Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

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Building and Environment

journal homepage: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/buildenv

Impacts of façade openings’ geometry on natural ventilation and

occupants’ perception: A review
Nima Izadyar a, Wendy Miller a, *, Behzad Rismanchi b, Veronica Garcia-Hansen c
a
Energy and Process Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
b
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Group, Department of Infrastructure Engineering, Melbourne School of Engineering, The University of Melbourne, Victoria,
3010, Australia
c
School of Design, Creative Industries Faculty, Queensland University of Technology (QUT), Brisbane, 4001, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: For centuries, natural ventilation (NV) was the smartest technique for conditioning the built environment.
Balcony However, in modern design, NV has not been utilised to its full potential, especially in high-rise and medium-rise
Design buildings. One of the remaining options is the application of balconies to guide airflow into the space to moderate
Façade opening
the indoor ambient, increase thermal comfort, and reduce the need for mechanical ventilation. This article in­
Geometry
vestigates literature reporting the impacts of façade openings, particularly balcony geometry, on NV performance
Natural ventilation (NV)
and occupants’ perception. It aims to identify to what extent balconies have been considered as an NV strategy
and to identify research gaps in this field. This review article compared and classified different geometries’
design features based on their effects on NV performance. This review paper also scrutinised the socio-technical
impacts of designing façade opening via Post-occupancy Evaluation (POE) methods. The authors believe POE
could be the missing link between designing for NV and occupants’ perception. The review outcome found that
most of the available literature is carried out in case studies and regions with warm or hot climates that are
cooling dominant. The increasing occurrence of heat waves or prolonged summer overheating in buildings in
traditionally heating-dominated climates, however, suggests the need for research to evaluate both the technical
and socio-technical parameters of balcony geometry for these climates as well.

1. Introduction
Climate change as a result of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from
human activities is one of the critical issues in the current century. It is
estimated that buildings consume around 40% of global energy and
contribute more than 30% (between 30% and 40%) of GHG emissions
[1]. Since a large percentage of these harmful emissions comes from
Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) [2,3], finding low or
zero-carbon alternatives to HVAC is a persuasive idea to reduce GHG
emissions. One of these alternatives is natural ventilation (NV) [4],
which can be used for cooling as an alternative for Mechanical Venti­
lation (MV) all around the world.
NV, in general, is a process whereby fresh air is introduced to indoor
spaces without using any mechanical system [5]. In most cases, NV
employs natural forces such as wind and buoyancy, to move fresh air
into an indoor area that occurs as results of pressure and density dif­
ferences [6]. These forces are usually affecting the NV simultaneously
and can act in isolation, or opposition, or reinforce each other and
sometimes operate in synergy [7]; however, one of these forces is always
predominant, determined using Archimedes number (less than one is
wind-induced) or Froude number (less than one is buoyancy forces) [8,
9]. Applying the NV strategy to modern architecture and quantifying its
impact on modern expectations of comfort, could demonstrate a sig­
nificant potential to reduce Mechanical Ventilation (MV) usage and
persuade occupants of its usefulness in meeting their comfort needs.
Numerous studies show the remarkable potential of NV strategies for
ventilation purposes [10–12] and the critical priorities of these strate­
gies compared with MV.
In modern architecture, various architectural elements such as
windows, ventilation grills, wind catchers, solar chimneys, wing walls,
and overall façade system are typically considered by designers for NV

* Corresponding author. School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Queensland University of Technology, PO Box 2434, Brisbane, Queensland,
4001, Australia.
E-mail address: w2.miller@qut.edu.au (W. Miller).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2019.106613
Received 31 October 2019; Received in revised form 3 December 2019; Accepted 18 December 2019
Available online 20 December 2019
0360-1323/© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Abbreviations LES Large Eddy Simulation

MM Mixed-Mode Ventilation (mechancial and natural
ACH Air Change per Hour ventilation)
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- MAA Mean Age of Air
Conditioning Engineers NL Natural Light
BDS Bio-climatic Design Strategies O Orientation
BUS Building Use Studies OS Opening Size
CV Cross Ventilation MSV Mixed-Strategy Ventilation
D Depth of balcony MV Mechanical Ventilation
DSF Double skin façade NV Natural Ventilation
FEM Finite Element Method PIV Particle image velocimetry
FM Facilities Management PMV Predicted Mean Vote
GHG Greenhouse gas POE Post-Occupancy Evaluation
H/D Height to Depth ratio of balcony PPD Predicted Percent of Dissatisfied
HSI Heat stress index RANS Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes
HVAC Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning RH Relative Humidity
IAD Indoor Air Distribution RSM Reynolds Stress Model
IAV Indoor Air Velocity RNG Renormalization Group
IAQ Indoor Air Quality SSV Single-Sided Ventilation
IEQ Indoor Environment Quality SV Stack Ventilation
IES-VE Integrated Environmental Solutions- Virtual Environment TSV Thermal Sensation Vote
IDA ICE IDA Indoor Climate and Energy TVP Transom Ventilation Panel
ISO International Standards Organization URANS Unsteady RANS
L Length of the attached room UL Unit Level

purposes in buildings [13–15]. Among these elements, façade design
such as the provision of windows, overhangs and balconies remains one
of the leading technologies for NV purposes to reduce energy con­
sumption [16–20]. A balcony, as a private outdoor space, is perceived by
residents as one the most desired features for providing fresh air,
particularly in cooling dominant climates such as tropical and sub­
tropical regions [21]. Furthermore, other typical applications of bal­
conies such as entertaining and drying laundry suggest a balcony as an
essential design element, particularly in residential apartments [22].
Consequently, it seems necessary to investigate balconies’ impacts on
NV utilisation and performance in both social and technical aspects.
The provision of balconies, in general, changes the pressure around
building façades and subsequently affects the NV driving forces,
including wind and buoyancy [23,24]. Balconies mostly affect outdoor
and indoor airflow profiles and Indoor Air Velocity (IAV) that lead to
changing indoor thermal comfort. Over the last decade, results of some
studies that focused on the influence of the balconies on NV perfor­
mance, reveal the critical role and importance of balconies’ features,
such as depth, on the indoor NV and thermal comfort in its attached
room [25–28]. Undeniably, the design of balconies appears to be a
determinant factor of NV performance at the purely technical view.
Thus, an investigation and classification of the balconies’ geometric
features and their impacts of the related parameters to the NV perfor­
mance, such as IAV, could extract critical information in the sustainable
design context.
On the other hand, since NV utilisation has a social nature that might
be affected by technical design decisions, there is a need to address
socio-technical factors (i.e. comfort and satisfaction) and their effects on
the quantity and quality of the NV utilisation through balconies to
improve design decisions based upon these parameters [29]. For
instance, an exploration of the literature on Post-Occupancy Evaluation
(POE) revealed some design-related disruptive impacts such as balcony
scale on NV utilisation [22,30,31]. Subsequently, there is a significant
opportunity for design improvement through investigation of
socio-technical factors to firstly realise the critical design-related factors
that have been focused in previous studies, and then find the degree of
effectiveness through a detailed review of these POE studies in the
concept of NV through balconies.
The design of balconies should also be carried out with consideration
of vital standards of the health and comfort of attached indoor spaces.
This is because a conflict between occupant satisfaction, comfort, and
health on the one hand, and energy saving on the other hand, is usually a
critical issue, which sometimes sparks controversy over the impacts of
energy saving on occupants’ comfort and health. The importance of
efficient and sustainable design, as well as various standards, criteria,
and rules for designing, are attempting to reduce the gap between the
occupants’ comfort and higher usage of energy in buildings. One benefit
of these national or international standards such as American Society of
Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) [32]
is to recommend criteria of living spaces to satisfy residents’ health and
comforts with regards to energy saving matters. Occupants also play a
crucial role since they carry out the act of energy-saving. A review on
buildings’ design, as well as users’ forgiveness factor, which depends on
overall comfort and average satisfaction scores of ventilation or air and
temperature in summer [33–35], could determine the interaction be­
tween these parameters.
This review article aims to explore the impacts of designing bal­
conies’ geometry on NV performance and perceptions and behaviour of
users, as two vital technical and socio-technical factors, respectively. For
this, the current paper firstly summarises the application of the most
considered passive design elements, for NV utilisation in building. The
article explores the number of studies that have focused on the appli­
cation of balconies for NV utilisation, the principal focus of the current
research, compared to other elements for passive design in Section 2.
Section 3 focuses on studies that have investigated the influence of
design features of balconies on NV performance and classified the
crucial parameters based on the degree of impacts reported in the
literature. Socio-technical factors such as occupants’ comfort are
considered through an exploration of the application of POE on NV
utilisation through different façade openings, and specifically through
balconies, to find the degree of comfort, critical obstacles, and in­
centives, under NV mode instead of MV (Section 4). The most common
methods that have been employed to identify the critical design ele­
ments of balconies and impacts of geometry’s features on users are
investigated in Section 5. Results, including research gaps, are sum­
marised and lead to a comprehensive discussion and recommendations

2
N. Izadyar et al.
for possible future studies to fill the gaps (Section 6). Finally, the current
article draws an overall conclusion in Section 7.
2. Natural ventilation (NV)
Ventilation is employed to supply fresh air, maintain comfort (tem­
perature and humidity), and eliminate or dilute contamination [36].
There are two primary types of ventilation, MV and NV, which are
usually applied by occupants, particularly for cooling purposes. Energy
consumption concerns and global warming due to GHG emissions are
the critical reasons causing NV to be considered as an appropriate
alternative for MV. NV uses outside air movement and buoyancy pres­
sure differences to refresh the air and ventilate a space instead of elec­
tricity consumption, which is usually applied for MV. NV technologies
have shown a significant capability for the adequate cooling and thermal
comfort [37–39], so NV could be an attractive option for the building
designers and architects to design more energy-efficient and saleable
apartments.
Various studies reported a range of advantages of NV, compared with
MV, such as less required space for NV [40,41], lower cost [42],
providing reasonable thermal comfort [43,44], lower GHG emissions
[45], and fresh air that leads to improving Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and
a healthier indoor area [46,47]. There is also evidence that NV could
increase the adaptability of people to the outdoor environment and
contribute to a higher forgiveness factor reported in some NV buildings
[43]. These capabilities can be solutions for critical issues of ventilation
systems in the new era. For example, occupying less space through an
innovative passive cooling design is a remarkable capability for the
gradually urbanised populations who are living in cramped and small
apartments. In addition, the higher adaptability of occupants can lead to
better thermal comfort without using MV due to the higher forgiveness
factor of occupants. These benefits have attracted architects’ attention
to NV as a useful ventilation process for several types and applications of
buildings [48,49], mainly for the increasingly urbanised society in cities
that include a large number of towers and skyscrapers [50,51].
2.1. Natural ventilation (NV) strategies
NV is mainly categorised in four strategies: Cross Ventilation (CV)
[52], Single-Sided Ventilation (SSV) [53], Stack Ventilation (SV) [54],
and Mixed-Strategy Ventilation (MSV) [55,56], displayed in Fig. 1.
CV and SV are both unidirectional and at least two openings, an inlet
and an outlet, are required for these strategies. They differ, however, in
that CV is a horizontal process, and SV is a vertical process. In CV (wind
effect or wind-induced), openings are mainly located on two sides of a
building, and the pressure difference between these two openings make
indoor air flows, which move from higher to lower pressure [14,57]. SV
is a thermal buoyancy-driven strategy and airflow arises because of the
temperature gradient between the inlet and outlet. The warm air rises
due to the lower density and is replaced by colder air from outside.
In contrast, SSV describes units or apartments with only one opening
or only openings on one side. Examination of SSV is perhaps more
applicable than SV or CV in urban environments, given the higher
Fig. 1. Schematic of natural ventilation (NV) strategies.
3
Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613
number of apartments with single-sided openings [58]. Wind, buoyancy,
or a combination of these forces can lead to SSV [59,60]. The wind and
buoyancy ventilation rate (m3/s) can be calculated using Equations (1)
and (2), respectively [61].
� 3� rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffi
Q
m
¼ Cd AUref
dCP
¼ Cd A
dP
(1)
s 2 ρ
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
� 3�
m 2ðρe ρi Þgh ðdTÞgh
Q ¼ Cd A ¼ Cd A (2)
s ρe þ ρi Te
where (Cd ) and (CP ), respectively, represent opening discharge and
� �
pressure coefficients. Mean static pressure (dP½Pa�), air density (ρ mkg3 ),
h i
reference velocity (Uref ms ), area (A½m2 ]), internal and external air
density (ρe and ρi ), temperature differences between indoor and outdoor
(dT ¼ Te Ti ), the vertical interval between openings (h½m�), and
� �
2
gravitational acceleration (g ms ) are the other variables that contribute
to calculating the wind and buoyancy ventilation rate.
Among NV strategies, although most of the apartments rely on SSV
due to the predominant use of only one opening at an attached indoor
area, CV usually provides more fresh air and IAV than SSV [62,63]. Both
the location and the opening size of design elements such as windows,
balconies, chimneys, courtyards, and ventilation grills could be critical
points in the success of these NV modes [12] and the role that element
features. Selection and location of architectural elements for passive
design in buildings are widely studied in the literature [50,64].
2.2. Passive design elements
The effectiveness of design elements such as windows [65–67],
façade system like double-skin façade [68] and balconies [69], venti­
lation grills, wing wall and Windcatcher [70,71], solar chimney [72,73],
and integration of these systems [71] was reported in scientific literature
to varying degrees. For example, the application of windows for NV
utilisation in buildings is reported in Ref. [74], and a Scopus database
search (with the keywords of “windows” and “natural ventilation” in
titles, abstract, and keywords, in related subject areas) reveals 829 ar­
ticles on the role of windows in NV. In contrast, a similar search for
“wind catcher” resulted in only 80 articles. Table 1 displays the results of
the same search strategy for the most considered passive ventilation
elements, as reported in Ref. [48].
This literature search reveals that far fewer studies have been pub­
lished relating to the role of balconies for NV, compared with most other
design elements, and compared to windows. This is curious given that
windows and balconies are two commonly used elements in medium and
high-rise residential buildings in multiple climate zones and cultures
globally. The Scopus database reveals around 1700 research articles
relating to balconies in general, however only 2% of these investigated
NV through balconies. It suggests that designers and researchers have
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 1 Table 2
Number of publications on NV thru passive design elements by August 2019. Literature on the influence of balcony design parameters on NV performance.
Rank Passive elements Period Number of studiesa Row Ref Ventilation Balcony Balcony design parameters*
mode & Type
1 Windows 2015 to 2019 334 Studied Best Scenario or
Before 2015 495 Features Classification

2 Chimney 2015 to 2019 74 1 [77] CV & SSV Open and D/L (%) ¼ 0, Open balcony, CV
Before 2015 119 semi-open 10, 20, 30 & 40 & D/L ¼ 10%,
WA(� ) ¼ 0, 45, WA ¼ 0� ,
3 Atrium 2015 to 2019 21
90 & 180 Deeper balcony
Before 2015 83
lead to lower NV
4 Double skin façade (DSF) 2015 to 2019 32 performance
Before 2015 77
2 [78] SSV Open Availability of Upper and lower
5 Wind catcher 2015 to 2019 42 balconies, vents at middle
Before 2015 31 upper & lower floors enhance
vents at the NV rate and
6 Courtyard 2015 to 2019 27
balconies make airflow
Before 2015 45
UL ¼ 4, 5 & 6 recirculation
7 Wind tower 2015 to 2019 23 (at the End (E) UL ¼ 4E with
Before 2015 27 and Middle balcony
(M))
8 Balcony (or porch or veranda) 2015 to 2019 10
Before 2015 26 3 [25] CV Semi- Availability of Available balcony
open balconies & (with regards to
9 Void 2015 to 2019 10 (balcony location, opening
Before 2015 10 with wing D ¼ 1.5 and 3 location), WA ¼
10 Wing Wall 2015 to 2019 7 wall) m, 0� & UL ¼ 10,
Before 2015 4 UL ¼ 1 to 12, Deeper balcony
WA(� ) ¼ 0, 45, lead to lower NV
a
These numbers are recorded with limitation to engineering or energy or 90 performance
environment sciences in Scopus.
4 [76] CV & SSV Open Availability of Not Available
balconies, (Best method is
not actively considered a balcony as a potential passive design element UL ¼ 3 & 4, steady-state
to enhance or drive NV, and reveals a research gap that is worth WA(� ) ¼ 0 & RANS)
45
investigating [75].
The construction of balconies significantly affects the wind velocity 5 [79] CV & SSV Open OS (single & For CV, WA ¼
double) ¼ 0.9 0� & UL ¼ 8 & 9;
and pressure profile around façades [23,76] that can lead to changing
& 1.8 m For SSV, with
the IAV and NV performance in the attached room. The impacts of Opening balcony, WA ¼
balcony geometry on the NV performance was explored as a critical locations ¼ 2 45� & UL ¼ 10 is
hypothesis by researchers in some literature [25–27]. These studies models the best
debunk the null hypothesis that the geometry of balconies does not (middle ¼ 1.8
m, left & right
impact on NV and build the case for further research in this area. The
¼ 0.9 m),
next section is dedicated to the literature on the impact of balcony ge­ UL ¼ 1 to 12 &
ometry on NV. WA(� ) ¼ 0 &
45
3. Design parameters of balcony 6 [80] CV & SSV Open Availability of Adding balconies
balconies, increased NV rate
Studies on how balcony design features affect NV performance and UL ¼ Ground intermediate
to 5, levels (UL ¼ 2, 3,
thermal comfort inside apartments are limited in the literature, and
WA(� ) ¼ 0, 4), best UL ¼ 3 &
these parameters have not been adequately explored, unlike other 22.5, 45, 67.5 WA(� ) ¼ 0
openings such as windows. Among the limited number of publications, a & 90
few articles focused on the impacts of balcony design on NV perfor­ 7 [23] CV & SSV Open Availability of 1- Highest NV
mance. These studies mainly explored the effects of the availability of balconies, rate: CV without
the balcony and then investigated the impact of various balcony design UL ¼ Ground balcony, 2- SSV
parameters on NV performance and thermal comfort. The design pa­ to 12, with balcony
WA (� ) ¼ 0 & (WA ¼ 45� ) was
rameters examined include Orientation (O) or Wind Angle (WA), Unit 45 the best
Level (UL) within the building, Depth of balcony (D), Length of the
8 [81] CV & SSV Open Availability of CV: Ground level
attached room (L), Depth to Length ratio (D/L %), and Opening Size
balconies, with balcony &
(OS). A summary of these studies is presented in Table 2. OS ¼ 6 UL ¼ G & 3
Table 2 shows the small number of studies that investigated the scenarios (with without balcony
impacts of balconies’ design parameters on NV performance. Among the &without (small opening)
examined parameters, orientation (or WA) and UL were studied by most balconies, SSV: UL ¼ 4 with
Small and Big balcony, UL ¼ 4
of the articles, while features such as D, D/L ratio, and OS have not been opening at (without balcony
investigated thoroughly. Some unitless factors like Height to Depth (H/ Middle & End), big opening)
D) ratio and other characteristics such as balustrade type (materials, UL ¼ Ground
shape, height) are not represented in the literature at all. The following to 5
paragraphs report on four critical features (presence or absence of bal­ 9 [82] SSV Open Availability of Based on the
cony, unit level, depth, and orientation) that are considered in the balconies, payback results,
literature based on Table 2.
(continued on next page)
First, some researchers investigated the availability of balconies on

4
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 2 (continued ) while the best SSV performance occurred in level 4 [86]. Therefore,
Row Ref Ventilation Balcony Balcony design parameters* there is not a clear conclusion on the impacts of the balcony’s height on
mode & Type NV performance. This could be considered a significant gap requiring
Studied Best Scenario or
Features Classification
further studies.
Third, the results of the previous studies highlight the depth of bal­
O¼ N, S, E, W, with balcony at
conies as an essential parameter that crucially affects NV performance
NE, SE, SW SW
on both SSV and CV [28,77]. These studies reveal a deeper balcony
10 [27] SSV Open Availability of Best Scenario:
could lead to a lower NV performance at an indoor area, but the authors
balconies, with balcony, UL
Opening: 2 ¼ 5, vertical
have not explored and compared the depth impacts with regards to other
vertical & 1 opening& WA ¼ feature such as orientation. Finally, concerning the orientation of bal­
horizontal, 90� conies, literature shows in-case conclusions instead of clear trends or
UL ¼ Ground relations between the impacts of orientation and other critical
to 5
design-related parameters on NV performance. For example, the impacts
D ¼ 0.75, 1.5,
3 m, WA(� ) ¼ of depth on NV performance in different orientations have not been
45 & 90, investigated and compared yet. Therefore, there is a gap in this context
Balustrade to find the interaction between these geometric factors.
with & without Even though the authors investigated these four design-related pa­
solid
rameters of balconies, the review indicates there are no adequate studies
11 [83] CV & SSV Open Availability of Best Scenario for on the classification of the most crucial geometric factors, and the im­
balconies or/ the NV through
pacts of these factors on SSV and CV were not explored and compared
and wing wall balcony: Not
or/and Available with each other. Omrani et al. [26] studied depth, type (open and
overhang, semi-open balconies) and orientation (or WA), on SSV and CV perfor­
WA(� ) ¼ 0, 45, mance and thermal comfort in residential buildings. This study classified
90 & 180
the mentioned parameters based on their effect on NV performance,
12 [84] SSV Open Availability of Different balcony reporting that changing WA can affect the NV performance and thermal
openings or & opening comfort more than varying depth scales and types of the balcony.
balconies, OS configurations
To conclude, the key findings of this section are as below:
(33 models) significantly
change airflows.
� Adding a well-designed balcony can improve the NV performance.
13 [85] CV & SSV Open Availability of Available balcony
balconies, at WA ¼ 90� & D � The effects of adding a balcony, as well as changes to balcony ge­
UL ¼ Ground ¼ 1.5 m. ometry, were not identical for CV and SSV.
to 5, � All investigated parameters (presence or absence of balcony, unit
WA(� ) ¼ 0 & level, depth, and orientation) did not have the same effects on CV
90
and SSV performance.
� The interaction between balcony depth with other geometric factors
façades and explored the effects of NV performance on indoor areas in such as height and orientation have not been investigated.
the presence or absence of balconies [76,81]. The availability of bal­ � There is no precise classification of the impact of design parameters
conies as well as the impact of the location of a balcony opening on NV on NV.
performance was investigated using validated simulation and experi­
mental data (at both full-scale and small-scale) [25,84]. Results of these 4. Socio-technical parameters
studies show that adding a balcony can enhance NV performance, but
the improvement level depends on the NV strategy (i.e. SSV and CV) and Because the purpose of NV is to assist in occupant comfort, it is
balcony’s geometry [26,80–83]. critical to investigate the impact of balcony design features on occupant
It was found that although SSV performance can be enhanced with sensation, comfort, and behaviour due to the social nature of NV uti­
appropriate balcony design, the highest CV rate occurred in a scenario lisation [87]. Passive designers should always be aware of drawbacks, as
without any balcony on the façade [23]. Furthermore, while most of the well as incentives, that could affect the utilisation of NV through bal­
studies in Table 2 highlight the significant impacts of balconies’ design conies. For instance, violating thermal comfort and privacy are crucial
parameters on NV performance, Ai et al. [80] mentioned the negligible factors that sometimes stop users from utilising NV, while having access
impact of balcony geometry on CV performance. This difference might to a breeze, refreshing air, and better Indoor Environment Quality (IEQ)
have occurred because of the different airflow pathway options avail­ due to a proper design of balconies could encourage occupants to open
able in the CV that caused the impacts of changing geometry to be lower balcony doors [22]. Occupant feedback can assist architects and de­
on CV [23,26,79]. Table 2 reveals that the latest studies have focused on signers in developing more robust and acceptable solutions. POE is a
SSV more than other NV strategies and investigated the geometry im­ standard method for seeking feedback from buildings, however it is not
pacts on SSV performance. As a substantial proportion of apartments are universally applied in practice by the design and construction industry
now more reliant on SSV than CV, the geometry impacts seem to be as part of quality assurance and a continuous-improvement process.
critical in most of the case studies. POE, in general, is a qualitative procedure of collecting feedback
Second, the literature review also revealed unit level (balconies’ from occupants concerning their behaviour, experiences, and expecta­
height above ground), as one of the most investigated parameters, tions about the performance of buildings [88,89]. POE is designed to
affected the NV performance at an indoor area [78,80]. Although there investigate results from social, spatial design, and planning through
is not a specific conclusion regarding the impacts of unit levels on NV occupants’ feedback [90]. It gathers firsthand data from users that is
performance through balconies, Table 2 shows the significant difference crucial for designers, managers and planners to understand and perhaps
between the unit level impacts on SSV and CV strategies [23,80,81,85]. to enhance the current status of a building. Feedback from building
For instance, a comparison between the impacts of different unit levels, occupants can highlight obstacles, as well as motivations, that may lead
in a medium height building (5 levels), on NV performance for both SSV to improving efficiency and performance of buildings regarding con­
and CV shows that the ground level had the best NV performance for CV, struction (i.e. costs), suitability (e.g. design and location), utilisation
(such as function, size, and capacity), performance (e.g. energetic and

5
N. Izadyar et al.
environmental aspects), and other critical subjects [91,92]. POE, then,
can be an appropriate tool for seeking occupant perceptions regarding
NV as well as the geometry and utilisation of balconies.
POE as an evaluation method was proposed in the 1960s and 70s in
the United Kingdom, and then in Australia and the USA based on social
science, architecture, and building planner concepts [14,93,94]. The
first generation of the POE focused on occupants’ feedback on the indoor
environment such as HVAC performance. The 1980s saw POE deployed
in diverse areas within the built environment [95–97]. As deployment
increased, the tools used for POE also became more refined and so­
phisticated [91]. Nowadays, researchers are broadly applying POE to
evaluate a range of criteria such as energy-saving, occupant comfort (e.
g. thermal and luminance), and indoor environment in diverse types of
buildings (i.e. residential, commercial, educational, and so on) [98,99].
Compared with technical building performance evaluation that can
occur at any or all of the six main phases of a building’s life cycle
(planning, scoping, design, construction, occupancy and end-of-life)
[90], POE occurs only in the occupancy stage. It seeks occupants’
feedback regarding their experiences and perceptions and satisfaction
with a building’s performance [100–102]. Furthermore, other issues
that are related to the users’ satisfaction factors such as cultural, social,
and psychological parameters make POE a multidisciplinary approach
that addresses socio-technical aspects of a building. POE also has the
benefit of time flexibility as it can be deployed at any time during a
building’s occupancy and evaluations can be short, medium or
long-term, providing the options for capturing ‘instant’ feedback, trends
and changes over time.
4.1. Application of POE to NV
Some consider POE as the inevitable step toward sustainability [103]
and a missing link for designing energy-saving buildings [89,104]. The
strong global focus on energy efficiency in buildings has resulted in a
large number of studies on the application of POE for assessing NV
utilisation and performance in different residential, commercial, and
working spaces [105–107]. Literature shows that researchers typically
conducted POEs on apartment buildings, focusing on environmental
condition such as IAQ, temperature, humidity, noise, and light to finding
the level of comfort and occupants’ feedback regarding their discomfort
sources to find possible solutions [108–110]. Researchers have also
widely applied POE to evaluate health, feelings, and thermal comfort
through NV utilisation in buildings, and applying these findings to
improve the design and function of the buildings [105,111].
NV performance and usage have mainly been an excellent source of
information for researchers, and they extracted this information from
occupants’ feedback regarding thermal comfort and behaviour to help
architects and designers to improve their works [92]. There are
numerous studies regarding thermal comfort through POE to explore
’thermal sensations’ of users [112–114]. These POEs have also
contributed to the foundation of some standards in this context. For
example, in the 1970s, Fanger [115] created an optimal thermal comfort
POE method on occupants’ perception that was associated with some
calculations, heat-balance equations, and empirical studies on the
metabolism. Fanger also developed two indices, Predicted Mean Vote
(PMV) and Predicted Percent of Dissatisfied (PPD) to evaluate thermal
feelings and comfort [116]. This approach was further accepted by the
International Standards Organization (ISO) 7730 and ASHRAE as a
standard to quantify thermal comfort [116,117].
Although the Fanger approach (including PMV and PPD indexes) is
considered by some to be an appropriate tool to evaluate thermal
sensation, it was highlighted in some studies [118–120] that these
indices are not always considered to be accurate in predicting thermal
sensation in extreme climates (such as tropical climates) due to different
expectations of occupants. Some also indicated that the Fanger approach
is also not an excellent tool to evaluate thermal sensation in residential
buildings due to the unpredictable behavioural patterns [121]. Indeed,
6
Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613
thermal environments in residential buildings are quite different from
the more predictable and ‘steady’ thermal environment of offices or the
lab conditions where Fanger developed PMV and PPD. Besides, it was
found in earlier studies that PMV underestimates the thermal comfort of
buildings under NV mode [122]. Because of these compelling arguments
against this approach, Fanger presented the modified approach with a
correction for indoor areas under NV modes and extended the first
method by introducing the expectation of occupants under NV and
multiplying this factor on the basis of PMV [123,124]. The idea of the
Fanger approach then was complemented with an adaptive thermal
comfort model that was also introduced by other researchers [125–127].
The application of POE in residential areas may also lead to
outstanding results since these areas are more undefined and less steady
than office work or educational areas [121]. It means POE can monitor
residents with different cultures, behaviours, and adaptabilities that
have the authority and capacity to control their comfort by changing
modes and types of their cooling or heating, or changing their clothing
or room location, while this authority is limited in other non-residential
areas. For example, NV is sometimes not a possible option in some office
buildings due to the windows not being operable. Consequently, the
thermal comfort of occupants as well as NV utilisation is in different
ranges and patterns and POE may extract new understandings, espe­
cially for residential buildings.
Researchers have employed POE to monitor the behaviour and
comforts regarding NV utilisation through different elements such as
windows [128], balconies [106], and wind catchers [129,130]. Bal­
conies as private and adaptive outdoor areas are considered as one of the
most desirable function spaces, particularly in cooling dominant cli­
mates. The results of a technical guide by Wood and Salib [131] reveals
more than 40% of users of high-rise buildings, in general, identify access
to the outside by balconies or other openings is essential for them.
Moreover, findings of a survey on thermal comfort of apartment build­
ings in the tropical climate of Hyderabad in India indicates 60% of oc­
cupants are not comfortable in summer because of reduced availability
of adaptive opportunities such as balconies and windows [132]. Addi­
tionally, NV utilisation through different passive elements, including
balconies, have beenconsidered more in recent years [133,134].
As POE is a valid tool to discover the gap among current performance
and behaviour, experiences and expectations of occupants through their
feedback, it seems a useful procedure to evaluate the current status of
balconies and possible elicit new ideas. Table 3 summarises POE projects
on NV utilisation based on critical characteristics.
The key findings from the reviewed POE/NV literature include:
� Workplaces have been studied much more than residential buildings.
� Most studies were carried out in cooling dominated climates, with
some studies challenging the ASHRAE thermal comfort standards.
� The literature seems to highlight the importance of occupants’
dedication to NV utilisation instead of MV.
� Researchers have not discovered the impacts of design feature on the
quantity and quality of NV utilisation and how design for NV could
be improved based on POE results.
5. Methods for evaluation NV effectiveness
The literature reveals several methods or techniques used to evaluate
the impact of balcony geometries on NV performance and occupant
perceptions [107]. This section aims to investigate the most practical
approaches through the literature and compare their advantages and
limitations.
5.1. Post-Occupancy Evaluation (POE) methods
POE typically investigates the building issues in three levels,
including indicative (presents an indication of performance and finds
the issues), investigative (focuses on finding issues), and finally
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 3
POE studies on the NV utilisation.
Ref Building Type Climate Green Purposes of POE Methods Data Analysis Critical Findings
Feature (s)

[135] Workplace Subtropical (humid) NV Subjective Questionnaire T-test using SPSS The decreasing magnitude of
(office) perceptions when (Likert Scale) & acceptable temperature was
sitting, walking & Physical more extensive under AC
running under NV vs measurement compared to NV.
MV
[38] Learning Between semi-arid & NV Perceived IAQ & Questionnaire PMV & Thermal Calculated thermal comfort from
places humid subtropical Thermal comfort (Likert Scale) & Sensation Vote measurement was less than
(classrooms) Physical (TSV) thermal comfor using PMV. The
measurement occupants’ density affected
perceived IAQ but not thermal
sensation.
[39] Workplace Subtropical highland NV Thermal comfort Questionnaire PMV & TSV ASHRAE adaptive model
(office) (Likert Scale) & recommends comfort
Physical temperature less than TSV.
measurement
[136] Learning Tropical NV through Thermal comfort Questionnaire Thermal comfort Although most of students
places (High windows (Likert Scale) vote & TSV accepted the temperature, most
school) of them preferred lower
temperature.
[137] Residential Five regions contain NV through Usage of NV vs MV in Questionnaire Statistical analysis Thermal comfort has priority to
very cold, cold, hot windows five different climate (bipolar between (Mean rating) IAQ for occupants. Health was
summer & cold winter, zones NV & MV) & the crucial factor that led to
mild, & hot summer and Physical preferring MV. NV & MV periods,
warm winter measurement respectively, have direct &
reverse trends with rising
outdoor temperature.
[138] Workplace Subtropical (oceanic) Natural IEQ (air, noise, Questionnaire Statistical analysis Office under NV mode slightly
(office) Light (NL), lighting & health) & (Likert Scale) based (Mean rating) more satisfied than MM. NV
NV& MM overall comfort on Building Use provides more comfort than MM,
Studies (BUS) as well.
[139] Learning Subtropical (humid) NV & NL IEQ (air, noise, Questionnaire T-test Although Green buildings’
places (5 through lighting & health), (BUS) - Likert Scale occupants are more consistently
universities) windows Building Design (BD) satisfied than non-green for BD &
& Facilities FM, IEQ satisfaction is lower in
Management (FM) non-green buildings. BD affects
occupants’ behaviour.
[140] Residential Tropical NV & MM IEQ (air, noise & Questionnaire ANOVA using SPSS Occupants in tropical felt
(dormitory) through lighting) & thermal (Likert Scale) & - TSV & Spearman thermal comfort in higher
windows comfort & Adaptive Physical correlation temperature than ASHRAE.
behaviour measurement coefficient Clothing, Higher IAV & MM with
NV & Fan were vital adjustments.
[111] Learning Mediterranean climate NV & NL IEQ (air & lighting) & Questionnaire PMV, TSV & PD Thermal satisfaction was
places Thermal comfort (Fanger approach) using MATLAB significantly different for
(primary teachers & pupils.
school)
[75] Residential Tropical NV & NL Thermal and overall Questionnaire Pearson correlation Application of BDS, which
(college) through comfort under Bio- (Likert Scale)- BUS assimilates physiology,
balconies climatic Design & Experiment climatology & building physics,
Strategies (BDS) has significantly enhanced
[141] overall comfort except for NL.
[142] Residential Tropical NV Thermal comfort & Questionnaire Statistical analysis Older people & outdoor workers
pleasant sleep (Likert Scale) (Mean rating) use more NV & fans instead of AC
environment in that may show the impact of
bedrooms & users’ adaptability.
behaviour
[120] Hospitals & Tropical NV Thermal, humidity, Questionnaire PMV, SET*, ET*, Two comfortable temperature
Shopping air movement (Likert Scale) PPD, Mean radiant ranges were defined for hospitals
centres sensation & thermal temperature & & shopping centres that
comfort Heat stress index challenge the ASHRAE PMV
(HSI) thermal comfort.
[143] Residential Continental (humid) NV through Thermal comfort & Questionnaire PMV Results show NV & thermal
(dormitory) windows IAQ (Likert Scale) comfort trends & the upsurge of
the NV areas decrease the
thermal comfort. Authors
developed a model for a fair NV
utilisation for adequate thermal
comfort.
[35] Workplace Subtropical (oceanic) Advanced Thermal comfort Questionnaire Statistical analysis Thermal comfort is satisfactory
(office) NV & MM (static & dynamic) (BUS) - Likert Scale (Mean rating) in summer, but dissatisfaction
occurred in winter. Static &
dynamic thermal comfort
matched with POE results in
summer & winter, respectively.
(continued on next page)

7
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 3 (continued )
Ref Building Type Climate Green Purposes of POE Methods Data Analysis Critical Findings
Feature (s)

[144] Learning Temperate NV & NL Thermal comfort & Questionnaire PMV & t-test Environmental control by users
places Energy efficiency (Likert Scale) improved comfort perception.
(university) The Gap between energy
performance & comfort can be
field using POE results &
prediction.
[106] Residential Semi-continental NV through IEQ, thermal comfort Domestic Statistical analysis Find challenges of designing &
a balcony through different questionnaire using NVivo critical issues to help researchers,
layouts & cooling (Likert Scale) based software package designers & managers for the
types (MV & NV) on (BUS) future projects.
[145] Workplace Subtropical & Tropical NV, daylight Health perceptions Cross-sectional T-test There is an association between
(office) & view, (physical & questionnaire green features & health
morphology green space psychological) (Importance & perceptions in offices. This
Likert scale) article contributes to justify &
optimise passive climate-
adaptive design strategies.
[146] Residential Subtropical NV & NL IEQ, overall Questionnaire T-test, ANOVA A structural model was
satisfaction (thermal, (Likert Scale) from using SPSS V18.0 developed based on the
air & lighting) & previous study relationship between IEQ,
energy usage [135] satisfaction & energy usage to
enhance IEQ & satisfaction
[22] Residential Subtropical NV Common usage of Questionnaire Statistical analysis Residents significantly prefer NV
balcony & overall (Likert Scale) & by SPSS to achieve thermal comfort
comfort & sensation Interview compared with AC in the
of NV utilisation thro subtropical climate of Brisbane.
balconies
[147] Residential Continental (humid) NV through IAQ, Indoor thermal Questionnaire SPSS (Crosstab & People behaviour & habits of
windows sensation, windows (Likert Scale, Chi-square) opening windows based on room
opening habit importance & rating & windows opening size in
scale) & Interview winter was cleared based on POE
results.
[148] Workplace Different climate in NV, NL & IEQ (air, noise, Questionnaire ANOVA test MM ventilation is very sensible
(office) China MM lighting & health) & (Importance & picks for green buildings for high
overall comfort Likert scale) satisfaction.
[149] Workplace Subtropical NV Comfort & design Questionnaire T-test Recommend more awareness &
(office) satisfaction, needs, (BUS) - Likert Scale forgiveness factors for green
health & productivity buildings’ users.
[150] Workplace Between semi-arid & NV through Thermal comfort & Questionnaire PMV & TSV IAQ has a significant impact on
(office) humid subtropical windows IAQ (Likert Scale & IEQ acceptance. Warm neutral
Bipolar) temperature found 20 � C (good
& Physical agreement with Chinese
measurement standard).
[151] Learning Tropical NV through IEQ (air, noise, Questionnaire Statistical analysis Occupants could achieve thermal
places windows lighting & cooling (BUS) - Likert Scale (Mean rating) comfort without AC, but need for
(university) device & design) & more information to get the
overall comfort optimum usage of NV.
[109] Workplace Subtropical (humid) NV IEQ Questionnaire Pearson correlation Around 90% was satisfied & most
(office (BUS) - Likert Scale of the dissatisfactions occurred
building) & Physical due to chiller (staffs work close to
measurement vent).
[152] Workplace NA NV & NL IEQ (air, noise & Questionnaire PPD for NV, AC & Occupants who are usually using
(university lighting) & thermal (Likert Scale) Mix based on CBE AC expressed more negative
office) comfort & forgiveness of Berkeley evaluations (low forgiveness
factor database factor); in contrast, the MM and
NV buildings.

diagnostic (displays deficiency and presents some actions as corrections)
[153–155]. In a broader view, POE is categorised into two general steps,
including planning and implementation [156]. The planning phase is
usually divided into four parts, including deciding what needs to be
accomplished (why POE?), selecting an approach, briefing or details of
POE, and method selection. The implementation phase is also clarified
through three steps: carryout, data gathering and analysing, and
providing an action plan [157,158].
There are several standard methods used to conduct a POE: ques­
tionnaires, interviews, focus groups (i.e. group meetings), workshops,
and walk-through evaluations [90,91,159–161]. A comparison of the
methods, based on time, cost, perspective, results accuracy and quality,
was reported in Refs. [92,162]. Although this study shows that indi­
vidual interviews and questionnaires are the best methods for POE, the
reported barriers of these methods include the slow procedure of
interviews, the needs for a skilled interviewer, and the need for skilled
survey design (to ensure critical points are not omitted). The main
advantage of the surveys is the simple distribution of a survey to the
targeted participants (i.e. online). Survey results can be analysed using
statistical tools to find possible patterns and relations that might be
useful for future studies or designs. In summary, the literature concludes
that a well-designed, brief, subjective and qualitative questionnaire re­
mains the primary POE method utilised but designing such a survey
remains challenging.
5.2. Evaluation methods of NV performance
NV performance is usually quantified based on airflow pattern and
rate, IAV, Air Change per Hour (ACH), Mean Age of Air (MAA), volu­
metric flow rate, and other derived quantities from these parameters

8
N. Izadyar et al.
[163]. The evaluation methods are mainly categorised into analytical
and empirical methods [8], numerical or computational analysis [164],
and experimental methods (small and large scale) [165]. Analytical
approaches involve a single zone or multiple zones [60] and are driven
by the theory of heat transfer and fundamental mathematical fluid dy­
namics, while empirical methods are established on measurements and
observations. Both analytical and empirical methods are useful for
initial steps and estimation of simple geometries [166].
Researchers have employed these methods or a combination of them
such as association of CFD and empirical models [167–169], empirical
model integrated with small and full-scale experiment [85,170],
coupled CFD simulation [171–173], and de-coupled CFD models
[174–176], based on their accuracy, cost and time, and the objective of
their studies. Omrani et al. [177] explored, assessed, and categorised the
robustness and limits of each technique regarding the accuracy, appli­
cation for complex geometries, resolution of results, cost, and time. The
authors highlighted the related methods for various situations con­
cerning drawbacks and constraints and suggested a design model for NV
in high-rise residential apartments that can be employed in the design
and construction phases.
Computational simulation methods such as CFD simulation or a
combination of CFD and other approaches (e.g. experimental) are
introduced as the most applicable approaches to find details of NV such
as air velocity, pressure, and particle distribution both indoors and
around the buildings [169,178]. Although CFD simulation is usually
time-consuming compared with analytical and empirical techniques, it
provides detailed information on NV such as air velocity and pressure.
Authors have usually validated the simulation results against real
experimental data or outcomes of other evaluation methods to approve
the simulation procedure for the further analysis and possible scenarios.
There are several methods to validate simulations through combinations
such as CFD combined with network airflow models [60,179,180] and
experimental methods (small and large scale) [165,181–183].
CFD simulation software numerically describes physics of air
movement using Navier-Stokes equations (i.e. Reynolds-Averaged
Navier-Stokes (RANS)). The RANS equations are usually calculated
along with the governing equations such as k-ε and k-ω models. Three
physical principles including conservation of mass (continuity equa­
tion), energy conservation (first thermodynamic law), and the second
Newton law (momentum equation), in general, are the basis of the
governing equations that are, respectively, shown in Equations (3)–(5)
for steady incompressible flow [184]:
∂ðρui Þ
¼0 (3)
∂xi
� � � � � � �
∂ ρui uj ∂ρ ∂ ∂ui ∂uj
¼ þ μ þ ρu�I u�J þ ρβ T T0 gi (4)
∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi
� �
∂ðρui TÞ 1 ∂ ∂T ∂
¼ λ þ ð ρu�J TÞ (5)
∂xi cp ∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
where (T0 ), (β), and (u�J T), correspondingly, represent the operation
temperature, thermal expansion coefficient, and turbulent heat flux. The
constant values of different governing equations can be calculated based
upon these equations [184,185].
NV behaviour, unlike MV, is much less predictable, so modelling
tools play an essential role in discovering more about the airflows’
motions. Hence, CFD was broadly employed by researchers to simulate
NV in buildings and find the airflow related parameters such as IAV,
MAA, and ACH [69,169,178] to show the variation of NV performance
due to changing design features of passive elements. Although CFD
simulation is a time-consuming procedure, the high-accuracy, low cost,
and suitability of this simulation method has lead CFD to become a
favourite tool to simulate airflow pattern in naturally-ventilated build­
ings [169]. CFD simulation needs to be validated using an auxiliary
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Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613
source, and different validation tools, mainly experimental analyses,
were suggested for this purpose [169].
Experimental analyses, which are divided into small and full scales,
are extensively employed to calculate airflow characteristics (i.e. ve­
locity, pressure, and temperature). In the context of NV studies, re­
searchers have usually applied experiments as a validation tool for
numerical analysis, which also helps to adjust the grids [69,169].
Although the literature shows both small and full scale experiments are
highly accurate compared with other validation methods, these studies
are usually costly and time-consuming [105,186,187]. The magnitude of
the cost and time consumption directly depends on the amount of
detailed data [169]. Therefore, designing an experiment regarding cost,
time, and the required amount of detailed data required are a critical
issue, and strong knowledge of the previous studies can be helpful in
designing an optimum experiment based on the mentioned criteria.
Table 4 summarises the recently published articles (from 2014) in the
context of evaluation methods of NV to comprehend more detail about
the simulations and their applied validation tools.
The main results of Table 4 can be summarised as below:
� Most of the studies were carried out in climates that are recognised
with hot summers.
� A combination of CFD simulation and experimental analysis as a
validation tool was the standard method.
� CFD was the standard method (via ANSYS) reported in literature
review and k–ε models were the most applied model for simulating
airflows indoor and outdoor of the buildings, which has also been
highlighted in previous studies [28,169,224–226].
� Indoor air temperature and velocity, which directly affect indoor
thermal comfort, were measured in most of the experimental studies.
� There are a small number of full-scale in-situ experimental studies
that highlight the need for more in-situ measurements.
� The significant impacts of openings’ geometry were observed
through critical findings.
5.2.1. System simulation
CFD is an excellent method that can be alternatively used for
measuring the physical parameters in the possible and vital scenarios
[227–229]. However this simulation tool might not be a perfect tool for
the whole system parameters such as energy indexes in spaces under NV
mode, and it is better to couple CFD with a whole building energy
simulation model such as EnergyPlus [173]. Furthermore, the enormous
calculation time of 3D CFD analysis with a very satisfactory mesh can be
a time constraint, so it is a rational solution to find appropriate tools for
system simulation.
Energy modelling software, in general, predicts the energy con­
sumption of buildings based on various parameters such as cooling and
heating load. These simulation tools are useful for design since these
tools predict thermal comfort and IAQ for the whole built environment.
These are also excellent facilities to determine the energy-saving po­
tential for more accurate retrofitting of buildings (after construction) or
design of new structures based on the possible devices [230,231].
Improved solutions regarding passive design techniques can also be
determined using these tools [232], which is the reason for applying this
software in the current context. Energy simulation methods, overall,
seek optimum energy consumption and appropriate thermal comfort
simultaneously.
There are various energy modelling software: EnergyPlus
[233–235], ESP-r [65,236,237], TRNSYS [238,239], IDA Indoor Climate
and Energy (IDA ICE) [240], Integrated Environmental Solutions- Vir­
tual Environment (IES-VE) [241,242], CONTAM [243,244], and COMIS
[245] are some of the most common software for energy simulation
inside buildings [246]. These simulation tools, as mentioned, typically
employ input data, including the geometry of buildings, weather data,
internal load, HVAC data, and other required data to simulate required
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 4
Evaluation methods of NV through different passive elements.
Ref Climate types Passive Purposes Method Solver & Software Measured Critical Findings
Element details Parameters

[188] Tropical Transom Improving ACH Full-scale experiment þ 3D-steady RANS, Air velocity (AV) The IAV could be improved
Ventilation through SSV & CV CFD LB k-ε model Air temperature by 400% through TVP
Panel (TVP) using TVP. FloEFD software- (AT) & Relative depend on outdoor wind
Mentor Graphics Humidity (RH) speed. ACH has also been
improved by 27%.
[130] Not a specific Windcatcher Effect of outdoor wind Wind tunnel (Closed 3D-steady RANS, AV on spots Evaluate NV over wind
climate on flow behaviour loop) þ CFD Standard k-ε & indoor, opening & catchers needs more
inside wind catcher. Fluent (ANSYS) outdoor on experimental methods
diverse WA than other elements.
[189] Subtropical Double- Save energy for the Full-scale þ System EnergyPlus Indoor Average & 60% of cooling energy was
(humid) Window cooling purposes using simulation Thermal radiant AT RH & saved using NV. The
(parallel) double window. comfort - PMV Model) IAV Setpoint of cooling
temperature has a
significant effect on energy
usage.
[190] Tropical & Balcony Effect of vertical Wind tunnel þ CFD 3D-steady RANS, AV, block ratio NV was crucially affected
Subtropical (Vertical farming on NV Reynolds Stress by vertical farming block
farming) performance & Model (RSM), ratio, so vertical farming
thermal comfort in Fluent (ANSYS) needs a suitable design
tropical regions. concerning NV
performance.
[191] Desert (hot & Chimney Maximising IAV by Full-scale experiment 3D quasi-steady AV, ACH, AT & Width, inclination angle &
arid) changing chimney’s (prototype) þ CFD (o RANS, RNG k-ε & solar intensity airgap, respectively, has
geometry. ptimisation) Fluent (ANSYS) the most sever impacts on
NV performance.
[192] Tropical Windows Analysing the thermal CFD & Thermal comfort Standard (S)k-ε, No experiment Night NV over windows
& acoustic comfort (PMV model) Finite Element due to less noise is active &
through windows Method (FEM) & provide sufficient fresh air
ventilation. Fluent (NA) & improve thermal
comfort thru a specific
season.
[193] Not Available Windcatcher Indoor Air Distribution Stereo Particle Image 3D steady RANS, ST Flow rate (m3/s), Airspeed ratio, as well as
(NA) (IAD), living area using Velocimetry (SPIV) k-ω & SST k-ω, Sk-ε, IAV & ACH ACH & Flow rate, should
(ACH & IAV) [194] þ CFD Rk-ε, RNG k-ε & be considered to find IAD.
RSM&
Fluent (ANSYS)
[195] Tropical Atrium Thermal & airflow Full-scale experiment þ SST k-ω, Sk-ε-, IAD (speed, RNG k-ε was the best
conditions of NV CFD Realizable (R) k-ε & direction & prediction tools. Direct
through atrium. RNG k-ε & Fluent pressure) & ventilation in the atrium
(ANSYS) temperature improved indoor airflow.
[68] Tropical DSF Efficiency of NV based Full-scale experiment (a CFX (ANSYS) Temperature on Indoor temperature
on heat convection and Test cell) þ CFX the façade (inner reduced due to obstruction
airflow over DSF & outer), Air of solar radiation by DSF.
velocities
[196] Subtropical Windows Simulation of NV at the Wind tunnel database þ 3D steady RANS, Pressure NV can decrease around
(humid) non-rectangular indoor coupled CFD EnergyPlus Spalart Allmaras coefficient (Cp), 65% of the cooling hours.
area model, k-ω (ST k-ω Temperature & Although NV affected
& SST k-ω) and k-ε ACH ACH, thermal condition
family (Sk-ε, Rk-ε, was not significantly
& RNG k-ε) affected.
[197] Desert (hot & Wind Catcher Effects of varying wind Wind tunnel (open 3D steady-state Flow rate (m3/s), By neglecting stack impact,
arid) & Courtyard incidents angles on circuit) þ CFD RANS, SST k-ω IAV 4-sided wind catcher
wind-driven NV in a Fluent (ANSYS) provides heat dissipation
combination of 4-sided instead of breeze.
wind catcher &
courtyard.
[70] Not a specific Windcatcher & Exploring the Wind tunnel results of 3D-steady RANS, AV & air flow rate The optimum length &
climate Wing wall integration of [71] þ CFD Sk-ε, Rk-ε, RNG k-ε angle provide the best NV
Windcatcher & Wing Fluent (ANSYS) performance considering
wall, its optimum AV, flow rate, ACH, MAA.
angle & the best wing
wall length on NV
performance
[198] Not a specific Windows Investigation of SSV Full-scale experiment in 3D-steady RANS, k- AT, Surface Results highlighted
climate performance thru test chamber [199] þ ω model, Fluent temperature, vertical slide windows for
typical windows types CFD (ANSYS) Airflow & CO2 providing the best NV
sensors performance.
[200] Desert (hot & Windcatcher Optimising of heat Wind tunnel (Closed 3D-steady RANS, Indoor airflow The optimum streamwise
humid summer) with assisted pipes that are used to loop) þ CFD (Fluent Standard k-ε & velocity and AT distance reduced thermal
heat pipes improve NV codes) Fluent (ANSYS) cooling capacity by 10%.
performance through
wind catchers
[201] DSF Airflow & AT
(continued on next page)

10
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 4 (continued )
Ref Climate types Passive Purposes Method Solver & Software Measured Critical Findings
Element details Parameters

Temperate Investigating NV Full-scale experiment 2D Unsteady RANS Agreement between

climate (cold) through DSF (Velocity profile & Tracer (URANS), building simulation & CFD
gas) þ CFD Finite-volume, was remarkable in the
OpenFOAM prediction of outlet
temperature & airflow
profile.
[26] Subtropical Balcony Impact of balconies’ Full-scale experiment þ 3D-steady RANS, AT, IAV & Related Incident WA is the vital
(humid) features on NV CFD Thermal comfort RNG k-ε & Humidity (RH) balcony’s feature. SSV was
performance & (SET*) Fluent (ANSYS) more sensitive than a CV to
thermal comfort. varying design features.
[202] Hot & humid Trace Impacts of Trace’ Wind tunnel (Particle 3D-steady RANS, k- IAV & ACH Increasing on Trace’s
region depth (porous type Image Velocimetry (PIV)) ε turbulence model depth has significant
building) on NV using [203] þ CFD & impacts on IAV by 88%.
mean AV & MAA. Fluent (ANSYS)
[204] Tropical Void Impact of void Full-scale experiment & Sk-ε, RNG k-ε & SST AV & Thermal The suitable void
provision on the wind- Wind tunnel þ CFX k-ω comfort configuration suggested,
driven NV in CFX (ANSYS) and results may contribute
residential Medium to better NV performance
Cost Multi-Storey over void at MCMSH.
Housing (MCMSH)
[205] Tropical Void Finding voids’ Wind tunnel [170]þ CFX Sk-ε & Wind pressure Results highlighted the
potential for NV in CFX (ANSYS) distributions on excellent potential of voids
residential MCMSH façade in different for MCMSH in the tropical
WA (� ) climate.
[206] Tropical Courtyard Effects of internal Full-scale experiment NA AT, RH, and air Close & CV courtyard can
courtyards on NV to pressure attain thermal comfort and
find innovative avoid unnecessary
strategies for urban humidity.
houses
[207] Desert (hot & Windcatcher Study the best airflow Wind tunnel þ another 3D steady-state AT, AV & RH Varying width has
arid) & thermal comfort in simulation [208] þ CFD RANS, Sk-ε, Rk-ε, significant effects on IAD &
six design scenarios of Thermal comfort (PMV & RNG k-ε, SST k-ω & AV. It is suggested to use
wind catcher (width & PPD models) Fluent (ANSYS) this method for optimising
height). wind catcher in other
climates.
[209] Desert (hot & Chimney Achieve optimum NV Full-scale experiment 3D-steady RANS, Flow rate, AT & A specific geometry
arid) through solar chimney (prototype) þ CFD (o RNG k-ε & external AV, Solar including inclination
by finding the optimal ptimisation) Software (NA) radiation angle, length, width & air
geometry. gap, introduced as the
optimal design.
[28] Subtropical Balcony Influences of façade Wind tunnel [210]þ CFD 3D-steady RANS, IAV, ACH, Coupled CFD methods
(humid) shape and openings on (Sub-configuration RNG k-ε & outdoor wind (finding indoor and
wind-induced NV validation [211]) Fluent (ANSYS) speed & pressure outdoor flowrate at once)
(MAA & ACH) distribution is useful to assess NV
performance.
[212] Hot & dry Atrium Impact of atrium’s wall CFD þ Previous 3D-steady RANS, No experiment A mixture of vertical &
angularity on NV analytical models [213] RNG k-ε & Software tilted walls, respectively,
performance & (NA) at upper & lower floors,
thermal comfort. had the best NV
performance.
[214] Tropical Balcony & Impacts of orientation Full-scale experiment No simulation Indoor AT, RH, For investigating
Window & height of buildings and air velocity orientation, the unit layout
on NV. should be considered.
[215] Subtropical Patio Find NV pros & cons in Full-scale orthogonal k-ε model & Indoor & outdoor SV is the best NV strategy
(humid) Yinzi, traditional experiment þ CFD Fluent (NA) AT, humidity & in Yinzi house based on the
Chinese, house as well AV validated simulation
as the best NV strategy. results.
[216] Mediterranean Windows & Effect of loggia & Full-scale experiment 3D-steady RANS, Wind speed, Flow Large windows on the
climate (hot & Loggia window opening size & (tracer gas method) & RNG k-ε & RSM & rate & ACH façade enhance NV
arid summer) façade porosity on CV empirical þ CFD Fluent (ANSYS) performance. Provision of
rate. loggia reduces ACH except
for the direct airflow to
opening.
[217] Not a specific Windows Finding an innovative Wind tunnel (PIV) þ CFD k-ε model & AV, ventilation Rain penetration was
climate design for windows to Fluent (ANSYS Flow rate (m3/s) dropped by 98%, while NV
get the highest NV & Airpack) rate decreased by 4 & 9%
lower dispersion of in defined scenarios.
rain.
[218] Not a specific Void & Impact of horizontal & Wind tunnel [219] þ CFD 3D-steady RANS, AT & Airflow rate Void & lightwell had
climate Lightwell vertical position of RNG k-ε, Rk-ε, SST & pattern substantial effects on
connected to lightwell k-ω & SST & upward airflow in the
void on the upward Fluent (ANSYS) interior of lightwell. Wind
airflow. direction was the most
crucial parameters that
affect airflow pattern.
(continued on next page)

11
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 4 (continued )
Ref Climate types Passive Purposes Method Solver & Software Measured Critical Findings
Element details Parameters

[220] Hot & arid Windows Focus on the indoor Wind tunnel (open k-ε model & AT, AV & Pressure Window location is the
airflow & thermal circuit) [221] þ CFD & Fluent (NA) coefficient (Cp) most crucial factor in NV &
comfort in a naturally Network model þ thermal comfort as PMV &
ventilated room with a CFDThermal comfort ( PPD improved up to 12% &
window opening. PMV & PPD models) 3.5% for the best location.
[186] Mediterranean Patio Explore aerodynamic Wind tunnel þ CFD 3D-steady RANS, k- AV, Airflow Enhancing the indoor
climate (hot & features in a residential ε model & Software profile airflow & modifying
arid summer) unit with a patio that (NA) outdoor microclimate
connects indoor & (around the building) can
outdoor. improve thermal comfort.
[222] Mediterranean Windows & Effect of windows’ Full-scale experiment þ TRNSYS software Wind speed & NV integrated with
(hot & arid overhang overhangs on thermal Dynamic simulation direction, indoor horizontal shading devices,
summer) mass & night NV to & outside AT, RH enhance thermal comfort
provide a guideline for & decrease cooling
overhang’s length. demand.
[223] Subtropical Atrium Optimum design of Full-scale experiment þ k-ε, RNG k-ε & AT, AV Modelling shows bulk
(humid) atrium for the NV CFD Large Eddy downward airflow that
utilisation using Simulation (LES) & highlights the requirement
validated CFD, which Fluent (NA) of using precise simulation
was not well studied in atrium design.
before.
[147] Continental Windows Find the status of Full-scale experiment Data analysis of Air change rate, Effects of window opening
(humid) opening windows habit (Tracer gas) þ Survey & survey by SPSS AT, feeling of IAQ size, wind direction &
in winter via survey Interview (Crosstab and Chi- (by survey) room size on the air change
and the reflection of square) rate in winter were found
this habit on thermal based on results.
comfort.

energetic factors [247]. The current review investigates the character­
istics, applications, and the capabilities of the available software to find
appropriate tools to assess NV performance in buildings. Hence, the
suitability, capabilities, advantages, and drawbacks of simulation soft­
ware are compared and summarised in Table 5 [232,248–250].
The critical conclusions from Table 5 are as below:
� EnergyPlus is standard software that has most of the required ca­
pabilities to evaluate a whole system and find the critical indexes.
� EnergyPlus cannot directly predict IAQ, which was the most inves­
tigated parameter based on the reviewed literature in Tables 3 and 4.
For solving this drawback, authors have usually coupled EnergyPlus
with CONTAM for finding IAQ [253].
� The number of articles using EnergyPlus to carry out energy
modelling in a naturally-ventilated space was remarkably higher
than other software.
� EnergyPlus seems to be a standard tool for evaluating NV
performance.
6. Summary and suggested future studies
Although designers and researchers have increasingly considered NV
to reduce GHG emissions and energy consumption, there are not
comprehensive review studies to investigate the impacts of design-
related parameters of passive elements on NV performance and occu­
pations’ perception. The current article, therefore, has comprehensively
reviewed the articles on NV through façade openings, particularly bal­
conies that are the key focus of the current study. For this purpose, the
current article focuses on technical and socio-technical impacts of
designing façade openings on NV, as two main objectives of this review.
As a beginning step, a comparison between the numbers of studies on
NV through several passive elements using Scopus database indicated
that many studies have focused on the balconies, while a small pro­
portion (around 2%) of them investigated NV through balconies. Very
few articles focused on the impacts of design-related parameters on the
NV performance, reviewed in Table 2. The literature shows that there is
an essential need for studies to precisely investigate the effects of some
design-related parameters of balconies, such as the interaction between
depth size and orientation or H/D unitless factor, which have not been
studied yet.
The review also revealed that SSV and CV were not identically
affected by changing design features of balconies, and SSV is more
sensitive to these variations than CV and SV. Hence, the impacts of
designing geometries on SSV performance is worth investigation
because many apartments rely on SSV as the only option for NV uti­
lisation. The detailed review of the design features of balconies, how­
ever, shows there is no clear outcome regarding the impacts of different
geometric factors on NV performance.
Critical socio-technical factors, occupants’ perceptions and behav­
iour impacts on the NV utilisation, as well as the effects of design-related
factors, were reviewed using the literature on POE studies. The current
article reviewed POE studies on NV utilisation through different façade
openings, specifically balconies. Table 3 summarised the recently pub­
lished POE studies on NV based on primary purposes, methods, case
studies, findings, and other critical issues. Researchers undertaking POE
studies have usually selected workspaces (easier to collect data than
other building types), and have focused on IEQ, especially thermal
comfort.
Although the literature shows POE studies explored the logical re­
lations among environmental factors, satisfaction, behaviour, culture,
and awareness of users regarding available ventilation devices, the au­
thors have not explicitly focused on the application of façade openings,
particularly balconies, for NV utilisation and have not asked any ques­
tions regarding the geometry impact on NV utilisation by occupants.
Additionally, most of these POE studies were carried out in cooling
dominant regions such as tropical and subtropical climates, while the
severe climate in summer, nowadays, is happening in some other regions
such as Mediterranean climate.
The present article reviewed the conventional methods for the
evaluations of the socio-technical and technical factors in section 5. This
study comprehensively investigated the applied evaluation methods of
NV performance based on the physical parameters such as ACH, MAA,
IAV, and flow rate through literature. For predicting these parameters,
applied methods are usually categorised into empirical, analytical, and
experimental methods. Table 4 shows that the authors widely employed
a combination of analytical and experimental studies and suggested this

12
N. Izadyar et al. Building and Environment 170 (2020) 106613

Table 5
A comparison between the most applied system simulation software.
Features Energy Plus ESP-r TRNSYS IDA ICE IES VE CONTAM

Simulation solution

Iterative resolution of non-linear systems YES YES YES YES YES YES
Simulation of loads, systems, & solutions YES YES YES YES YES YES

Calculation time

Variable time-step YES YES NO NO NO NO

Dynamic variables (transient) YES YES NO YES NO NO

Entire geometry description

Surfaces including floors & walls YES YES YES YES YES YES
Computation of thermal balance YES YES YES YES YES YES
Import & export of geometry from CAD YES YES NO YES NO NO
Import and export of models YES YES NO YES YES YES
Thermal comfort of occupants YES YES YES YES YES YES
General calculation of buildings YES YES YES NO YES YES
Controllable windows for NV YES YES YES YES NO YES
Airflow through the façade openings (i.e. YES YES YES NO YES YES
balconies and windows)
NV (Pressure and buoyancy driven) YES YES YES YES NO NO
Mix-mode ventilation (NV & Mechanical) YESa YES YES YES YES NO
Multi-zone airflow (by pressure network) YES YES YES YES YES YES

Implementation of occupants’ behaviour

Control approach (Direct input) YES YES YES YES YES YES
Co-simulation YES YES NO NO NO YES

Major capabilities

Energy simulation of entire building YES YES YES YES YES YES
Detailed component simulation NO NO YES NO NO NO
Load calculations YES NO NO NO NO NO
Simulation of IAQ NO NO NO NO NO YES
Code compliance YES NO NO YES YES NO
Mixture of flow network & CFD domain NO YES NO NO NO NO

General information

Platform Windows, Linux, Windows, Linux, Windows Windows Windows and Windows, Linux,
and Mac and Mac Mac and Mac
Pricing Free Open source Reduced price for Free Trial Free Trial Free
academic

Relevant studies (Title-ABS-KEY (“software name” and “thermal comfort” and “natural ventil*”) AND Limit to (“ENGI” OR “ENER” OR “ENVI”)) by August 2019

Total number of found articles 44 4 14 3 4 3

Number of articles over last 5 years 22 0 6 2 2 0

Most relevant studies (Title-ABS-KEY (“natural ventila” and “thermal comfort” and “CFD” and “software name”))

Reference [173,251] [252] – – – –

a
Using the hybrid ventilation manager combined with an airflow network or co-simulation.

approach as the most standard and practical method. Although most of
the recently published studies employed a combination of simulation
and experimental studies, a significant proportion of these studies
employed the results of experiments in literature such as wind tunnel
outcomes. This issue highlights the need for measurements, including
both in-situ full-scale and small-scale experimental studies, specifically
for regions that have recently joined to regions with hot summers.
Regarding simulation details, 3D steady-state RANS and k-ε models
follow by k-ω, were the most applied solver and turbulence models and
were recruited in CFD simulations mostly through Fluent in ANSYS
software. Thermal comfort as one of the essential criteria for naturally-
ventilated was also evaluated mainly by PMV and PPD indexes [121].
Finally, although finding an optimum design of passive elements,
amongst balconies, were considered in the literature, there are no
classifications of geometric factors impacts on NV performance and
thermal comfort.
The next section of the current study explored the system simulation
tools utilised to simulate the energy indexes in spaces under NV mode.
For finding the best software to simulate the whole system, Table 5
provides a comparison between the most well-known and applied soft­
ware based on critical criteria. Based on this comparison, EnergyPlus is
standard software with the required capabilities to evaluate a whole
system and find the critical indexes. EnergyPlus and TRNSYS, as the first
and second highest deployed software, were recruited in 60% and 20%
of the published articles, respectively.
Based on this literature review, the following recommendations are
made for future work:
➢ Identification and classification of the different design features of
balconies based on their impacts on the NV performance and thermal
comfort, specifically in high-rise multi-storey residential buildings.
➢ POE study on the impacts of façade openings design, specifically
balconies’ geometry, on the occupants’ perceptions, comfort, and
behaviour, and analysing the collected feedbacks, specifically in
residential areas.
➢ POE study in regions formerly recognised as heating dominant (i.e.
with short or cool summers), but experiencing hotter summers due to
the changing climate.
➢ Further studies on thermal comfort standards and expectations in
different climates and cultures, particularly the regions with
increasing occurrence of heat waves or prolonged summer over­
heating in buildings.

13
N. Izadyar et al.
➢ Study designs that combine POE, simulation, and experimental
methods to more comprehensively validate simulations.
7. Conclusion
The current article focuses on the technical and socio-technical im­
pacts of designing façade openings, specifically balconies, on NV per­
formance and thermal comfort through a comprehensive review. The
early results show that the application of balconies for NV utilisation has
not been adequately investigated yet. The detailed review also recom­
mends that more studies are required to reveal the impacts of design-
related parameters of balconies. The literature review also revealed
that there is an insufficient number of small and full-scale experiments.
Hence, this article strongly suggests identification and classification of
the most crucial design feature of balconies through a study that com­
prises both simulation and experimental study, as a validation tool.
This article also explores the impacts of designing passive elements
on socio-technical parameters, which are affected by different cooling
devices. The review highlights that researchers mostly explored the
health and comfort factors at the indoor environmental areas without
investigating the impacts of the design process. Therefore, this study
suggests more POE studies that focus on the impacts of designing façade
openings on occupants’ perceptions and comfort. This study recom­
mends residential buildings for these POE studies due to a limited
number of POE studies i the residential sector. Additionally, residential
spaces are relatively less known compared with workspaces and resi­
dents have more freedom to use different cooling devices such as NV. On
the other hand, this review recommends POE studies in the climates that
have been significantly impacted by climate change. Finally, a combi­
nation of both technical and socio-technical parameters can be the title
of comprehensive research that investigates the design-related param­
eters as well as occupant’s perception through a validated simulation
and a POE study.
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