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    G Cse CH4 Gaditsir PDF

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    Prachi

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    of 68
    chapter Basic Principles of Feedback Control a] INTRODUCTION th a detailed exploration of the pos cil will mostly occupy the rest o ated quite easily to give a helpful preview of the forthcoming developments Recall the basic feedback system block diagram defined hiomn in abridged form as Fig. 4.1a. When we speak of a controller D(s), our cacem is mainly with the infor handling devices; the sources of infor- fon are the reference ‘which is derived from the command y,(t), sults feedback signal B(0) which is produced by the feedback path elements 14) om the contrlled”output y(@). The power handl ices—actuators introlled process itself—are represented by G(s) in the block diagram the plant transfer function from the disturbance input w(?) z= Dg) is designed to act on the actuating error signal ae = nod rode the control signal u(f). The control logic that is vay ‘eg this purpose isthe control law or control action meanders tem error (0) = y4(0 — 0) results fronreither a change in 1)°"8 disturbance. The general function of the controller is to keep the le near its desired value. Since we never know the numerical Qitameters of the controlled process with true certainty, and designs ean be more sensitive to such parameter variations ames sensitivity specification might also be included. I this Amonstrate that by using feedback control configuration of ig. 4.1, we can meet these control requirements. ve; Principles and Design foracontrolle cl variable lohere K, is the c Whatever the @ ower, the propor [pin A block dia, fa) ) aa intpemenariae ge ae sisi of vin conmnly wd nea Ca sthdaratcttecmecle Dubie (6) Integra control (@) PL control PD control (e) PID control Proportional control 50 called the res contra mode veo nei onl neg oF contol sia : uo “Kiet ich a controller. bins toe used by itself or in comt vgral (PI) contro tne coe canbe wed modes; indeed proportions” FI controller is defined by the following node. The contro! action of a PL & Ug) = KB) + + £0) -( =x aoe gant where Tis the integral or reset time. Figure 4.3e shows the block diagram of a PI controller. ‘The detivative control mode, also called the rate contro, is described following equations: cad 1H) = Kyat) @ or U(s) = KpsB(s) where Ky isthe derivarve gun ate ‘control mode is normally not used alone; this is because the ‘produces mee ive effort for any constant error and would therefo" steady-state errors. A combination of | i ation of proportional an ode of contol for industrial processes. T © ingequations: U0) = KES) + KysE(s) K+ T9983) et control, the change i, us derivative (PD) controllers defined bY ion with other co. 43 _ sows the block dia « iagrams of Fig. | actions are cre resulting multiloop mnie literature as cascac variable y(A), ind varial KUL s+ Tos] B00 (4.66) the forward path and eror signal. Thi ons may be taken of oo be red by the designer, easured by means of @ sensor and the plat but which cannot lant and which can be ble u(t) which infleenees the pi Fig. 4.4 The plant of 3 control ster sists of those proba riods of time; the cal e commanded va oughly speaking, stability in a syste! disturbance inputs, and/or i the system outpui/Stability is @ very important a 1g system is designed to best tems. Almost every workin, ‘speed of response, steady-state accuracy, ani fn éepends 01 in the constraints imposed by st 2. Input Amplitude Constraints For linear theory and meth only approximately, or quit ” Of the system performant® levels in a control system 8, syne op O08, Synchro error 1 nor speed curves of motors, aye ot U(0) is allowed! ‘and prevents us # Basic Pr 248 Rejection External disturbances w(t) influence the plant in an y. They are typically the uncontrolled variations in the load on ng mechanical motions, load disturbances may ., wind gusts on a stabilized antenna, wa , .d of a robot manipulator, etc. In voltage regulating systems, load is a major source of disturbances. In thermal sys- iy load disturbances may be caused by variations in surrounding tem- in fluid systems, the load disturbances may result from variations in ns in demanded flow. vary slowly. As we shall see later in this chap- to be corrected by proper design of tion of the plant by high-frequency measurement- (observation noise) (1), entering through the sensors of the con- ance in contol in unpredictable way. In systems con- sets must be taefingmechanical motions, mechanical vibrations may lead to high-frequency hponents in the output signals of po: ind speed sensors. Continuous ng of fluid in tank reactors gives rise to noise in output signals of thermo- ‘of other temperature sensors. sack control depends virtually on accurate measurement of controlled feedback action has little correcting effect for the wrong sors. The character of the measurement errors e accuracy, anid depends on filtering in the instruments. Effects of measurement errors on imposed by séblttl system performance can therefore be reduced by examining the instru- 1 up in Chaplet snd modifying the filtering so that it satisfies the requirements of the For a stable Pir control problem. and command implies that sa conditions: ery important designed to be tivity and Robustess Robustness is an important concern in control mdesign. We will briefly discuss two aspects.of the robustness. problem. fst aspect arises because every control system is designed on the basis “sarily approximate model of the plant. Since the success of the analy mrtech of design is heavily dependent on the simp! ‘are usually made which lead to uncer i also in the model struc- eat ly in the parameters of the-model ‘84 linear model for an intrinsically nonlinear process is an example ing certain time lags in order to obtain a is another example. The qui hysical cing lle tale? bagag PeSt OF the robustness appears in the following manner: the Pring gp ste (idealized) model which characterizes a number of nomi- the plant. Once the cont the e ions from nominal values on the perfor ®t of g inthe lt Such gueons con be sea aa {he system performance due to changes in design paransers™"€ ‘isturbances. It is a fact that some designs, which perfor’ el! inadequate in the field because they are tony perturbations in some of their para ‘swing In the course of this text, we wi of robustness. The effect of differentially small devi known structure can be studied using-sensitivity analysis. The sensitivity analysis is given by the practical experience drift during the operation of the system in the the Vicinity of their nominal values. changes of the system behavon merely a minor influence on the important system properties, For the analysis, the system behaviour is characterized by som asure, €.g., speed of response; or even by some characteristic as the frequency response of the closed-loop system, For the sak of representation, we take J as the performance measure cl system behaviour, which depends on parameter @ in addition too eters. Consider perturbation only in the parameter 6, For the nomia @, we get the nominal value of the performance measure as J,= 4) Parameter changes A@ induce changes AJ in the performanst Hence, instead of J,, we get the new value J, + AJ = J(G, + 8) Taylor’s series expansion of J(8) about the nominal point 8, yiel™ that the function is differentiable) isc from time to time ty 7 ions inthe parameters, 248) 494. 28 ono, If we restrict our attention to terms of atmost fist order, we &* S(O, + 48) = H8,) + Expressing deviations in terms of relative changes, we obtai? AJ _ ael/ as) On 98 ono, Je Jn 8m ity to parameter 6 is defined as the erformance measure J from ivi percentage change in the parameter. $ denotes the sensi to @andisgivenby iii ratio of -_— | Pee SSSA Control 245, ji dul J 240) Jo, ° A0/6, eh, aa — “ary =0,then the measure J is insensitive to the parameter @at the nominal If Sy # 0, then J is sensitive and the value of Sf is a measure of the ‘rdependence of J on 8. 18 cit ae sible interpretation of the sensitivity Function is shown in Fig. 4.5. ive teat the relative change in the parameter 8, A0/6,, as anit to the tee modelled by the sensitivity function with the output being the the system performance measure, AJL, ange ae, J gy | atid Fig. 4.5 Interpretation of sensitivity function as again function Note that sensitivity function deals tesimally small parameter peturbations near a given nominal parameter value and does not refer to the anount of perturbation. Experience on use of such functions, however, shows ity function is a reasonable characteristic of the effects of small itesimally small perturbat ee later in this chapter, the errors due to parameter variations ‘kd to be corrected by the proper design of feedback control. ~ trol can its prescribed value in, shape the dynamics of the controlled variable; (W) greatly reduce the effect on the control variable of all external the sensor; and jons in hardware parameters other than those of the sensor. (Samisslssrby 7 ‘ese of feedback is motivated by the presence of external disturbances and meer he use of feedback can be regarded as Sonable if there is no uncertainty in the system because, for the unper- “ut, 28M, opencloop control may produce the same or probably better tem qi ¥iNB, We review the control objectives of heat-exchanger control, ig ggcussed in Chapter 1 (Fig. 1.18). A sketch of the exchanger is given Te cy Mata © is to maintain the outlet temperature of the process fluid, lesired value or set point, 0,°C, in the presence of disturbances i hit. 246 the process fl nd p ke/e i re ce Eletropneumati Proces it ] conte } 4 a de kgee ae ve at fee eurrent signals: fieaback Loop: "The feedback co Sate seu Testa Now ‘the design is the selection of the temperature vr. For temperature measurement, we select an Ajdition to the basic device such as thermocouple, a signal hich takes the output from the thermocouple and.converts real that i proportional tothe temperature. The signal process. vat includes an amplifier and a filter. For steam valve adjustments, we s pneumatic actuator which can provide large output power. Since the rated by air pressure and the sensor generates elee- geniator must BE operE ont signals, & current to pressure transducer is also required inv the to rks as follows: the measured controlled K, in Fig. 4.6a represents the conver erates @ control signal, u(t), on the of ihe differenice between the measurement and: s ‘The control Sima is then connected to the pneumatic actuator of the steare valve through ‘ducer. The function of + the hardware is chosen, the remainder of the desig: ‘make the best use of the, process. If the design ‘transfer function description of the feedback system, must be fhe block diagram of thé entire feedback loop: We i itansfer function Model of each’ block. Let us start with’the'heat \i6b; the heat exchanger consists of three blocks, one for {Gels} is the process transfer funtion relating the outlet Mow, Ns) is the process transfer function relating ‘isturbance in process fluid flow and-Na(s) is the smperature. (21S | e used in developing 0 fhe steam flow his gait $0°CIGap se, and sve exchanger response’to-the-process fluid flow and to inlet tetipierature the gai is 1°C/°C. There- Gs) = 2 : me 30s + 30ne 1 The time Volume nstan.of the proses depends-on.the residanee ti ic flow rate) of the fluid in the tubes. As a consequent jime (tube vol ce, the tim¢ ay vary because of flow rate Auctuations and fy itive the performance of the fy. -constant of the process The electropneumatic valve has a constant gain AP _ (15-3)psi__ 12 Ar (20-4)mA Including the constant gain of the curr ttol-valve transfer function, G,(s), we obtain psi/mA Pressure transducer in ty, 01 G45) = 2 OT are The Sensor has a calibrated range of 50 to 150°C and a time-constanof i, 16mA nsor gain = —16MA __ 9 16 mayec Sensor Btn = TE SOS The transfer function of the sensor is given by 016 Hg) = | "Tosi The set-point scale factor K,=0.16 marc The block diagram of the temperatui shown in Fig. 4.7. 6, is the change in th baer De) Ky 347 Amplifier Actua ears NC ee ios+1 Sensor Fig. 4.7 A motel fs heat exchanger cont ot? 249 jon in the process fluid tem erature from the nominal isthe deviation nthe process Mud flow fromthe nonin cae ‘emPerature from the nominal value 8, and q,, is the (refer Review 8, ine devi deviation in the steam flow rate from the nominal value J Example 42). example, 2 Consider the problem of design of an attitude control system for a rigid satel- s usually require attitude control so toward a particular locati toward the sun for maximum power generation, The satellite will be subjected to a variety of disturbance torques from such soures as aerodynamic drag, solar pressure, gravi jorques, and the rotation of various sat sand ante to provide very close to the the effects of the disturbance control system will be the attitude, subject to commands received from ground st In this example, we shall highlight the important physical aspects of the system, taking a number of libe: aspects so as to avoid undue complication which should tend to obscure our main object So long as the angular velocity and the error angles of the veh ‘gular motions about the three axes are essentially uncoupled and may be Controlled independently. Thus, we may design each of the three attitude-con- ‘ol loops independently, \n, Figure 4.8 de- Picts single-axis attitude control schematic, where mot the axis perpendicular to the page. The angle 6 thé _ tion mast be measured with respect to an ‘inertial’ reference, that is, a refer- as no angular acceleration. The control signal comes from the gas *s that produce a torque 7(¢)(= F x d) about the mass centre. ; A block diagram of the control system, as initially proposed, is given in '. 49. The command signal 4, rad from earth, is converted to onal form (6, = K pO, ¥ ts the deviation @ rad; its output is a voltage equi fier provides the voltage u(t) proportional to &(): the difference of 86S corresponding to the command signal and measured signal. The fist must provide sufficient power to actuate the gas jets. The gas jos nage TC) = K; u(t) about the mass centre. We have negleced the mpc the gas jets, assuming that the opening time is, short comnpares ortant time-constants of the system. : Naan vai oie ‘ehelife OP _ oe wy cusp congue he 0 elnst THe ge ve the. performance. OF We Hina! system design is to ar i Sam allouno we we © FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM i) CHARACTERISTI tems play an important feedback ‘can ti¢comy ys of Correct the output, Consider process model _ Contrtter °° process Fig. 4.10 tnopen-toop cantrol (6 parameter errors, Let the closed loop, it follows that ame, From Eqns (4.7}-(4 (sf Menace, 5 Site between the process model and the real proc then the prcess model correspondi ‘The process parameter vector now changes by an infinitesimal value d® 8,,s) {Gms ) G@,,5) ith the sensi mt She Sensi fincton of the feedback control given as Sd= $0, 5) = a DOGO, a Consider prtun ae oy mt Peuaon oly in 9, sen’ / ol system vnc’ behaviour are mani it fea! be the parameters of the process mode ql feaien® which are subject to change. If By. 82» The term frequency pin to be Of M with respect to 6i8 8 | 253 f sat utput behaviour ofthe lose-lgp depend or he see oe ransfer function. In general, the sen es ffevapace ansform variable s, which makes sensitivity vet pr However, if we replace s in Eqn. (4.10b) by ja, we get the sens PEqvency response. Then we can assign meaning to the sensi quencies within the bandwidth! of the system. Since the system will not trans frit frequencies outside its bandwidth (an approximation), the sensitivity for ffequencies much greater than the system bandwidth is of little interes. Evaluating the sensitivity in Eqn, (4,10b) as a function of frequency, —___l___ 1+ DG@)G@,, ja) Ho) ‘The term DGH evaluated at a specific frequency is called the jequency- AtTfequencies within the system bandwidth, we woul tobe as large as possible to reduce the sensitivity of the closed: to the process parameters. Generally, one of the purposes of the con: ‘D(s) is to allow the loop gain to be increased without desta System. ‘Assume now that we are dealing with an open-loop system such as the one lpicted in Fig, 4.10. It is clear that for this system we can apply the result ven by Eqns (4.10) with #(s) = 0. Thus Sif = 1, where M(®,, ) = De(s)G8, $) can readily be seen that feedback reduces the system sensitivity to changes process parameters. Next we derive the sensi changes in the sensor H(s). Assume that the parameter vector @, 'H(s), and the process transfer function G(s) is not subject to param fariations, For this case, the closed-loop transfer function becomes ¥) Dis)G(s) ‘ @)- 6 MO d= BG) “Te DEGHO,,9) parameter vector, Oy We SE = SB, J) = xy ofthe closed-loop transfer function to param- isa part ‘n infinitesimal change d@ in the nominal __mts)_—} 286.0} B) 4.15) l= 14 D(s)G(s) Hn, 5) 08 lo-0, follows that = gi GHOn5) SHO ,.9) Josed-loop system. Chapte Cer ee ici nstacneter of ‘cont 20 08 6a) ‘ives the significant frequency range of the De 254 where k This equal hows arge values of loop gain DGH; feed ‘with respect to 1 approaches uni - Tha change: system output. To solve this wage gene ‘stable components for the sensor,” The use of feedback in reducit ty to parameter vata, importam advantage of the feedback control systems{ To have a highs ie pen-loop system, the components of the proces® plant must ge selected so that the parameters of the ‘ever, a closed-Iaop system requires care! feedback sensor. Bince the plant is made up of power clements and ties istmade up of measuring eleme tion of accurate Hs} specifications. Many plants, by their very nal Gis) to meet tes during operation. An example is wide ranges with speed. ise Of feedback is paid, by use of feedback a loop system shown 7, the gain becomes same i is ee) Example: EO arian . Cal stect sheets and moving the steel through the 4.12). We a speed co wal fysceremplovaije ee ee ea de HO gible armature inductance, as the actuator! Figure 4 3 gives Ot the speed control system and Fi at bo e.{1) = armature applied R, = armature resistance KL motor back-emt constan Ky ~ motor torque constant Fig. 4.14 Open-loop spetd control system 2 toh iia “iy ion coeffiidit SF thotbr and toa bance torque represétiting loading effect on the rolls when the sefiting mow! bar engages in therrolls eK t+1 tem to parameter variations. Control Systcms: Principles and Design >" as) os) = Ms)= Fig. 4.15 Cloed-lop speed control stem ‘The sensitivity of the closed-loop system to variation in Kis (ve Sj mee mone} ~ st = Se() Q 7 7 - ts+1 "(2 AKL 8 1414 KKK, (ERAT. For a typical application, we might have W/r = 0.1 and (1 + 8H = 10. Therefore, from Eqn. (4.20) we obtain gif = 5404 s+10 We find tha the sensitivity isa function of s and must be set values of frequency. This type of frequency analysis be deferred until a later chapter. However, frequency, for example, s = ja jl, the magnitude of the sen! closed-loop system is |st]=on d Thus, compared to that ofthe open-loop eas, the sensitivity of speed control system at @ = 1 is reduced by a factor of fe? It should be noted that in order to reduce sensitivity ofthe Basic (4.20)). The armature voltage signal and is associate ger forthe closed-loop than for the open-loop ooecne aus signal required in order to avoid satu = DWIGs) Ms) " Teoaoie * ewan") — 420 ib As) = 0, the system output becomes Nos) Ys) = T+ DG) Ws) (4.22) the open-loop-system, ¥) = NOM) (423) readily be seen that feedback reduces the effect of disturbances on the output We use frequency-response approach to investigate disturbance-rejection ty of feedback control systems. Replacing s in Eqn. (4.22) by ja, we , 2G) _ NUe) “el Wa) ~ 1+ DGa)G ayo) = sUi@)NGo) ‘ 1 1+ Dja)Gia) Ho) S(ja) = to reduce sensit ets the requirement of Teducing the effects of distur led output of the system. ‘ase that loop gain is large (DGH >> 1). the disturbance transfer = NU) * DG@)G aye) case disturbance ej the loop gain must be inereased in such a manner that the, barice input to. the system ouput is not increased. ance in “Fig 7 tat Thus, the measur |D(Jo )G(jo)|> 1. Hence, large loop to. measurement noise. This is in confli respect to the configuration 0 ly can examine the measuring fies the requirements of a rll the rolls sum inloadedsBoe! is ie This loading effect can be tea incroases.immedi Teen sonst vip 44 Let us study the effect of load torque T.() =. ‘orque T,(s) = A/S system of Fig. 4.14 and the closed-loop speed “ In the open-loop case, yr: Bi ‘oF Fedtibaick’ Cant n speed due to, Z,(3) 244 is found by using the y-state e770" I em i lim o(0) 8 yg +B+K;K,/R, I 5 \ pution Of he Bloc diagram of Fig ves the following relation per outpat speed and load disturbance gp and use Mason’s ¢gain rule) for the closed-loop speed entrol system: aping the Dynamic Response sient of Fig. 41 (4.258) (4,250) 4 the closed-loop transfer function in rational fo, ther important observations. are given by the zer0s of the plan sedback block H(s), and the zeros of closed-loop sys the poles of M(s) determine the closilop system's eto decaying modes (a rg Poles and zeros of We see from Eqn, DE) ) that the. poles of a feedback system do P poles and zeros; this fends t6c that the designer has the capability differently from the open-loo? necessary fo hve contol “gxamination of Fig. 4.10, one notes that the open-loop control system lyshape the dynamics of the controlled output: the output y follows the xactly if e unaffected by disturbances. DJs)= 4. G(s) )istealizable (i.e., a physical system with transfer function D,(s) can be iced), it can cancel the process dynamics completely since it has the yal transfer function behaviour. Therefore, one may logically ask, what advantage of the closed-loop system in this case? Again, we return to the pis of the sensitivity of the system to parameter changes and effects of ‘tances as our answer to this question. In the open-loop control configu- ofFig, 4.10, one may implement D,(s) so that it is equal to the inverse of oninal transfer function. G(s), but G(s) is usually an approximate model of WES, and during the operation of the system it is inevitable that the RET SG) will change due to environmental changes and D,(s)G(s) be equal to unity. Also, becaus cting on the "OUTUBY contrast, a closed-loop system continually monitors the out- Pa ‘nd provides an actuating signal in order to reduce the effects of «let vatiations and disturbances. Thus, we find that the properties of Basi it fen""Y tO model uncertainties, parameter variations, and disturbance ion “courage the introduction of feedback. leas wt a ee N47 os poe 1 ives the block diagram description of a heat-exchanger contro (rege 2p g, Example 4.1), Assume that the actuator and the sensor deviee Ate Mic lags, i.e, the transfer function of the actuator is 0.1, an Ser "sor is 0.16. Under this assumption, As) D(s)G(s) Ofs) 1+ D(s)G(s) 08 Gs) = is: Principles ind Déign +r D(s) i8 an implifiér of gain K, with negligh 1 08K, sensor, actuator, and proce variable caused by. the Process manipulated input gy, ret desired value. Now if the loop the controlled yariable overshoot ‘sired Value, cau: “Algebraic sign.of the system error (difference between desired vale 4 trolled variable). Unfortunately, because of the system. lags 216! correction does not occur immediately, andthe process manipulatit ‘ng on “ola” information) is now. actually driving the controll same direction as it, was already, going, " Sorreds .ways-results in. ‘Steady2Seat et, ty fe However. as air uiremént, one must xt pare the final steady-state ett6r tien ment 1d a closed 10% The error of the closed: it open-loop and @ ye, ih oe ig. 4.1b wi given by systere shown in Fig. 1 Te DING) : te error, we utilize the final value theorem: ' =e Jim sE(s) taunt step input, Rts)= 2, iF, : be steady-state error is given by = lim ( WO] = lim sE(s) mo = tims — L 30 [1+ D(s)G(s)} 5 st Y xf 1+ D(O)G(0) ‘The value of D(s)G(s) when s = 0 is often called the de loop gain. Therefore, ‘a closed-loop system with a reasonably large de loop gain will have a small ayaa enor Consider now (4.28) ;pen-loop control system shown in Fig. 4.10. The error B{s) = R(s) ~ ¥(s) = [1 = D,(s)G()] ROS) teady-state error is given by For a unit step input, 5, = Ji, sE(s) = 1 - D(0)GO) | Upon examination of Eq) ean possess a zero stead that D,(0)G(0) thatthe parameters of G(s) llonger be equal to unity. The 0 until the system is recal ig. 4.1b continually monitors the steady-state error and provides an actuat- signal in order to reduce the steady-state error. ie Case for High-Gain Feedback izing the benefits of negative feedback in systems with high loop gain, an state that such systems result in: ood steady-state tracking accuracy; 0d disturbance signal rejection; ity to process parameter variations; and i... rate of decay of transients instability problems. the gain; excessively large amplitudes of control signals will drive the process to the saturation region of its operation, and fem design based on linear model of | er th high gain f se appears unattenuated in the controled outyor lesign we are faced with trade offs, 44] PRorortionaL MopE oF FEEDBACK CONTROL We use a temperature tional control charac ‘The system shown perature 8 at desired v ture. We will assume an init am inflow Jy, kg/sec exactly matches the he: oundings with chamber temperature = set-point value 6, steam flow rate Q,, can be achieved because the electropneumatic has a zero adjustment which allows pressure P to be set atthe mide n+ an Fig. 4.17 Heating pstem with proportional om 265 Basic Principles of Feedback Control hermocouple output is ¢, = K;8. This simple model is j dynamics of the sensor are neg! ‘The electronic amplifier is ob\ system. The dynamics o' have been neglected in the block diagram of Fig. 4.18, assuming their response to be very fast relative to t,. Also the relation between g,, and x is assum inear and dynamically instantaneous. ee ani wee : K fe Fig. 4.18 A block diagram for the ystom of Fig. 4.17 Having justified the block diagram of Fig. 4.18, we now use it directly to obiain the transfer function of the closed-loop system, relating 8 0 6, and 6, (406) - KOS) KKK Kel = A “G aI jure OF (4,5 + 1)0(s) + K,KyK_K,K,K,0 (s) = KKK KKK, 0,8) + (5) Re 5+ 1)(3) = © 4 (r+ DO9)= TOO + TRA) Gy 4 G30 a+ eme my Where 1 4 losed-loop system time-constant = K & system loop gain = K,K,K-K,K)K, af th linear model of Eqa. (4.30), superposition holds and we can iavest- inna ht effects of command 6, and disturbance 6, separately. For @,, a step Ut of size unity (perturbation 8, is held at zero), we get a Ore Kft Ri +k + anatt’ 4.19 shows the first-order system response with speed determined by T and the steady-state error given by re 4 i P 266 Control Systems: Principles and Design 5 S ceo = Steady-state error Fig. 4.19. Sytem response to step command im le gk % = eat iH Since t= 4,/(K + 1), we see that both the speed of response and the se state error ard improved if we increase loop gain K. For step disturbs} put 6,(s) = Us (8,= 0), we get (-e") (a ‘and again increasing K improves Both the speed of response and the sex state error. ~ ‘The steady-state errors discovered in the present example are in fact hi ic reason for this te with e = 6,— @= 0. When we then. valve opening is required to reach eq + quired rate of ste willbe la When flow rate q,, is proportional to ¢, a new qq, can only be & “different from 221 holds for step changé vurbances. Thus for any ini . ion, 10 error but st § ‘and/or disturbances must cause steady-state error thus there must be a steady-state error. Simila i 3 0,,= steady-state . si 6 to change by a unit step, we ask for ® 9 cat This trick does in fact work, but depends upon our knowlede® abo then the trick is not 100% sa es of Feedback Control Basic Prin and disturbances and does not de~ ‘al values for system parameters. the following aspects of systems be- Wg accuracy: ns ion; and decay of the transients, increase in loop gain decreases ‘Thus all aspects of system v Jin proport ied to extremes because the sy) 4.18 gives no warning of instal ‘ct of dynamics in some of the system fed these dynamics relative to Zp, but in the ise speed is determined by 7 and Equation wsed and therefore at some point the gible. Thus, the model of ng as loop gain is not made wis, If we want (o make valid our system model. we ()sasble. Note that {etc our mode Components, We I show op system is of order 3 or more. fast’ dynamics, the model of Fig. 4.18 ity, which assumes no tion that can be applied by the syste transducer, and valve positioner all input becomes too large. All as- con: the closed-loop system of Fig. 4.20a. Assume {2° adjustments) of the control system has been done to ot AS 45,0In sponse oa change in he spin he coe fam ar cner8 “and/or material to the process in order to achieve equilib: ‘new operating conditions. If the controller is based on proportional ein the new steady-state, 4 HO]E-2 GOT MST Exist to get & DON, alu, (Fig. 4.200). The new set-point 15. 7+ Ty F less value, say 9.9. The stead; (0.1K, where Ke st1+K=0 tes + Ne always in the left half of comple» Re —£f controtter |X of Process ie i @ We need a controller that automatically brings the output to 10 with 2 sentomatially brings the-ouiyut to = 40) | . 1t ob} (0 = Ke [x *T 5 oa or Us) = «(1 + the integral or rest soll ral control is very useful for removing or redUCiN§ cgi has the undesirable side-effects of de; ssabili “att “sion of the proportional COMPO! System of Fig. 4.18 to integral (Mace % bring out some general results about integral Suppose ve rio | ‘amplifier block K, by K;/s. The closed-loop system is then dese" pa | equation —_ Basic Principles of Feedback Control 269 Ko 1 = KOs) LKR 5) =0(3) KK KK, Ko KK KK Ko, gst D0) Mo 9,5) = KEKE KOK 9 65) 4 0,68) or 5 (ays? + 5+ KYM) = KOs) + 50,65) (434) tere K 4 loop gain = K,K,K.K,KyKy for 8, step input of size unity (perturbation @, held at zero), we get By fialvalue theorem, the stead steady-state error is zero. For step disturbance input 8,(s) = s w- (Gaia) ‘hus, step changes of 9,and 6, give zero steady-state errors regardless of te value of loop gain K. The steady-state performance of the system with constant inputs is thus insensitive to parameter variations. We need to consider what integral control does to the dynamic response, Fortis we need to look at the characteristic equation corresponding to Eqn. (634), which is steady-state value of output = 0 as ts+K=0. The roots ofthis equation, which are readily computed, vary as gain K is pie In fac, itis informative to compute these and plot them as a function of By quadratic formula of algebra, the roots are 1 i= ake, 24, 5, S Plotted in Fig, 4.21b for changing values of the gain K. When the gain the roots are at — 1/5, and at 0. AS the gain is raised, the roots move unt there is a double root at — 1/2, and then for higher gains, the roots a Plex conjugate. nal 8 of proportional conuo: from qa. (430), we obtain the characteristic equation: s+1=0 1+K 1+K "eq ; F this equation, s=- ++, moves increasingly to the left in the 7 : Plane for increasing values of K (Fig. 4.218) which implies a decreas- F Feedback Control 271 is the motor torque constant and ea re follows from this block diagram: Lfelc fe} Controller Fig. 4.23 A bloc w of the system in Fig. 422 1 — | =a Js? + Bs a (Us? + Bs + Ks) = KOs) + Tul) Kp S)K pK (KR) + Tol (4.35) KeK Kr < joop gain Ka Ry ‘anit step command input with T, = 0, we have K__)1 a0-(z3 a) 5 ‘final-vatue theorem, the steady-state value of the output is given by nee K 1 wed 6, = lims| =— — |=! sz tear a therefore, the steady-state erTOr, ey = 8,— By is zero. For a unit step disturbance with 6, = 0, have 1 )1 a9 (asmse)s the teady sae value ofthe output is y= steady-state error fora step command ‘bance. If we replace the controller gain K. by a ; | —— is ™ th Steidy-staté arrows te atep ‘commands as w tame Zero, Therefore, the location of the integrator relative t

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