanced, and to this end the following strategies are presented.
● North-south orientation to ensure maximum use of solar radiation.
● Square or shallow circular courtyards with an aspect ratio of
approximately 1 ensure better ventilation and reduced solar radia­
tion in hot summer conditions.
● Cross ventilation is more effective than unilateral ventilation.
In cold climate zones, it is important to ensure sufficient solar radi­
ation, reduce wind speed and improve human comfort. Enclosed
courtyards block the wind well, while courtyards with larger openings
lead to cold air and lower temperatures. To get as much solar radiation
as possible, higher openings are needed, meaning smaller aspect ratios.
However, in courtyards subject to winter winds, the higher the enclosure
on the windward side, the lower the air renewal rate and the lower the
heat loss. The following recommendations are made in this paper to
optimize the microclimate of courtyards.
● Square courtyards oriented north-south (within 15◦ deviation) are
effective in reducing thermal energy consumption.
● Where heat stress is high on the east side in summer, consider using
taller walls or building shading.
● The angle between the dominant wind and the courtyard in winter is
between 45◦ and 90◦ , reducing the speed of cold winds.
The design criteria for courtyards are highly climate-responsive, with
appropriate form, scale, orientation and size according to specific cli­
matic characteristics and geographical features. In dry, hot, humid, cold
and temperate climates, the degree of demand and sensitivity to heat
and cold loads varies, so that the thermal demands of living must be met
while taking air quality into account. However, when planning a
building, it is usually designed for the existing built environment, so the
site layout and spacing of adjacent buildings should also be considered
and analyzed to explore the impact of the surroundings on the courtyard
microclimate.
So far, research has focused on the influence of courtyard geometry
and orientation on microclimate. In addition to this, variables affecting
thermal comfort also include wall materials, the ground materials, green
roofs, trees, vegetation and water bodies, which have a significant
impact on wind, light and sound environments. To mitigate the negative
effects of climate change on people’s health, it is necessary to thoroughly
understand the role of each design strategy. In particular, the imple­
mentation of integrated strategies to create a good courtyard microcli­
mate can also be applied in cities to improve the heat island effect.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Jiayin Zhu: Funding acquisition, Writing – review & editing.
J. Zhu et al.
Juanjuan Feng: Writing – original draft. Jifu Lu: Software, Writing –
review & editing. Yu Chen: Writing – review & editing. Weilin Li:
Software. Peiji Lian: Investigation. Xi Zhao: Methodology.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
No data was used for the research described in the article.
Acknowledgements
The work described in this paper was financially supported by the
National Key R&D Program of China (No.2022YFC3803203), the Na­
tional Natural Science Foundation of China (No.52208131), the Key
R&D and Promotion Project (No.212102310573 and
No.222102320113) of the Department of Science and Technology of
Henan Province, China, the Opening Fund of State Key Laboratory of
Green Building in Western China (No.LSKF202304).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110269.
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