He6ojma l1Kop;irnoB1tli

MATEMATJ1KA
Yv6eH11K ca 3611pKoM 3a~aTaKa
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3a rrpB11 pa3pe~ r11MHa3MJa 11 cpe~IDJ1X
CTpyqH11x IIIKOJia

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Yr;r6eHUK ca 36upKo r 3<IAaTa.Ka
3a npBn pa3pe,,zi; DL\1Ha3Jrja l1 cpeJUf>JfX crpyqirnx mKOJia
IlpBO Jl3:ICUbe

Ayrnp: ;i,p He6ojma Jlfxo~momm

Jfuycrpaqaje: ~.\H;lpej BojKoBJID, MnnaH llparojrroBJID
<l>oI-Orpaqmje: IIO.U:a.IUI y KOno<PoHY Ha crpaHH 360
Pen;eH3emm: npo<P. np PapocaB 1)opt)emm, IlpHpowio-MaTeMaTJlf'IIG1 <PaK)'JITeT y KparyjeBIW
~ 1nmr6op Ca.KoBllii, IlpBa eKOHOMCKa IIIKorra y Beorpa.rcy
HeBeHa Barnmm Jiynill, IlpBa 6eorp~cKa niMHa3Hja
fpaqm'IKO o6l1IIKOB3Ibe: "Total Idea': HoBH c~
06JIHKOBalbe Kopnn;a: J!fa,n;aBa'iKa Kyha nKlett"
JleKTYPa: JoBa.Ha J)oKJm, BeCHa JoBaHICHb

Jfa;i:aBa'IKa icyha ,,Klett" µ.o.o.

Jf3,:i;asa11:
CBe-I03apa liopoBJIDa 15/IV, 11000 Beorpa,;::i;
TeJI.: 011/3348-384, <!>aKc: 011/3348-3 5
office@klett.rs, vwi! ·Jdett.rs

3a H3;J;aBa"'la: fop;:i;aHa KHe)l(eBllii Oprrllii

faasHJI ype;J;HJIK: An:eKcaH,D;ap PajKoBllii
Ype,ll;B1IK: ,;:i;p BpamtcrraB IImrnBJID
PyKoBo~an; npojeKTa: AneKcaH,D;ap PajKOBM
illT3.Mila: Pornrpa<PHKa, Cy6onn~a

Mlmncrap npoCBeTe, HaYKe H TeXHonoIIIKor pa3Boja Perry6n11Ke Cp611je o,11;06p110 je 113,n;aBalbe 11 ynOTpe6y
OBOf yu6emma y rrpBOM pa3pe;zy rnMHa3Hja H cpeAJb.HX CTp)"IHl1X illKOJia pemelbeM 6poj 650-02-174/2012-06.

©Klett, 2013.
3a6pa!beHO je penpo:xy.:oBaH.e, p!HOJKa.llalbe, ;J;KcrpH6)'1Vrja, o6jaBJblIBaibe, npepap;a H ,u;pyra ynorpe6a OBOr ayTOpCKOr AeJia HIIH lherOBHX AeJIOBa
y 6JCIO KOM 0011M}"" H IIOCTJ'TIKY, }'Klbf'ITIJTIH 4>aroKOIIKpalbe, IllTaMIIalbe, 'l)'Balbe y eneKTpOHCKOM 06JilfK)', OAHOCHO 'llilbelbe AeJia AOCTynHHM
j aBHOCTil XH'IlDDl H;IH 6e:am'IHJDI IIyTeM Ha Ha'lltH KOj H OMoryhyje rrojeAHHu;y HHAJIBHA)'aJilIH npHcryn Aerry ca MeCTa H y BpeMe Koje OH OAa6epe,

6e3 IIRo.teHe c:a.r.IaCHOCTJI K3.J;aBa<ra. CBaKo HeoBmlllllieHO KOpHrnhelbe OBOr a)'TOpCKOr AeJia rrpeACTaBJba Kpmelbe 3aKOHa 0 a)'TOPCKOM H cpOAHHM
upasmra..

CIP - Ka:ra,""Iorn3aQHja y ny6mn<aIµrjll

Hapo:ma 6n6mmrexa Cp6Kje, fieorp<IA
ISB.. 978-86-7762-294-7
COBISS.SR- ID 196851468
 Pe'I ayTopa
Y1,16em1K rrpe,n; BaMa je HarrwcaH Ha ocHoBy B(l)Keher rrporpaMa MaTeMarnKe 3a rrpBu pa3pe;:1. rKMHa3Hja
(rrpwpo,n;Ho-MaTeMaTH'fKOr, orrmTer H ,n;pymTBeHo-je3WII<or cMepa), <Urn je rrpMarol)eH H rrporpaMJrna
MaTeMaTHKe y cpe,n;IbHM CTp)"IHHM illKOJiaMa. J.1aKO IIOCToje pa3JIHKe Mel)y HaCTaBHHM IIJia.HOBJ.£Ma JI
rrporpaMHMa 3a rroje,n;wHe THIIOBe ~pe,ll;IbHX mKona, MHoro je BHme rroKJianaI:Da. CBH rrporpaMn npeJ:1;Bnl)ajy
HCTe HaCTaB]ie n;emrne (pa3mPmTOr 0611Ma), Koje ce Ha.z:lOBe3yjy H rrpollllipyjy Ha TeMe o6pa1)eHe y OCHOBHoj
IIIKOJIH.

Ilope,n; rrporpaMa, y3eTe cy y ofowp H cBe TeH,n;em.µ1je pa3Boja H JHanpel)HBaIDa rncreMa o6pa30Ba.Iba
y Cp6wjH, KOjHMa ce 6aBe THMOBH CTp)"II:baKa OK}'IIJI>eIDI OKO 3aBO}la 3a yttanpel)HBa.Ibe o6pa30Ba.J:b3. H
BaCIIHTalba (http://www.zuov.gov.rs). J.13Mel)y OCTaJior, Ba.2KHY HOBIDI}' y HameM o6pa30BHOM CJlCTeM)'
rrpe,n;cTaBJbajy CTaH,n;ap,n;H rrocTHrnyha 3a Kpaj ocHOBHor o6pasoBaIDa (yCBojem1 2009. ro~me) u 3a Kpaj
cpe,n;Iher o6pa3oBalha (Kojw cy y rrpwrrpeMH). CTaH,n;ap,n;H rrpeJJ;CTaBJhajy cyrnnmCKa 3Ha.Iba, BeIIITime H
yMelba Koje yqeHwn;w Tpe6a ,n;a rroce,n;yjy Ha Kpajy o,n;pel)eHor D;HKJIYCa o6pa3oBalba H nocraBJbeHH cy Ha TPH
HHBOa rrocnrrttyha: OCHOBHM, cpe,n;H>H Jt[ Harrpe,n;HH.

Ilwcalbe OBe KlbHre BOQeHO je H JIWilU1M y6e1)elbeM ayTopa ,n;a MJia,D;HM lhY,D;HMa yrnaBHOM He rrpe,n;cTaBJba
rrpo6JieM illTa Tpe6a ,n;a Hayqe, Beh KaKO he TO IIOCTHhH. EpojHa HCTp(l)KHBalba y o6JiaCTH MeTO,ll;HKe
HaCTaBe MaTeMaTHKe rroKa3yjy ,n;a cy MJia,n;H Jb}7v-1 cnoco6HM ,n;a Hayqe H pa3YMejy MHoro BHme o,n; oHora
IIITO ce yrnaBHOM O'feKyje, }'KOJIHKO HM ce rrpe,n;CTaBH Ha O)l;rOBapajyhM Ha'Il1H. Beh ,n;pKe BpeMe, y CBeTy ce
HacTaBHH rrporpaMH caMo o6orahyjy, Y3 craJIHo TPara.Ibe 3a CBe 6oJhuM HaqJIBJrna rrpe,n;cTaBJba.Iba OHora
mTo Tpe6a HayqHTH. BepyjeMo ,n;a he Taj TpeH)I; fo1n1 rrpeno3H.aT y KH:.U3J£ npe.u Ba.Ma.

CMaTpaMo ,n;a je ,n;o6po 6apeM y npBoM paspe,n;y, Ka,n;a TO rrporpamt !IOII)'DITajy, no~1 3aje;:i;1m'IAJ'
KlhHry 3a CBe cpe,n;IbolllKonn;e. Ilpe cBera, TO je KopucHo 36or yCBaja1i>a 3aje;:mwnrn:x crami;ap;!,a 3a cpe;IH>e
o6pa3oBalbe H onmTe TeH,n;eID+Hje ,n;a ce rrpo,n;pKJ1 nepuo,n; y KojeM ce MJia;l;JIM Jbyri;uMa npyxajy no;:rje;:maxe
maHce Ka,n;a je y IIHTalhY o6pa30BaJbe. HanorneTKJ, BepyjeMo .a;a Ha raj Ha'Um MO:lKe .::i:orm .::i:o no;noan.a
HHBOa MaTeMaTWJ:Ke IIHCMeHOCTH, a THMe Jt[ IDIBOa o6pa30Ba.J:b3. yonnrre.

Y3HMajyhw y ofowp pa3JIHKe y ca,n;p)l(ajnMa noMeHYTJt:x nporpaMa Kao u TPJf mmoa 3Ha.J:b3. Koje he
rrpe,n;Bwl)aTH cTaH,n;ap,n;w 3a Kpaj cpe,ll;Iber o6pa30B3.Iba, ca,n;p)l(ajH oBe KIDure cy no~e.n.em1 Ha TPH mmoa - A,
E H B. ,ll;aTy rro,n;eny Tpe6a cXBaTHTH opwjeHTan;HoHo H qmeKrn6HJIHo, jep nocraB.lbalbe jacmrr rpamma Mel)y
rrporpaMHMa Jt[ HHBOHMa IIOCTurnyha HMTH je Moryhe HHTH je ,n;o6po 3a o6pa30BaH.e.

CyrecTwje H rrpwMe,n;6e qwTanan;a oBe KH>Hre YBeK cy ,n;o6po,n;omJie.

Ayrop

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 - KaKo f'IHTH H3 oBe KlbHre

YBOJ Y ITOMI.TPH)Y ..__ _ _ _ _ __,

HacTaBHe TeMe cy o6pat)eHe y rroce6HHM maBaMa.
-~-· - -----
....... HacnoBH ne~ja y OKBHpY TeMe HCTaKHJTH cy MaCHHM

-·-------
---
~,_---=-­
OIOBHMa. Mcrro,n; HacJioBa JieKIJ;Hje HaBe,n;eHo je KojHM
HHBOMMa rroje.u;mrn H>eID1 ,n;enoBH rrpHrra,n;ajy. CBaKH HHBO
nparn H ollJic op;roBapajyher ca,n;p)l(aja. KacHHje, y OKBHPY
----~- - caMHX ne~ja, :HCTaKHJTH cy CaMO H:HBOH, ,Il;OK cy OIIHCH
·-- - HJIH H30CTaBJbeH:H HJIJi cy Ha MaprHHaMa HCTaKHYTe

---
--
·--~mww~•- -
IMiXOBe CKpaheHe Bep3Hje.

-~------
CBaKJt o,n;eJbaK je o6JIHKOBaH y cKJia,n;y ca yo6wiajeHOM
CTpYKTYPOM MaTeMaTJfqKOr TeKCTa. ,ll;eqnrnmi;Hje Ji
TeopeMe ca ,Il;OKa3HMa HajBaJKHHjH cy ,n;eJIOBH TeKCTa
H rroce6Ho cy HCTaKHJTH. 3aBpmeTaK CBaKor ,n;oKa3a
03Haqea j e KBa,n;paTMheM . IIpaTe mc ,n;eTaJbHO ypat)eHH
rrpHMepH (KojJrr y KlhH3H :HMa 244). Kpaj rrp:HMepa je
03aaqea poM6oM . IlpHMepe rrpaTe 3a,n;au;H KOjH cy
'
fl 6HpaHl1 TaKO ,n;a H>HXOBO pemaBalhe ,n;orrp:HHOC:H 6oJbeM

.---
pa3y-MeBaibY ca,n;p)l(aja o KOjHMa je peq. 3aTO rrpe,n;naJKeMo
_._,.____,_....__,_
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~-

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,n;a pemaBaH>e OBMX 3ap;aTaKa 6y,n;e cacTaBHH ,n;eo
_... ,.~....,_ _. ... _~...,,._ no& - .. yrro3HaBalba ca o,n;roBapajyliMM ca,n;p)l(ajHMa. Pemelba
,.._ "-;-;-
- ...--......--. ~ -

...... - OBHX 3ap;aTaKa H:HCY ,n;aTa Ha Kpajy KlhHre jep CMaTpaMO ,n;a
MX CBaKo MO)l(e pemHTH Ha ocHoBy o6jamlbelba H rrpHMepa

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=~-==.:=-===:-=~--~- KojH HM rrpeno,n;e.
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( Ha Mapr~HaMa, aJIB Ji y rroce6HHM 6rroKOBH~a ,n;a~e cy )

I
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.......,,, __ ___ ..; .-.....;~ --..~-
BaJKHe HarroMeHe Koje rrpaTe OCHOBHH TeKCT, HCTaKffYTa cy

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- - -.. ..i.-..-.; HajBa>KIDt:ja rnpt)e1ba, Kao Ji CJIHKe KOje HJIYCTpyjy TeKCT
~--~---..- -~~~
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.. M .. H omucmaBajy cHaJiaJKelbe y KlhH3H. 3HaK 3a orracHocT
;o;....,,-............. ,_,_~
~-~•• ac ____, __ (-rpoyrao ca Y3BWIID1KOM) rro3HBa caMo Ha rrojaqaHy
•-'• IIaJKihY rrpHJIHKOM qJiTalba, KaKO 6Ji ce rrpe,n;yrrpe,n;HJie
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HeKe TJiIIMqHe He,n;oYM~e Ji HejacHohe.
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~-~~~,....,.. Y rroce6HHM 6110KOBHMa ,n;aTH cy Heo6aBe3HH ca,n;p)l(ajH

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... w: ...... ...,,..,..• • ~·~--
~_.... -..1pe.
KOjH cy y ,ll;HpeKTHOj Be3H ca OCHOBHHM TeKCTOM.
0BH KpaTK:H TeKCTOBH ,ll;OHOCe HeKe MaTeMaTJiqKe
3aHHMJbJ1BOCTH, a IIOHeKa,n;a Ji ,n;eTaJbHHja Ji rrpen;H3HHja
·---~----~ -~
..... ,,__...,_-,_.J
~....., ............ o6jalllbelha rrojMoBa H KOHn;errarn KOjH no ca,n;p)l(ajy
rrpeBa3HJia3e OKBHpe rrporpaMa.

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--"""""~ - -- - ------ .,..,. ---
llxBeapae aejep,Ha'llClre ca ~ow a.mrolln'Olll A ~)l(aju KH>HTe cy rrogeJheHu Ha rpu mmoa - A. E 11
B. 3a CBaIGf op;elbaK mm ~eo OJ;eJh.Ka UCTalGIJT j e mrno
=- B
y CI<n.afry ca pa3JIJf'Ilmru o6nMO:M Koj u rrpe:::i;snl)ajy

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B'•: I
nojewIBH rrporpa.-.rn:, 0)1HOCHO HJIBOH IIOCTIITHyna
HKBo A rrmqnma OCHOBHa 3Halha.. Ca:ql)Kaj u Koju cy
03Haqerur ca A 'IJ1He n;emmy 3a ce6e n Mory ce ~an1
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,[{enoBH KlhHTe KOj H cy 03Haqem1 ca o aacra.Bn.ajy ce Ha
...__..,.__ot--~-i+l>S
°""'"""""' ___ ,._. _ _ ,..,. ,n;enoBe KOjH cy 03Haqem1 ca A u ca H>nMa rrpe;JCTa.Bmajy

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1JJil' -·- -a:r<-l.'J. rEt-.- •

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~= IS-"<L>t- rE!LQ HOBY n;emray y OKBJtpy KH>JITe.

...,, _,,__ ot _• ~ . . . . ,>~

- ,[{eo B ce Ha;lOBe3}'j e Ha µ;erroBe 03HaqeHe ca A lf Ii n

1.'.m•y.....,_.,.,...,.. ___
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Hocyqpot
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'... . ., ,._.. _ _,_ -• n t~-- ;':}.-) Harrpe,n;HH IDIBO IlOCTJITHYila.
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Ha Kpajy CBa.Ke HaCTaBHe TeMe ;::tarn cy 3an~1 Koj n
3a Be)l(6aibe n yrBp1)1mfilbe noj e;l;mrn:x ca;q>)!(aja TeMe.
CJIY*e

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-z:_;_; a--'ii-Q-·;.;_-;-,._ 01mx 3aj:1;aTa.Ka nxa rrpeKo 500.
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3<tAan;n cy rro:i;en.em1 y rpn rpyrre y CIGla:lY ca rrop:e;"IoM
CaJW2Kaja nacTaBIDfX TeMa Ha JieJIOBe A, :0 n B.
::=:;.z.._;.;.u.;.z..,...,..,.._ffi/ii.iD
3a je,n;a.H 6poj 3agaTa.Ka .uaTa cy yr:ryrCTBa, a HeKe 3~TKe

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rrpaTe HaIIOMeHe y 6..-roKOBlt:Ma. HHIXOB IOfTh mrje CIDIO
,n;a omucm:aj y pemaBa.Ibe 3a;laTKa Beh 11 ~a YKIDKY Ha
Il0Be3aHOCT rrojMOBa Ji KOHilenaTa.

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TeMa ,n;eTaJbHO cy pemeHH. HapaBHO, nperraMeMo ru ,n;a

CBaKJ1 3a,n;aTaK Hajrrpe IIOKJIIIaIII CaMOCTaJIHO .n:a pemnm

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J1 .n;a He o.n;ycTajem O,n;Max, JKOIDIKO Ha.Jrljem Ha TemKone.
HajBaMHMjM ycnoB 3a ycrrex y MaTeMaTIID;Ji ( ann n ampe) -....
~:::::::;J::;:::::::;:::--·~~~~-
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jecTe yrropHOCT ff CaMOCTaJIHOCT rrpJfJIJn<m1 }"lelba.

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 JIOnfKA If CKYIIOBJ.1 ........................................................................ 9
JionflIKJt Be3HJilUL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l(J",
Jfc1e<l3He cpopyYJie. TayTononrje .................................................................. 14)
TayT0;10nrje u 3aKOHJI 3aKJbyqHBa.Iba ............................................................. 18
CxynoBll ...................................................................................... 22
Ypel)em1 nap. ]eKapmB np010Bo~ ............................................................... 26
EJraapHe pe.i"Iamrje.............................................................................. 28
Pe,"Jamrje nopenra n eKBJ.IBaJieHl.\J.-tje .............................................................. 30
<l>y-tlKIUrje ..................................................................................... 32
L'Ie eHTit KO 61maTopnKe ...................................................................... 36
KBaHTHcpuxaTopu .............................................................................. 38
33.Aa.wt .......................................................................................41

PEAJIID1 liPO}EBJ1 ........................................................................... 45

,Uel(J{M<UTint 3arntcu 6pojeBa u onepamrje ca H.HMa ... ................. ............................. 46
)J,eJbJIBOcr npupo.:urnx Jt qe,Titx 6pojeBa .................. ......................... .. ............. 52
CKyII pamtOH<UIBJIX 6pojeBa ..................................................................... 58
CKyII pea.n:mtx 6pojeBa. ......................................................................... 62
AncoJI)'THa Bpe.l{Hocr peaJIHor 6poja .............................................................. 69
I1pH6JIIDKHe spe:I;Hocn1 pea...TIIJtx 6pojeBa ......................................................... 71
3a,a;au;H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ................ ......................................... 7 6

IIPOIIOPIUfOHAJIHOCT .......... . ......................................................... 81

Pa3Mepe u nporropmrje ............... . ................... .......... ................... ......... 82
)J,HpeKTHa H o6peyra nponop.qi1:0Ha.JIHOCT......................................................... 86
IlpJtMeHe rrponop~nja .......................................................................... 90
3a,lla.qJt .......•...............................................................................98

YBO,IJ; Y fEO .. fETPHJY ...................................................................... .101

TaqKe, rrpase Jt pasmL 0,D;Hocn np1maAaH.a. ...................................................... 102
IJapaJie.'IHOCT ................................................................................. 110
Pacnope!l: TaqaKa. ,ITpK, nmrynpasa H rrorrypasaH .................................................. 115
B(l)f(He re0Merp1rjcxe cpmype. Yrao H MHoroyrao .................................................. 119
IIo.zzy;:xapaocT ,:ryJ!Oi n MepeH.e ,lzy)KIDie A)')KH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
KpfJKHJma n Kpyt ............................................................................. 126
OpnjeHTamrja pasm1 .......................................................................... 128
3a;iami ...........................•.......................................................... 130

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IIO,D;Y,D;APHOCT ............................................................................ 135

ITo,n;y,n;apHocT ,n;y)K11 ..............................................................••........... 136
ITojaM 1130MeTpHje. ITo,n;mapHocT qnuypa ...........................................•............ 139
ITo,n;y,n;apHoc1: yrnoBa ........................................................................•. 144
HopMaJIHOCT rrpaBMX ......................... ........................ ......................... 151
YrnoB11 Ha TpaHcBep3aJIH ......................................................................154
YrnoBH Tpoyrna ...................... ........ .. ............................. .................. 157
CTaBOBH rro,n;y,n;apHOCT11 TpoyrnoBa ...................... ........................ ................ 159
Oco6Htte je,n;HaK0KpaI01X TpoyrnoBa 11 noCJiewm;e ..... ...........•................................ 164
CrnB rro,n;y,n;apHocrn CCY .....................................••....•...•....•••............... 168
TpH Ba)KHe rroCJie,n;m.i;e CTaBOBa no,n;mapHocrn .......... ........••.............••.....•..........• 170
ITpHMeHe CTaBOBa rro,n;mapHoCTM Ha Tpoyrao ...................••.•...........•..•....•.......... 171
ITpHMeHe cTaBoBa no,n;mapHocTM Ha Kpyr ... ........... ........••...•...........••...•.........•• 176
ITp11MeHe CTaBOBa rro,n;mapHOCT11 Ha qeTBopoyrao ...... ........•.•..•............•.•...........••• 178
ITp11MeHe CTaBOBa rro,n;mapHOCTM y KOHCrpyi<:qMjaMa ...........•••.•...........•...•..........•••• 186
HopMaJIHOCT rrpaBe H paBHH ................................. .••................•......•......•• 193
J;11e,n;ap. HopMaJIHOCT paBH11 ................................•••.....•.......•.•••......•..••••• 197
3a,n;au;11 ........................................... ........•••.......•.....•••............•.•• 201

BEKTOPJ1 .................................................................................. .213

YcMepeHe ,n;~1111 BeKTop11 .....................................................................214
Orrepau;Hje ca BeKTOpHMa ......................................................................217
Jl11HeapHa 3aBI1CHOCT BeKTOpa ... .... ...................................... ..................... 224
Koop,n;HHaTe BeKTopa y paBHM ..................................................................228
3a,n;au;H .......................... ......... ..... .............................•..............••230

J130METPJ1JE .............................................................................. .233

.J;11peKTHe I1 HH,n;HpeKTHe J.130MeTpaje .................................•......•••...•...•.....••••234
OcHa c11MeTp11ja .. ................ .........................•...............•.........•...•••••23;
~eHTpanHa cMMeTp11ja ..............................•........•.............•••••...........••••240
C11MeTp11je H rrpaBI1JIHH MHoroyrnoBH .........................•............•.•..............••••242
PoTau;Hja ........................................... ........•.............••••.•.....•...•.••• 244
TpaHcnau;11ja....................... ... ...................... .•.............••...•........••••• 246
KoMII03Hu;11je moMeTpHja paBHM .............................................••..............•••247
PaBaHcKa c11MeTpHja ..........................................•............•••. ·: •....•....••• • 249
3a,n;au;11 ...................................................•..........•.....••.•.........•.•..250

7
 PAID10HAJIHII AJITEBAPCIGI H3PA3H ..................................................... 253
IIojIDI n3pa3a. L{pso 1opa.3a .................................................................... 254
Uenn anre6apcKn 1opa3H ...................................................................... 256
IIommoMu ca ·e.lHOM rrpoAeH;'bJIBO t . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . • • • • . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . • • 265
H3ll u H3C rro;nmoMa ........................................................................ 270
ParrnoHanHH a,Tie6apcxu H3pa3n ................................................................ 272
HeKe oCHOBHe Heje;l,HaKOCTJL ................................................................... 276
fumeapm1 H3pa3Jt n jewia<nme rrpa.BJa: .......................................................... 278
ilimeapHe je.lHa'Ilme ca jeJOIOM Herro3HaToM ...................................................... 283
llimeapHe eejeAHa~e ca jep;eoM Herro3HaTOM ........................ : ........................... 289
CnCTe~m: mmeapirnX jeAHa'IHHa ................................................................. 296

.IIJmeapHe <P ~e ........................................................................... 300

3a;iann ...................................................................................... 304

CillflIHOCT ................................................................................ 313

iepeH>e ,il)')K.U . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . . . . . . . • . • . . . • . • • • . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Pa3Mepa n rrponopmmHanHocr ;:JpKH ............................................................ 316
TanecoBa reopeMa ............................................................................. 318
Xo 1orenrja .................................................................................. 326
CmfqHOCT .................................................................................... 330
CTaBOBn CJIJ!'IHocrn rpoyrnoBa ................................................................. 333
IIpnMeHe CTaBOBa mrrnocn1 Ha rrpa.Boyrmt: rpoyrao .............................................. 336
IIp11:MeHe CTa.BOBa CIDfqHOCTJ! Ha Kpyr ...........................................................338
3a.n;~t ...................................................................................... 339

TPJfl'OHO~ t:ETPUJA IIPABO}'TJIOf TPOYfJIA ............................................... 345

TpHTOHOMerpnjCKe <!>}'HKUJrje OIIIrpmr 'TIIOBa ................................................... ~346
Bpep;eocrn rp1rroH0Merpujc1rn:x ipyma.µrja OII!Tpillr yrnoBa ......................................... 350
OceoBmt rpnroHOMerpHjcirn Jt,qeHTwreni ........................................................ 352
IIpnMeHe rpnroeoMerpHjcKmr ipym<I\Jrja ....................................................... ~54"1
3a.n;~ ...................................................................................... 357
_.., _

's
 JIOfMKA J1 CKYIIOBM
~on1qKJf Be3HH~H (IO)

A IlojaM 11cKa3a; .i:1eqmH~je norWII<MX Be3HHKa; nor:wiKa CTpyKTypa

pe11eH11u;e (10)

J.CICa3He <l>opMyne. TayT011oru:je (14)

A ,D;e¢11H11u;11ja HCKa3He ¢opM)'Jie; HCTHHHTOCHa Ta6JI11u;a ¢opMyne;

.i:1e¢11H11u;11ja TayTOnornje (14)

E MeTo):la CBol)elba Ha ancyp.i:1 (17)

TayT011oru:je H 3aKOHH 3aKJ1>yqu:Ba11>a (18)
ApucrOTen {384. ape
A Jlom11K11 eKBHBaJieHTHe ¢opMYJie (18) H. e. - 322. npe H.e..'
E HeKe Ba)l(He Ta)'TOJiornje H 3aKOHH 3aKJb)"IlIBaIDa (19)

CxynoBH (22)

A Ha1111H11 3a):laBalba cKynoBa; jep;1rnKocT CKynOBa; IIOllPCJ'II CK}'Ila; CKy:UOBHe

orrepau;11je: ymi:ja, npeceK, pa3mn<a; KOt.nmeMeHT cicyna; C1'.JlIOBIDt
11):\eHTHTeTH (22)

~pel)eHH nap. ,IJ;eKapTOB npOH3BO,!J; (26)

A ,1J;e¢HH11u;Hja ypel)eHor rrapa; .i:1e¢ifHHll;11ja )J;eKaprnBor npmt3Bona ,U:Ba
cKyna (26) rorqipn;,1 BIDIXe.J.Y
Jiaj6mm (1646-1716)
E J1.i:1eHTHTeT11 ca )J;eKapTOBHM rrpoH3BO):IOM; ypel)eHe TJ'OjKe, 11ernopKe wr;n;.,
)J;eKapTOB rrpo113BOA TPH u: BHIIIe CK)'IIOBa (27)

·BHapHe pe11~je (28)

A ,D;e¢11H11u;11ja 611HapHe penau;zje HeKor CKyna; oco6IDie fomapmfX

penau;11ja (28)

a~u:je nopeTKa H eKBHBaJie~e (30)

E Penau;11je rropeTKa (;n;e¢HHJ1ll;Hja H npHMepu) (30)
E Penau;11je eKB11BaJieHll;J1je H KJiace eKBHBane1muje (31)

K~Hje (32)
A ,1J;e¢11H11u;11ja ¢YHKu;Hje H rrpKMepH ¢}'HKI{Hja (32)
E KoMII03Hll;Hja ¢YHKu;Hja; oco6HHe H BpcTe ¢ya::Ku;n:j a (34)
;ieMeHTH KOM6HHaTOpHKe (36)

A Ilpe6pojaBalbe pa3MHIIIJbalbeM (36)

.:<BaHTH<l>HKaTOpH (38)

B Ymrnep3aJIHH 11 er3HCTelil\IfjaJIHu KBattTK¢nxarop; noni'IKJ1 3aKom1 H

KBaHrn<i:>HKTOPH (38)
 - -- -- -- - - -----,.""'"-

A
~ ieljy AHoroc5pojmm 3a.KOIDfMa Koje rrpoyqasa MaTeMan1Ka rroce8Ho B<DKHO MeCTo
33.Y3UMajy 3aKOHu tUUL"'be1ba, OJ4HOCHo, 3aKJb)"IlIBaiha. MaTeMaTH'IKa ,n,11c1vmmrna Koja
ce 15.um OBJB! 3aKOIDrna Ha3HBa ce MaTeMaTH'fKa norHKa.
3a.IV""l>Y1DIBaH>e je y BeiIJIKOM 8pojy cnyqajeBa 3aCHOBaHO Ha TBp,D,lhaMa Koje Mory 811TJ1
Ta"tffie J ;m HeTaqJie. TaKBe TBpAJbe Ha3KBajy ce MCKa3u.

Ilp101ep I.
Peqemm;a ,,8poj 6 je MaibH O)l 8poja 7" np11Mep je Ta'!Hor 11cKa3a.
Peqemrua ,,8poj 5 je 38up 8pojeBa 3 u 4" rrp11Mep je 11cKa3a Koj11 H11je Ta'laH. +
Hcxa3e he~m 03Haqasaru MaJIUM cJIOBHMa nanrn11Qe ca J1JlJ.1 8e3 HH,D,eKca:
a, b, c. .. .,p, q, r, ····P1• qi...

HcrumrroCHY Bpe.o;Hocr wa'iHO 03Ha'lasaMo ca T (1n1Ta..'10 ,,Te"), a 11cT11H11TocHy

y ;nrreparypn
HCTIIHOCHeBpe:.uiocu1
Bpe.:mocT Hewtl'iHO ca .l ('IJITaMO ,,He Te").
03Ha'IaB<( ca I
1
0 HeTa'IHO),
(Ta'IBO JI AKO je HeKJ1 nCKa.3 p Ta'la.H, rnnne m -c(p) = T ('IlITaj ,,Tay op, rre je,n,HaKo Te"), a aKo
~iecro ca -.- u ...... je UCKa3 p HeTa'la.H, mnne o T(p) =.l. ,UaKJie, ca T 03Ha<Jasa..\1o rrp11,n,py)KJ1Balhe Koje
CBa:KO~ UCKa3Y ;:i:o;ien,yje lheroBy HCTJfllliTOCtty Bpe,D,HOCT.

3 ;IaTaK
O;:i;pe;:i:u JtCTJ1HJ.1TOCHe Bpe,D,HOCTH 11cKa3a p, q 11 r, Tj. T(p ), T(q) 11 -r(r), aKo je:
p: 8poj I_ je Behli op, 8poja 0,33;
3
q: nocroju npMpOAaH 8poj x TaKaB ,n,a je x + 2 = l;
r. 3a CBaKJI npupo.n;att 8poj x Ta'lHa je Heje,D,HaKOCT x + 1 > x.

Kao IlITO onepamtjoY
cafoq>a.Iba napy 8po ·eBa x
HJ npu,::rpy-&yj 0 HO.BU
bpoj X -'-), TaKO jIQDf'll.'.O
onepaqajoM u.;ru, Ha
npHMep, napy HC1Gl3a p
H q IIpltJIPJ'KtieMO HO.BU
HCKa3 ,,,p JLTII q"_
O::i; HeKJIX norraJIDfX HCKa3a rpap,11Mo HOBe 11cKa3e y3 rroMoh TaK03BaHJ1X JIOr:Jf'IKHX
Be3HJIKa,O.IlHOCHO, JIOI'Jf'IKHX orrepaQHja. 0Be orrepaQ11je cy 3acH0BaHe Ha peqJ1Ma
Be3IDm;Jllla) : mm, JI, He (mrje), a.KO ... OH,D,a, a.KOH Ca.MO a.KO.
3a;:xara ·
HeKa cy ;:i;an1 UCKa3U:
p: 8poj 3 je Behu o,n, 8poja 4,
q: 8poj 2 je Maihn o;u; 8poja 5.
OIIpeJJt nCTHHJrroCHe Bpe,D,Hocn1 HCKa3a p u q, a 3aTHM pa3MOTp11 11cTJ1Hl1TOCT
c,1e::i:erurr peqemm;a:
1) p u q: 8poj 3 je :sehu o.n; 8poja 4 H 8poj 2 je Malbl1 op, 8poja 5,
2) p JtmJ q: 8po; 3 j e Belm op, 8poja 4 mm 8poj 2 je Malhl1 op, 8poja 5,
3 mtje p: Hirje 8poj 3 Behu o,n; 8poja 4,
4 mtje q: mrje 8poj 2 MaibH op, 6poja 5.

I
0
 ,ll;Hcjy111aµt:ja ,rµJa HCKa3a p H q je HCKa3 nP HJrn: q" KOjH ce 03HaqaBa cap V q.
,[I;HcjyttKIJ;Hja p V q je TaqHa aKo je 15ap jep;att og HCKa3a p, q TaqaH, a HeTaqHa je aKO
cy o l5a HCKa3a p, q HeTatfHa.

IlpHMep2.

T(2+3 =5V2 ~ 3) =T -r(2 < 3V3 < 2) =T -r(3 > 5V2 < 5) =T -r(l < OV2 < 0) =l. +
KoHj}'lUG~Hja p;Ba HCKa3a p H q je ltCKa3 nP Jt q" KOjH Ce 03Haqaaa cap/\ q.
KoHjyttKIJ;Hja p /\ q je Taqtta aKo cy o8a HCKa3a p, q TatfHa, a HeTatfHa je axo je fu.p
jep;aH op; HCKa3a p, q HeTaqaH.
i:_{e)
T
fipHMep 3. T
.l
-r(2+3=5/\2~3)=T -r(2<3/\3<2)=1. -r(3>5/\2<5 =l. T 1 1<0A2<0 =J_
..!..

Heran;Hja HCKa3a p je HCKa3 ,,HHje p" Koja ce 03naqaBa ca •p. Heramtja •P je Ta'Illa
aKo je HCKa3 p HeTaqaH, a HeTatfHa je aKo je JtcKa3 p Ta'laH.

fipHMep4.
T
-r(•3 > 5) =T T(•2 < 4) =l.
-:orHqKa onepau;11ja Koja no 3Haqajy 3aY3J1Ma QeHYp<LTIIO Mecro y ~taTeMannm jecre
IIJIHKan;Hja. OrpoMaH je 15poj MaTeMaTwnmx TBpl}elba Koja cy <i>oPM)JlllcaHa y
-JU1KY aKO p, oap;a q. v1cKa3e OBOr OOJilt:Ka 03HaqaBaMO cap ~ q. y roBopHOM je;nn..-y
p 1e ;:\OBO:&a.H fc.-IOB 3a q
HH ce HCKa3yjy 11 Ha jep;a.H op; rnep;eilli:x Ha'IJma:
p ~a q, p IIOBJia'IJI q, ~

H3 p rnew1 q, q je IIOCJieWt:D;a npeTIIOCTaBKe p,

p je JJ;OBOJbaB }'CJIOB 3a q, q j e IIOTpeOaB ycJIOB 3a p. q je DOYpeOaH ycn:oB 3 a

' IlpHMepS.

-:peTITOCTaBHMO p;a cy Heq11j11 pop;JfTeJbH H3jaBHJIH:

-.KO OBe UlKOllCKe iogu11.e oygeut UMQO CBe iieiUu~e, K)'UUfle,\to WU pait)111ap.
Ba 113jaBa je oOJIHKa p ~ q, rp;e je p HCKa3 iUu hew. oee wxollCKe iogu11.e U..WliUu cee
-eillu~e, a q HCKa3 MU heuo iUu K)'UUiUu paity11.ap. Kaga CMarpaMo )la poJOITelbu roBope
cnrny? AKo yqeHHK HMa cBe neTHD;e H pop,JtTeJbu M}'" K}'Ile paqyaap, rj. aKo cy ol5a
_cKa3a TaqHa, p;aTa H3jaBa pop;JfTeJba je, CBaKaKO, ratfHa.
-.Ko yqeHHK HMa CBe neTJ1Qe, a pop;J1TeJbJ1 MY He K)'lle pa~'Hap, ou.;ta cy, Hajl5na.JKe .
: _qeHo, pop;HTeJbH naraJIJ1. ,ll;aKJie, aKo je p TatfHO, a q HeTatfHo, OIL'.la je p ~ q HeTatfHo.
_--...."<o yqeHHK HeMa CBe neTJ11.J;e, a pop;HTeJbH MY KYJie paqyHap, OH:Ia po.:urre;I>e OfITPHO
~eheMo cMarparH JI(l)KOBHMa. ,[I;aKJie, aKo je p HeTatfHo, a q Ta'IHo, oaua p ~ q CMaTpaMo
qHoM H3jaBOM.
:iaj3ap;, npeTnocraBHMO p;a yqemfl< HeMa cBe nen~e H po;iirre.nH M)' mrcy K}'IDL"Ill
:: -qyHap. IIomTo yqeHHK m1je HCnyttJ10 CBojy oOaBe3y, oOaBe3e cy oc:mboneml n
'X>)J;HTeJbH. J1 y OBOM cnyqajy p;ary H3jaBy CMaTp~m Ta'IHOM. •

11
 · - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

J1bm:;mxaunja ;:i;sa HCKa3a p n q je JICKa3 "aKo p, OHAa q" Koj11 ce 03Ha'!aBa cap=> q.
AeqmHUiilfla J1MILllIKa.Q.lrja p => q je HeTa'llia aKo je HCKa3 p TaqaH H 11cKa3 q HeTa'IaH, a Ta'!Ha je
y CBJfM OCTaJIHM cnyqajem1Ma.
T(p) T(q) T(
T T
T J_
J_ T
T 2 +3 =5 => 2 :$; 3) =T T(2 < 3 => 3 < 2) = .l
J_ J_
T ,3 > 5 => 2 < 5) =T T(l < 0 => 2 < 0) = T +
3a~aTaK

Koja OA pelfii uoiUpebHO J1Jlli 9060lbHO TPe8a Aa CTOjJ1 YMeCTO *** Aa 811 CJieAehe
peqe1rn1w fome Ta'IHe?
,la 8u 8poj forn Berm OA 100, *** je Aa bfAe Beh11 0,1.1, 1000.
2) Ja 'IeTBopoyrao 5y;:re rrpaBoyraoHMK, *** je ,1.1,a bfAe rrapaJieJiorpaM.
3) :La 8poj 8y::.i;e ;::reJI>HB ca 5, ,..,.,. je ,1.1,a &eroBa rrocne):\&a u;m}>pa bfAe 5.
-., ) ,'.la rpoyrao by;:re j e;uraKoI<paKM, ,.,..,. je Aa bfAe jeAffaKOCTpaHH'IaH.

J.illrDnnran;zje p => q H q => p cy jeAHa ):\pyroj o8paTHe.

YM.ecro axo H: aum Kmtjymm;nja L(Be ofipaTHe ~11IJIJ1Kal.\Hje
axo qecro ce A.-pahe
(p => q)A(q => p)
rrnme ainco. AHa.~orno
Ha3Jrna ce eKBJIBaneHJ:\Jlja H o8eJie)IGIBa ceca p ~ q. McKa3H oBor obJIJiKa ce y
acpammaJ:De je
roBOpHOM je3Jn<y l13J>IDKaBaj y Ha jep,aH OA rne,1.1,e1il1:x Ha'IJiHa:
yo&H'Iaj eHO y YHODIM
je3m{HMa. Ha rrpm.cep, y pa.KOH CCUIO a.KO q,
e1m1eCKoM ce if and only p je eKBrma.JieHTHo ca q,
if crpahyje ca iff. aKO p. O.Rp;a q H oOpaTHO,
p je norpeba.H n p;oBOJball ycrroB sa q.

fuamsan:e~a l{Ba JICKa3a p H q je HCKa3 »P aKO l1 CaMO aKO q" KOjl1 ce 03Ha'IaBa
~e4>mmmI ·a cap ~ q. EKBHBan:emu1ja p ~ q je Ta'llia aKo cy J1CTe HCTHHHTOCHe Bpe,1.1,HOCTH
J1CKa.3a p, q, a HeTa'JHa je aKO cy UCTI1HJ1.TOCHe BpeAffOCTii J1CKa3a p, q pa3JIJ1'IJ1Te.
T(p) T(q) TE. <'> !1. L-
T T T
IlpJIMep 7.
T J_ l..
.t T l. T(2+3=5 ~ 2 :$; 3) =T T(2 < 3 ~ 3 < 2) =.l
l. .t T T(3 > 5 ~ 2 < 5) =.l T(l < 0 ~ 2 < 0) = T +
3a;:i;aTaK
OgpeAU HCTHHHTocHY BpeAffOCT cne,1.1,erui:x 11cKa3a:
: 2. 6 > 0,5. 12 => 23 > 32 ; 2 2 + 3,1 > 5 => 3,3 -1,4 < 2;
2
3) -6+4 < 6-4 ~ 3-7 < 7-3; "1 2 +}2 < 4 ~ J2+4 < 5 ;
2 2 2

5 ) 11 · 9 < HY => 101 · 99 < 100 ;

2
6 2 :$; 2 => 2 < 2.
- (O,l > 0,01 A -0,l > -0,01) => (3 2 < 3 · 2 V2 · 3 < 23);

) -2 > -/\-
3 2 < -5) => •( •0,1 . 0,1=0,01).
-{ 3 2 5 2

12
 IIpHMep8. crp]llJpa
iJOl"JI'IKa
pe'lemme
O,n;pe,n;11Mo norwiKy CTPYKTYPY (pacnope,n; eneMeHTapma: HCKa3a H norwIKHX BeJIDIKa)
peqettmi;e: Atta he unaiUuiUu paiUy 3a ayiUo unu y cyupoiUHOM ttehe Mohu ga ia 3a9J>11CU.
pv(-p/\-.q) -:p
IlpBO yoqJ1MO eJieMeHTapHe J1CKa3e (Tj. J1CKa3e y KOjHMa ce He jaBJbajy JIOrwIKH
Be3ttmi;11) o,n; Kojmc ce oBa peqett11u;a cacToj11:
p: Atta be ITJiaTHTH paTy 3a ayTO;
q: Atta be MOilH ,n;a 3a,n;p)l(Jf ayTO.
Kop11CTeh11 nor:tt'-!Ke Be3HHKe, nona3HY peqett:ttu;y MO)KeMo 3an11caT11 Ha rne,n;eh11
Ha'-!HH:
Atta he rmanITH pary 3a aYTO
v
•(Atta he nnaTHTH paTy 3a ayTO) /\.•(Atta be MoilH p;a 3aJW)KH ayrn),
O,!l;HOCHO,
pv(--.pA•q). •

ap;araK
/
....;.aTH cy HCKa3H:
p: ttacnpaMHe CTpaH11u;e qeTBopoyrna cy napanentte;
q: ttacrrpaMHe CTpaH:ttu;e qeTBopoyrna cy rroJzyAapHe;
r: qeTBopoyrao je napanenorpaM.
;:i;pe,n;11 nornqKy CTPYKTYPY peqemni;e: AKo je tteiUaopoyiao uapane,wipaM, ottga cy
-:eioae ttacupaMHe ciUpattu4e uapanentte u uogygapHe.

IIpHMep9.
~.eKa cy ,n;aTH eJieMeHTapHH HCKa311:
p: M1rnetta je ttacne,!l;J1Jla 300 000 eBpa;
q: M11neHa be oTHilH Ha Mope;
r: M11netta be KynHTl1 CTaH.
pM11pajMo o,n; ,n;aTmc eneMeHTapIDIX HCKa3a peqeHlflJ;)' '-Il1ja je nora'lK.a CTPYKTYPa
:a <PopMYJIOM (p /\. •q) => r. Tpa)Ketta peqeHlilJ;a rnarn:
:> Munetta Hacnegu 300 000 eapa u He oge Ha Mope, ouga he otta KyfluiUu ciUaH. +

3ap;aTaK
7H cy J1CKa3H:
p: Au;a je ,n;o8110 Ha nyTpaj11;
q: Au;a 11,n;e Ha o,n;Mop;
r: Au;a be Kyn11T11 ayToMofam.
O,n;pe,n;11 JIOrH'-IKY CTPYKTYPY peqeH:ttu;e: AKo At{a goc5uje Ha nyiUpuju. oiiiuhu he Ha
:igMop unu he KyuuiUu ayiU01<wc5un.
Harr11rn11 peqett11u;y Kaja o,n;rOBapa HCKa3Y (p /\. •q) => r.

fipHMenrre aira.aonrjy
H3Me~ c5pojeBHU:X
H3pa3a K JtCira3IDIX
cpopM}lla. Cenrre ce .:i:a
5pojeBHe e:3pa3e rpa;orno
o;:r npoMeHlhmrnx
(rnoBa Koja 03Ha<IaBajy
IIpOH3BOJbHe 5pojeBe),
KOHCTaHTH H
aJrre8apcK11X onepau,Hja.
l1cKa3He <J?opMyrre. TayT011ornje
l1CKa3He cpopxy;ie cy nonRKH H3pa3H KojHMa ce orrn:cyjy cTpJKType ( 08mm;11) 11CKa3a.
JlCKa:me cpopM)Ae IpllAJfMO o.n;:
• UCKa3Hn:x CJIOBa a, b, c, ... , p, q, r, ... , p 1, q1 •••
• 1I0rJ{qJ(J£X KOHCTaHTii T H l.
nonf'IIG!X orrepar:µrja V, A,•, =>, .;;.
yrroipeboM 3arpa;ia Ha yo8K'lajeHJ.1 Ha'Ilffi.
HCKa3Ha cnoBa H ;rornqxe KOHCTaHTe cy HajjeJJ.HOCTaBHHje 11CKa3He cpopM)'ne.
AI<o cy A 11 B HCKa3He cpopM)'lle, oH,IJ,a cy 11 (AV B), (AAB), •A, (A=> B) 11 (A.;;. B)
TaKol)e HCKa3He cpopM)'lle.

I1p11n11KOM 3arr11c11Ba1Da 11CKa3Hl1X cpopMyna rro.n;pa3YMeBa ce rne.n;etlli .n;oroBop o

np1mp1neTy non1'IKI1X Be3Hl1Ka: ..., je Be3Hl1K HajBener rrp11op11TeTa, 3a 1D11M cne,n;e V 11
/\, Koj11 cy rro.n;je,n;HaKor rrp11op11TeTa, a 3a 1D11Ma => 11 .;;., TaKol)e je,n;HaKor rrp11op11TeTa.

I
A T 1.
IlpJ.IMepH HCKa3HJ1X cpopM)'lla cy: TA •.L, p v T) ..., (p /\ q => •r), ·P /\ q => p 11 TaKO ,n;aJbe.

Ha OCHOBY rn8mma Koje cy rrpHKa3aHe Ha CTpaHaMa 11 H 12, je,n;HOCTaBHO ce o.n;pel)yje

J{CTJlllJITOCHa Bpe;J;HOCT cpopM)'Jla y KOjJafa cy Ca.MO JIOfHqKe KOHCTaHTe IIOBe3aHe
T T
l. ;JOflfql(J!M onepaiµrja..,1a Ha HeKJ.1 Ha'Ilffi. Ha MapfJ1ID1 cy ,n;aTe Tafomu;e nor11tIK11x
orrep~a Hap; JIQf}fq}(J{M KOHCTaHTaMa.

A ....I
IlpHMep 1.
T .1
1. l. l. J13pa'I}'HaBa!be HCTKHHTOCHe BpeJJ.HOCT11 cpopMyJie
TV•l. => T
-, ~

=.l,•.L=.,.. n3Bororuo Ha ocHoBy rabillfi\a ,n;aTI1X Ha Mapr11HH.

(TV•.L => T) =(TVT => T) =(T => T) =T +
=> T J..
.,...
T .l
l. T T
J1fapaqyHaj JICTIIBJITOCHe BpeAffOCTH ¢opMYJia:
T => .1 VT; 2 •(T => ..., .L) .;;. T /\ ••l.;
.;;. T .l 3 (T Al.) V "T /\ T ) => •.L /\ T; 4) (T.;;...., .l).;;. (1. => T);
T .!. 5 T => (T => (T => .1)); 6) T /\ (.L V (1. => .L)).
T

~am
l. l..

3a Koje x 113 {T,.L} cy cne,n;ehe ¢opMyne TaqHe:

• xi\ T => l.; 2) •x => x;
3) x/\x.;;. xVx; 4) x.;;. •x;
- (x => T) .;;. x; 6) (T => x) .;;. x;
7) xV .1 <=> x; 8) xVT.;;. J.?

14

- ~-
 - -:raJ.fTOCHa Bpep;HOCT cpopM)'lle y Kojoj ce nojaBJbyjy KCKa3Ha CJIOBa 3aBJfCM o~
"'11:TOCHJ1X Bpep;HOCTJ1 Koje cy p;op;eJbeHe TJ1M CJIOBJ1Ma. Bpe:umcr mpa.3a
x~; · z 3aBJtOt
o;:i: BpeJ.Hocrn
ep2. KOje CJ .:!O:XelbeHe

'™O J1CTJ1HJ1TOCHY Bpep;HOCT cpopM)'lle rrpo.MeILnJIBIIM x. J u :::.

F: •(pV• q) => p/\.q

--;fp) =T J1 -r(q) =.L
"''1 aHarrornjy ca c5pojeBHJ1M H3pa3J1Ma, 3aKJb~eMo p;a je -r(F) jep;HaKo
OCHOj Bpep;HOCTJ1 cpopMyrre
•(TV •.l) => T /\. .l
11111111a i! iocSHjeHa J13 cpopM)'lle F 3aMeHOM crroBa p M q op;roBapajyrutM rronffI<Jt..\f
.\({11111m11c::urraMa: p ca TM q ca .1.
11~craBHO ce p;oc5Hja p;a je -r(F) = T. +
~~TaK

'•"~ HCTJ1HJ1TOCHY Bpep;HOCT cpopMyne F M3 npeTxop;Hor npHMepa, aKo je:

=THT(q)=T;
=.LH-r(q)=T;
=l. J1 -r(q) =.L

ce y HeKoj J1CKa3HOj cpopM)'llJ1 nojaBJbyjy caMO p;Ba J1CKa3Ha CJIOBa, OHp;a Ha

- - qeTJ1PJ1 Ha•mHa MO:>KeMO p;a p;op;elll1MO J1CTJ1HJfTOCHe Bpe){HOCTI! Tifil CJIOBHMa.
-: ucKa3Hoj cpopMYJIH nojaBJbyjy TPH cnoBa, oHp;a J1MaMO oca.'1 Moryhttocru, aKo
.=.i:.yjy qeTJ1PJ1 CJIOBa, OHp;a J1MaMO 16 Moryh.Hocn1, K yoIIIIITe, aKO ce y KCKa3HOj
rn11 m11111m11•,.,._.,1 nojaBJbyje n J1CKa3HJ1X CJIOBa, OHp;a J1MaMO 2n i\mryhHoCTK.

aH>e Bpep;HOCTJ1 HeKe cpopM)'lle 3a CBaKO p;op;eJbKBalbe J1CTI1HKTOCHKX

.:TJ1J1CKa3HJ1M CJIOBJ1Ma Hajjep;HOCTaBHJ1je je IIpKKa3arn: y Oc5J1JfKY racSene KOjy
0 HCTHHHTOCHa TaOnmi;a <l>opMJ71e.

nt ep3.
CTJ1HJ1TOCHe Tac5nmi;e cpopM)'lle
•(p => q)/\.p
y CKJiap;y ca HaqJ1HOM Ha KOjK K3paqyttaBaMO BpeAHOCT OBe cpopM)7Ie 3a
"r-'<L\10
:Tiie Bpep;HOCTK KCKa3HKX CJIOBa p K q.

I {!_ : 9. : {!_ => 9. ; •({!_ ~

T
I
T I
T I .l l.
T
I .l I
.l I T T
.l T T I .l .l
.l .l T I .l l. I +
~TaK

aj KCTJ1HKTOCHY Tac5mn:i;y cpopMyne p => •(p V •(q /\. p)).

1c:;
 ~

.HCTJ1HMTOCHa BpeAHOCT ¢opMJ7Ie y KOjoj ce nojaBJDyjy HCKa3Ha CJIOBa 3a:BJKH O;J;

JfCTMHMTOCHMX BpeAHOCTM Koje cy AOAeJDeHe HIM CJIOBHMa. Bpe;:i;HOCT I13pa.3a
X--0-)' • =3a.BUOI
o:r Bpe;:rn0<..""TI!
fipHMep2. Koje cy :ro.:re.fbelle
O.n;pe.n;:wMo MC.TMHMTOCtty Bpe.n;HOCT ¢opM)'lle upo.MeIL"bHBHM x, y JJ .::.
F: •(pV• q) => pAq
aKO je -r(p) =TM -r(q) =l..
Cne.n;etm aHanomjy ca 8pojeBHJ1M 1'13pa3HMa, 3aKJD)"IyjeMo Aa je -r(F) jeAffaKO
UCTMHMTOCHOj BpegHOCTJ.1 ¢opM)'lle
•(TV •1.) => TA l.
Koja je .n;o8:wjeHa M3 ¢opMYJie F 3aMeHOM cnoBa p 1'1 q o.u;roBapajyhnM nonf'IKJru
KOHCTaHTaMa: p ca T M q ca l..
)eAHOCTaBHO ce .n;o8Mja Aa je -r(F) = T. +
3ap;aTaK
O,i:i;pe.n;M MCTMHMTocey BpeAHOCT cpopMYJie F H3 npen:o,JJ;Hor npm1epa, a.Ko je:
-r(p)=TH-r(q)=T;
- -r(p)=l.H-r(q)=T;
-r(p) = .L:~u(q) = l..

..'Tl<OJIMKO ce y HeKoj JIICKa3HOj cpopM)'IDi nojaBJDyjy CaMO gaa JIICKa3Ha CJIOBa, OHAa Ha
~)'IIHO '!eTMPM ttaqJ1IHa MO)KeMo Aa AOAem1Mo MCTMHMTOCHe Bpe.n;HOCTM TMM cnoBMMa.
_-\Ko ce y MCKa3ttoj cpopMYJIM nojaBJDyjy TPM cnoBa, OHAa MMaMO ocaM Morytrnoq21, a.Ko
ce nojaBJDyjy qeT:wpH cnoBa, oa.n;a MMaMO 16 MoryhHocn1, M yornnTe, aKO ce y JfCKa3Hoj
:popMyn:w nojaBJDyje n MCKa3HMX cnosa, OHJJ;a ff.Ma.MO 2n :-.i:oryrumcru.

eljMBalbe BpeAHOCTH HeKe cpopt.ryne 3a CBaKO .n;o.n;eJDJIBalbe HCTJIBJITOCIDlX

zpep;HOCTJII HCKa3H1'1M CJIOBHMa Hajje,qHOCTaBHJ.tje je IIpHXa3aTit }' ObIDfh.'Y raOe,""Ie KOjy
ea.3HBaMO HCTHHHTOCHa TaOim::a;a <l>opMYJie.

_ IlpHMep3.
3~)CTe MCTJIIHJIITOCHe Ta8~e ¢op?.iyne
•(p => q)Ap
-=DPMHpaMO y CKJia.n;y ca Ha'IBHOM Ha KOjH H3paqyttaBaMO Bpe;J;HOCT OBe cpopMpie 3a
neKpeTHe spe.n;HOCTH MCKa3HJIIX CJIOBa p H q.

p I 9. I 1!. => 9. I •([!_ => 9) '. -.(p_ => 9) A(!_

T T I T I l. I l.
T l. l. I T I T
l. T T I l. ~ l.
l. ' l. T I l. j· l.
•
3a)J;aTaK
:::>opMHpaj HCTMHHTOCHY TabJIHI.J;y cpopMYJie p => ·(p V •(q Ap)).

15
 •

ITpm1.11Ko1\1-.tp'opM.11palha .11cT.11H.11TocHe Ta8mme HeKe HCKa3He cpoMYJie, KOJIOHe y Koj.11Ma

HaBO,ll;HMO J1CTJ1HJ1TOCHe Bpep;HOCT.11 J1CKa3HHX CJIOBa IIOII)'lbaBaMO CMCTeManrrno
ilo~npse
qenqm KOJIOHe ,;::i;a He fotCMO J130CTaB.11JIJ1 HeKy MoryhHOCT. 0IIIIITJ1 IIOCTynaK ITOrryH>aBalba KOJIOHa
HCTHHHTOCHe TablIJ.file KOj e O,Il;fOBapajy .11CKa3H.l1M CJIOBJ1Ma MO:>Ke ce BM,n;eT.11 y Hape,n;HOM rrp.11Mepy r,n;e je
qiopM)'Jle y Kojoj ce cpopMJrpaHa Tafourr~a cpopMy11e ca TPM MCKa3Ha cnoBa.
nojaBJhyjy qeTHpH CJIOBa.
IlpHKep4.
p q r s
T T O;:i;pe;un10 3a Koje j e ttcTIIBJrrocHe Bpe,n;HoCTM .11cKa3HMX c110Ba p, q .11 r cpopMyna
T T T •r => p v q) => l. Ta'Illa, aKO TaKBe Bpe,n;HOCT.11 yorrnITe ITOCToje.
T T .l
T T .1 .1
T .l T Jla illl IIOCTOje Tpa:>KeHe HCTIDrnTOCHe Bpe,n;HOCTH Ji Koje cy, OTKpMheMO 113
T .l T .1 ncnnnrrorne rnfoum;e ,n;aTe cpopMYJie.
T .l J_ T
T .l .1 .1
.1 T T T p q r pvq •r => p V q ; (•r => p V q) => l.
.l T T .1 T l T I T .l T T l. I
T .1 T I
l_
.l T .1 i
T
I
T I .l T T T .l
.l 1 T T T I .l T l. T T l.
.l .l T .l T l. .l T T T l.
.l .l .l T , l. I T T l. T T .l
.l i .l .l
l. f T .l T T T .l
l. I l. I T l. l. T l. I
I .l l
l.
I
1 l. T l. .l T I

H3 ra8mm;e BIWtMo ,n;a je T((•r => pv q) => .l) = T 3a T(p) =T(q) =T(r) =.l, Kao .11,n;a je TO
j eAJIBo pemeH>e IIOCTaBJbeHor 3ap;aTKa. +
J1cKa3Ha cpop~tyna je TayroJionrja aKo je TaqHa 3a 8m10 Koje .11cTMH.l1TOCHe
spe,n;nocn1 HCKa3HHX cnoBa Koja ce y IhOj rrojaBJbyjy.

Peq wayillo;wfuja je
rp'll<or nopeIVi:a H
obpa30BaHa j e o;:i peq}{
IIpHMep 5.
iiiay woc = UCTO lf iWlOC .[{a j e cpopMYJia •(p V q) <;> •P /\ •q rayT011or.11ja, 3aKJbyqyjeMo .113 lheHe MCTMHMTOCHe
= p33JM, 3aKOH, p331IOf. Ta8mn~e.

T .l l. l. T l. T
l. T T l. T .l l. T
l. l. .l T T T T T
•
3aµ:aTaK
YfCIIHTaj .u:a IDl cy rne,n;ehe cpopMyne rayTOnornje:
, p=>(pVq); "' p=>(p/\q);
3 p => (qVr); 4 p => (p => qVr).
 <DopM11palbe 11cT11H11TocHe Ta8mru;e je CBe 3aMopHHj11 rrocao KaKO ce rroBehaBa 8poj
E
~le1:0:xa CBol)eu.a
11CKa3HJ1X CJIOBa Koja ce y ¢opM}'IDI rrojaBJbyjy, 3aTO IIpIDIBKOM pa3MaTPaH>a J1CKa3IDIX H.aancyp;i;
¢opMyrra HacTOj11Mo ,n;a 3ao8111)eMo ¢opW1palbe 11>eHe Ta8mru;e K~a ro,n; je TO Moryhe.
y Hape,n;HOM rrp11Mepy orrncaheMO je,n;aH MHOfO e¢11KaCmrjH IIOCT}'IlaK AOKa3JIBa11>a ii;a
je HeKa ¢opMyrra TayTOrrornja. Peq je o MeTOAJI cBol)e11>a Ha ancypp;.
A ikypg je pe-q
narnHcKor nopeKJia
~ IlpHMep6. Jil 3Ha<rn oeotuc1ul{Q.,
,UOKa)KJ.1MO MeTO,ll;OM CBol)elba Ha arrcypp; ,n;a je ¢opMYJia JIOfU1'Ka HeMolyh1uJciU.

pA(p => q) => q

TayTorror11ja.
IlpemocTaB11Mo ,n;a ,n;aTa ¢opMYJia HHje TayTOrrornja, Tj. ,n;a je
-r(p A (p => q) => q) = .L
Y311Majyn11 y ofo11p Ta8rrmzy 11MIIID1Kaq:Kje, 3aKJbyqyjeMo .l(a je Ta,IJ,a
-r{pA{p => q))=T J1T(q)=l.. ;IoKa3IIBaJbe na je
cpopMyiia Tayrorrornja
Ha ocHoBy Ta8rrm.i;e 3a KOHjymru;"Hjy ,n;aJbe ,n;ofofja.Mo ,n;a je
MeTO:IOM CBOf}elha
-r(p) = T, -r(p => q) = T J1 -r(q) =l..
Ha ancyp~ CC.CTOjH
Mel)yT11M, ca,n;a J13 -r(p) = T J1 -r(q) = l., crrep;M ,n;a je -r(p => q) = l., IIITO HJ1je Moryne jep ce yrove !lace
cMo paH"Hje 3aKJbyqJ1JIH ,n;a je -r(p => q) = T. rrpenIOCTaBH rra
,UaKrre, ,n;aTa ¢opMyrra jecTe TayTOrrornja. + ;i;aTa cpopM)Jla ru1je
Tayronornja, a 3aTI1M

3a,u;aTaK ce 113 Te rrpeTIIOCTaBKe,

ocnalbalbeM Ha
MeTo,n;oM CBol)elba Ha arrcyp,n; p;OKa)KJ.1 .z:1a cy crre,n;ene ¢opMyrre Tayrnrror11je: HCTHHHTOCHe
p=>(q=>p); 2 (p=>q)A•q=>•p; Ta8n111i;e, H3BOW'f
3 (p => q) => (•q => •p); 4J (p => q)V(q => p). HeMoryha rnTy~ja
- Ha npHMep, .n;a je.D;Ha
ncra cpopMpa HMa
IlpHMep7.
;i:se ncnnnrro...-iie
IloTrrytto attaJIOfHO rrpeTXO}:\HOM IIpKMepy ,D;OKa3yjeMO J1 CJie.n;ehe OIIIIITifje TBpl)eibe. Bpe;:mocm, K T H .L
AKo cy A 11 B 811Jlo Koje 11cKa3He ¢opMyrre, ott,n;a je A A (A => B) => B Tayrnnornja.
IlpemocTaB11MO ,n;a ,n;aTa ¢opMyrra HJ1je rayTOrrornja, Tj. ,n;a je
-r(A A (A => B) => B) = .L.
Y311Majyn11 y ofo11p Ta8mru;y JfMIIJIKKaIJ;11je 11 KoHjyma.i;Mje, 3aKJbyq)rje~m ;:i;a je
-r(A) = T, -r(A => B) = T 11 -r(B) =l..
Me1JYT11M, 113 -r(A) = T 11 -r(B) = .L, crrep;M ,n;a je -r(A => B) = .L, IIITO mrje Morybe jep je
-r(A => B) =T.
Ilp11MeT11Mo ,n;a cMo Ha oBaj Ha'IJffi ,n;oKasaJIH ,n;a cy cBe ¢opMyrre .r1arnr 08m1Ka (Kojnx
JfMa 8ecKoHaqHo MHoro) TayTOrrornje. Ha rrpHMep, Tayronornje cy
(pv q)A(pv q => •r) => •r [A =pV q, B=•r]
•pA(•p => (p => q)) => (p => q) [A=-p,B=p => q]
11 TaKo ,n;aJbe. +
&
• 3a,u;aTaK
AKo cy A 11 B HeKe 11cKasHe ¢opM)17Ie, JJ;OKa)KJ.1 ,n;a je (•A => _,B => B => A. Tayro,-ronrja.
1

17.
 Tayrorrol'Hje H 3aKOHH 3aKJh"Y'IHBalha

:IBe HCKa3He ¢opM}17Ie cy JIQI'J{q](J{ eKBKBaneHTHe aKO HMajy HCTe HCTHHHTOCHe

Bpe:(HOCTJI 3a bJGIO KOjH U36op :HCTHIDITOCIDIX BpeAflOCTH CJIOBa Koja ce y lbHMa
noja.BThyjy.

Ilp1D1ep 1.

<l>op f}J:Ie ..,p v •q H ·(p A q) jecy JIODf'IIOi eKB:HBaJieHTHe. y TaqHOCT OBe TBp,n;H>e ce
)"BepaBaMO axo <}>opMMpaMO JiCTIIBHTOCHe Ta6JI:11~e OBJllX cpopM)'Jla.

Tay-rmontje p q ! •P I •q : •P v •q )
q ~-p ,q I
T I T .l .l .l
}{

pq~-p..,q
T I .l I .l T T
Ea3UBajy ce lle
.l I T ! T .l T .l T .l T
~ fopraHOBH 33.KOHH. .l I .l T I T T .l .l .l T
•
llirje TeIII.Ko yo'Ilmi: ~a cy HCKaJHe cpopM)'Jle A H B nornqKH eKBHBaJieHTHe aKo H caMo
axo je ¢opMY71a A ~ B Tayronornj~

IlpHMep 2.

J1crnrrajMo KOjH o~ CJieAelrn:x HCKaJa cy JIOI'H'IKJ1 eKBHBaJieHTHH HCKa3y c5uiUu

3alby8mett je uoiUpec5aH yCJ108 3a cpeliy.
1. AKo je HeKo 3aJby6JDeH, oH,n;a je OH cpeb.att;
-· AKo je HeKo 3aJby6JDeH, oH,n;a HHje cpenaH;
3. AKo HeKo HMje cpeb.aH, OH,D;a HHje 3aJDy6JDeH;
4. AKo HeKo IDrje 3aJby6JDeH, OH,D;a HHje cpenaH;
5. HeKo je 3aJby6JDeH HJIH HMje cpeb.att.
HeKaje
p: 6JITH JaJby6JDeH, q: 6HTH cpenaH.
Ta,ua je ucKaJ c5uiUu 3albyDlbeH je uoiUpeDaH yc1wB 3a cpeliy, 3anpaBo HMilJIHKa~Hja q :::::> p.
J1CKaJu 1-5 cy Tap;a pe,n;oM 06JI:11Ka:
~ p :::::> q;
2 p :::::> •q;
3 •q :::::> -,p;
4 •P :::::> •q;
5 pV•q.
llirje TeIII.Ko rrp0Bep:11rn ,n;a cy MeJ)y cpopM)'JlaMa
:. (q :::::> p) ~ (p :::::> q);
<l>OpM}'lle p ~ q,
2. (q :::::> p) ~ (p :::::> •q);
..,q~•pH-p~'q
3. (q :::::> p) ~ (•q :::::> ·p);
jecy norK'll01
eK3HBa."IeHTHe. 4. (q :::::> p) ~ (-,p :::::> •q);
5 (q=:>p)~(pV•q),
Ta ~ononrje cpopMyne 4 H 5, IlITO 3HaqJ1 ,n;a cy ,n;aTOM HCKa3y eKBHBaJieHTHH HCKa3H rro,n;
4n5. + .

18
 onorn:je cy JfCKa3He cpopMYJie Kojmrn ce 01rncyjy BruKHJi 3aKOIDI MHIIIJbeIDa.
E
3axoH 11aJ1>yqee.a ·
- ~ KOjJf Hal.{JfH cy TayTOJIOrJfje cacTaBHJf p;eo CBaKOr KOpeKTHOr 3aKJbYl.IJfBalba,
rpeher
£::""'CTpoBaheMO y Hapep;HJfM rrpHMepmrn.
·pv-.p
pv-p

eHJfl\a p;a je p v ·P TaYTOJIOrJfja, 3Ha'lltl p;a je CBaKJ1 CJIO)KeH JfCKa3 OBOr o5JIHKa yaeK
:qaH 5e3 ofoHpa o KOM JfCKa3y p je peq. Ta,rne cy CBe peqeHJ1.l\e:
Aila JfMa 16 rop;HHa JfJIJf ~a HeMa 16 rowma;
Tpoyrao ABC je rrpaBoyrIDI J1ID1 Tpoyrao ABC HHje rrpaBoynrn;
1,41 je pernelhe je,n;Hat.Urne x2 =2 J1ID1 1,41 mtje pernel:be jeAffa'Dme x2 =2. +

! IlpHMep4 .

• Je::raH op; Hajjep;HOCTaBHJfjHX Jf Hajqerrtlie KopHrrillema 3aKOHa 3aKJb)"IlIBaI:ba 5a3JtpaH

· e s a TayrnnornjH p /\ (p * q) * q (BH,ll;Jf rrpHMep 6. Ha cTpaim 17).
Modus ponens

0Ba TayTOJIOrJfja ce Ha cprrcKOM je3JfKY MO)Ke HCKa3aTH Ha CJiep;elIB Ha'iHH: pA(p => q) => q
a1w je p u u3 p cnegyje q, oHga je q.
IfaJOie, Jf3 rrpeTIIOCTaBKM p Jf p * q Jf3BO,IJ;JfMO 3aKJhyqaK q. p p => q
q
Ca:la HJfje TeIIlKO OTKpJfTH IIOMettyTY Tayrnnomjy y CJiep;eheM 3aKJhYl.IJfBalhy.
IlpernocTaBKa p: AHa )KMBJf y Eeorpap;y.
IlpeTrrocTaBKa p * q: A.Ko AHa )i(J1BJf y Eeorpap;y, OH}J;a .-ma )KJiBJf y Cpfo1j u .
3a:'VbyqaK q: AHa )l(JfBJ! r Cp5ujJf. •

IlpHMep 5. ..fodns tollens

Ha ocHoBy rnyrnnomje (p ::::> q) /\ •q * •p, p;o5Hja.Mo rrpaBuno 3a.KJD)"IJIBaH>a rrpe~i:a p => q 1\ -iq => - p
KOMe Jf3 rrpeTIIOCTaBKM p * q H •q H3BO,ll;HMO 3aKJhyqaK •p.
p => q -:q
I
H aBop;HMO Jf jep;Ho KOHKpeTHO 3a.KJbyqHBaIDe 5a3HpaHO aa oBoj rnyronornjH. 'P
=:> p.
p * q: A Ko je qernopoyrao ABCD KBa;war, oll}J;a ce y .!her:: : !:;~:~e yrmcant Kp)T.
..., : 'qernopoyrao ABCD ce ae ~m)Ke ~7JKZ.:'~. :~p:::-.
3 aKJhyqaK • p: qernopoyrao ABCD HHje KBap;paT.

TpaH31ITlIBHOCT
IIpnMep6. 10IJTIDD(al1Jrje

Tay rnnomja(p * q) /\ (q * r) * (p * r) crnju ma rne;::i;eher jeAHOCTaBHor

p => q />, q => r => p => r
3a.KJbyqHBalha.
IlpernocTaBKa p * q: A.Ko tteKo )KHBJf y Eeorpa.'.ly, 011;i;a OH )KUBU y Cp511j tt. p => q q => r
IlpeTrrocTaBKa q* r: A.Ko HeKo )KHBH y CpC1!1f, OH}J;a OH )f(JIBH y Eep01m. p => T
3aKJhyqaK p * r: A.Ko HeKo )f(JfBH y EeorpaJiy, OBJl.a OH )KUBU y EBponu.

AHanortty rrpHMetty, HapoqJfTO y MaTeMaTii'iKJf.M TBpl}eID1wa, Jrna Tayrononrja

::::op;
(p ~ q) /\ (q ~ r) * (p ~ r). +

19
1
 3a.1mHH xmrrpanoo
Ilp1D1ep 7.
Tayron:onrja •q => -p) ~ (p => q) ce BeoMa qecTO cpebe y MaTeMaTW:IKMM p;oKa3MMa.
0Ha OMoryha11a :i;a ce J'MeCTO HMIIJIJfl<an;Hje p => q )l;OKruKe l1MIIJUtKau;11ja •q => ·P·

Ta.Ko, aKO ;Kt!J"IIDIO ,;:i;a AOKIDKeMo H.MIIIDfKaI\Hjy:

Axo ·e n 2 HenapaH 5poj , o:ep;a 1e., HenapaH 5poj,
npeMa OBOj TayrononrjH pteCTO lbe MO:>KeMO )l;OKa3aTJ1 .IDOj eKBHBaJieHTHY
HMIIJIJIKarofjy:
AKo - mrje HerrapaH -F ·, o:ep;a '1 2 HHje ttenapaH 5poj.
0Ba .n;pyra l1MIIJIJfl(an;Mja je CBaKaKO jep;HOCTaBHHja 3a p;oKa3HBalbe. 3aHCTa, aKO n HHje
tterrapaH, ott.n;a je rrapaH, Tj. n = 2k, 3a HeKo k, rra je n 2 = 4k2, op;aKJie cnep;u .n;a je n 2 napaH,
mTo 3Haqu .n;a HHje HenapaH. +
IlpHMep8.
HajjeAHOCTaBIDtjH. :40Ka3 .n;a je 3a CBaKM peanaH 5poj x TaqHa 11MnJI11Kan;11ja
1
l -3x:t:O => x=t=-
3
jecTe OHaj y KOMe ce npH.Me.IDyje Tayrnnomja ( •q => •P) ~ (p => q). IlpeMa IDoj,
Tpa:>KeHa IDITIIDfl<al\Hja je eKBH.BaJieHTHa ca
1
x=- => l -3x=O,
3
a OBY 11MnJI11Kan;11jy je je.n;HocTaBHO p;oKa3aTH jep Tpe5a caMo np0Bep11T11 .n;a JIH je TaqHa
jep;HaKOCT
1
1-3·-=0.
3
0Ba je.n;ttaKocT je Ta'IHa, q}fMe je p;oKa3 p;aTe l1.MIIJIH.Kau;11je 3aBprneH. +
Cuol)elbe Ha ancypp;
JlpHMep9.
(reductio ad absurdum)
AKo H:3 •P cnep;H q M •q (Tj. HeKa p;Ba npoT11BpeqHa rnpl)eIDa), OHp;a M3BOp;MMO
3aKJb)"laK p. 0Bo npaBMO 3aKJb)"IHBaIDa 5a311paHo je Ha Tayrnnomj11
(op => (q"' •q)) => p.
HajCTapitju np1wep npH:MeHe oBor 3aKoHa 3aKJb)"IMBaIDa je qyBeHM p;oKa3 .n;a je.n;HaquHa
x2 = 2 HeMa pan;}lOH(lJIHa pernelha. 0Baj p;oKa3 heMO J13JIO:>KMTM KaCHMje Ha CTpaHM 63.

0BOM npl1.JI}fi(0M heMO npHKa3aTl1 p;oKa3 jep;HOCTaBHMjer rnpl)elba

p: 5poj 1,41 tt11je perneIDe jep;HaquHe x2 = 2.
Heran;Hja oBor rnpl)eIDa je
•p: 5poj 1,41 jecTe perneIDe jep;HaquHe x2 = 2.
AKo npeTIIOCTaBMMO •p, oHp;a 5ucMo MMaJIM p;a je
q: 1,41 2 =2,
a JiaKo ce npoBepaBa .n;a je

~aKJie, rnqHo je p. +

• • 20
 3aKOH Habpajan.a
IlpHMep IO.
TwrrwqaH rrpwMep rrpttMeHe Ta}'TOrror.wje p ~ r A q~ y ~
(p ~ r) /\ (q =:. r) =:. (p V q =:. r) ~ p. q ~ r
rrpe,a;cTaBJba ,a;oKa3 TBpl)elba ,a;a je 3a CBaKJ.i npwpo,a;aH 8poj n npmnBOJl n(n + 1) rrapaH
5poj.
HeKaje
p: n je rrapaH 8poj, "
q: n je HerrapaH 5poj,
r: n(n + 1) je rrapaH 5poj.
Hwje TernKo ,a;oKa3aTM MMTIJIHK~e p =:. r (aKo j e n rrapaH 8poj, OHJJ;a je n(n + 1) napaH
H, 5poj) J1 q =:. r (aKo je n Herrapatt 8poj, OH,a;a je n(n + 1) rrapaH 8poj) . Ha ornoBy Ha.Be;i;rne
TayTOrrornje ,a;o5wjaMo ,a;a
J13 n je rrapaH 8poj MJIJ1 n je HerrapaH 8poj crre,w.1 ,a;a je n(n + 1) napaH 8poj,
O,!l;HOCHO, ,a;a je 3a cBaKM rrpwpo,a;aH 8poj n rrpo113BO,a; n(n + 1) napaH 8poj.

I IlpHMep 11. ,IJ;e MoprauoBH 3aKOHH

3a CBaKa ,a;Ba peaJIHa 5poja x 11 y TaqHe cy eKBMBarrem~wje •(p A q) ¢> -p V •q

x · y=O ~ x=OVy=O •(p V q) ¢> -p A •q
J1
x2 +y2 =0 ~ x=O/\y=O.
Ha ocHoBy Tayrorrornja
(p ~ q) ~ (•p ~ •q),
•(p/\q) ~ •pV•q
Jf

·(p v q) ~ -p /\ •q
3aKJbyqyjeMo ,a;a cy TaqHe l1 crre,a;eb.e eKBMBaJieHI.\}tje
x · y;tO ~ x;tO/\y=O
J1
x2+y2;t0 ~ x;tOVy;tO.
3a.HcTa ttMaMo ,a;a je
(x · y=O ~ x=OVy=O)
~ (-,x · y=O ~ -,(x=OVy=O))
'"Rl1Ha
~ (x · y;tO ~ •x=O/\ •y=O)
-:3.
~ (x · y;tO ~ x;tO/\y:t:O },
J1
(x2 +y2 =0 ~ x=O/\y=O)
~ (•x2+y2=0 ~ -,(x=O/\y=O))
~ (x2+y2;t0 ~ •X=OV•y=O)
~ {x2+y2:t:O ~ x:t:OVy;tO) . T paH3IITllBHOCT
eirnHBan:emutje
0BaKBO 3aIIJ1CJ1Balbe eKBJ1BaJieHl.V'fja y HJ.f3)', O,!l;HOCHO, q>0pIDq>3.Ibe TaK03BaHOr ,-umua
eKBUBalleHu,uja, ,a;o3BOJbeHo je Ha ocHoBy rnyrorrontje _p¢>q • C¢>r ~
(p ~ q) /\ (q ~ r) =:. (p ~ r . ~ '.'¢>T
11pen;tt3HMje, rrpeMa oBoj Ta)'TOJiontjH 3aKJhyqyje~10 ;xa pmmnm cy eKB1ma.aeHIBe
CBaKe ,D;Be cyce,a;He qiopMYJie y namry eKB1ma.n:e1muja, moa cy eKB1ma,1eHTHe n rrpBa ~I r,<:>n
.... c<>.,,
..
rrocrre,a;Iba qiopM)'Jla y TOM namzy. + p ¢> r

21
 A
Iloj.MOBH cxyn u cxynoBHa JIPHil3.AHOCT cy OCHOBHH MaTeMan1qKJ1 nojMOBH. IloMony
ce }BO;::J,e am ~yrn MaTeMaTif'IKH 08je1cr11 norryr OpojeBa, pemu~Hja, cp)'HKI.J;Hja,
H>JIX
reoMeTPujcrmx cpnrypa ITTp;.
J hrrylmmHo, ocynoBn Hacrajy oxyrunalhe.M HeKaKBHX CTBapH y u;emrny. CBaKa o,n;
CTBapn xoje qirae ry n;emrny, rj. CKYII, Ha3HBa ce eJieMeHT Tor cKyna.

,Ua j e x e,,e~ieHT CKJIIa S 3anucyje ce cpopM)'JIOM x E S H qJ!ITa ce ,,HKC je eJieMeHT cKyna

ec" nJn1 ,,1mc np1mall,a acyny ec".
Ua x mrje eJieMeHT acyna S 3arn1cyje ce cpopMYJIOM x <!:. S H qHTa ce ,,HKC HHje eJieMeHT
c:Kyna ec" mTII .,Jf.KC He rrpuna.n;a CKYIIJ ec':

CBaJGI Ch.'JTI j e IIOTIIYHO o.n;peljeH rnojKM eneMeHTHMa. )J;pyrHM peqHMa, ,n;Ba cKyna
,n;eqnrnminja
cy jeA,HaKa aKo 11 ca.Mo aKO J.IMajy HCTe eJieMeHTe.
BeHOB .n;11jarpaM cKyna
B ={J,R,P,G}

-----
B
Hajje,n;HoCTaBHHjH rrpHMepH CKynoBa cy OHM KOjH MMajy ,,MaJIH" Opoj eJieMeHaTa H Koje
30or Tora MO)l(eMO 3a,n;aTH HaBoljel:beM CBMX l:befOBMX eJieMeHaTa H3Meljy BHTHqacTMX
3arpa,n;a { H} (o,n;BajajynH eJieMeHTe 3ape3HMa YKOJIHKo MX HMa BHIIIe o,n; je,n;Hor).
MeljyTMM, OBaKBe cKynoBe neMO HaBO,n;HTH caMO y HeKMM eJieMeHTapHHM rrpHMepHMa.
j E B,R E B,P E B,G E B y MaTeMaTMI.J;H ce yrJiaBHOM pa3MaTpajy cKynOBH Koje He MO)l(eMO 3a,n;aTH ,,eJieMeHT
IIO eneMeHT" (qaK H Kap;a cy OHM KOHaqHH, a HMajy Bem1KH Opoj eJieMeHaTa). 0BaKBe
CICJIIOBe 3a,I{ajeMO HaBoljeIDeM CBojciUBa IIOMony Kojer H3p;BajaMO CBe oOjeKTe KOjH
HMajy TO CBOjCTBo. AKo ca S 03Ha'I:HMo CBojcTBO, a ca S(x) qHJ:beHHu;y p;a ,,x HMa
CBOjCTBo S', OIIp;a 3aIIJ1COM
I
S={x S(x)}
p;ecpuIDrmeMO CK)'II s qajH cy eJieMeHrn CBH o8jeKrn KOjH HMajy CBOjCTBO s.
IlpHMep 1.
~: = fi-.2~3,4, ...}
a..-yrr rrpnpo:urnx bpojeBa CKyn A qJ!ljH cy jep;MHH eJieMeHrn 1, 2 H 3 oITMcyjeMo ca A= {1,2,3}.
IlpKMern ,n;a je A = {3,1,2}, Kao HA ={x Ix= 1 V x=2 V x=3}.
= = { ..., -2,-1,0,1,2,... }
0.1LI ne.'IHX 8pojeBa CKyn A npBHX 1 000 000 000 npHpop;HMX OpojeBa jecTe KOHaqaH, aJIH je ,n;HcKyTaOHJIHO
p;a JIM CMO y CTa.IbY p;a HaBe,n;eMo cBe IDeroBe eJieMeHTe. IlpMMepa pap;H, aKo OHCMO

~=[~ jp E :=,q E ~I} MOrJIM ;:i,a 3anMcyjeMo no jep;aH npHpop;aH Opoj y CeKJH,n;H, 3a HaOpajal:be CBHX
en:e 1eHaTa CK)'Ila A rpe5ano OH HaM cKopo 32 ro,n;HHe.
aq'Il pau:nomrnmi:x I
J InaK, CK)11I A jep;HOCTaBHO 3ap;ajeMo jep;HaKomhy A = {x x E N /\ x ::; 109}.
bpojeBa
Ilpa3aH CK)'II (cKJII KojH HeMa eJieMeHTe) MO)l(eMo oITHcaTH je,n;ttaKoIIIny 0 = {x Ix ;t:x}.
Ilpm.1eTH p;a cpopMYJia x ;t: x HHje Ta'!Ha HM 3a jep;Ho x, rra oHa 3aHcTa orrHcyje rrpa3aH
- -: - I 0 h2 ;: 4,5 cr<yIL •
CKYil pea.LHirx: 6pojeBa
 vilOB

_-..io cy cKynoBH A 11 B je,n;HaKH, Tj. aKo je A =B, oH,n;a je 3a CBaxo x Ta'!Ha

y
....,,1rnanemi;11ja:
xEA ~ xEB.
'3a eKBHBaJieHI.J;Hja je KOHj)7HKI.J;Hja ABe o8parne KMIIJilfKaI.J;Hje:
(x E A * x E B) t\ (x E B *
x E A ).
:C:;rna 11Mnn11kar.i;11ja ,,KaJKe" ,n;a je CBaKH eJieMeHT CKyrra A Taxol)e H eJieMeHT cryna B, a
:::r::r.ra ,n;a je Ta'IHO 11 o8paTHO, ,n;a je CBaKH eJieMeHT CKyrra B yje,n;Ho H eJieMeHT CKyrra A.
I'

CKyn A je no,n;cicyn cKyrra B, y 03Hall;J1 A h B, axo K ca.Mo axo je CBaKK eneMeHT

cKyna A yje,n;Ho 11 eJieMeHT cKyrra B, Tj. aKo 11 ca..'do axo je 3a CBaKo x Ta'!Ha ~eqJJlHlfl!H

KMIIJIKKaI.J;lfja:
x E A * x E B.
CKyn A je npaBH (CTpom) no,n;cicyn CKyrra B, y 03Hall;H A C B, axo K ca.Mo aKo je
A h B 11 B ~A (B HKje no,n.cKyn o,n; A ).
~ ~---

Pe."IaI.J;Hjy h (,,811T11 rro,n;cKyn") Ha3HBaMo HHKJiy3JrjoM, a penar.i;11jy C cTpor oM

IDIKJIY3HjOM.

3a,n;aTaK
&
IlpHMern ,n;a cy
lkmnaj HHKJiy311jcKH o,n;Hoc Mel)y CKyrrOBHMa A= {x Ix E N Ar::; 9}, npmrn,n;albe (E )
I
B={x x=2Vx=3} 11 C={2,3,4}. 11 HHKJIY3Hja (b)
cymnmcirn pasJIH1ilITlt
o:moat.
YJHMajyn11 y ofo11p rrpen:om .n;e<l>KHKI.J;Kjy K pa3~£aTPaIDe 11.crrpe,::t H>e, Ja.Klbyqyje~m
,n;a j e CJie,n;ena eKBHBaJieHr.i;11ja rntrna 3a 8KJio Koje CKyrrOBe A 11 B:
s
A =B ~ Ah BAB h A. ~
y Hape,n;HOM TBpljelby HaBO,ll;JiMO OCHOBHa (K O'IID'Jie,n;Ha) CBOj CTBa HHKJIY3Hje J1. crpore '-.Y
KRKJiy3Hj e. aES, :a; fi S,
{a1· kS,akS
3a 811no Koje cKynoBe A, B H C BaJKJt:
-. 0h A, 5. A:z0 * 0 C .A,
Ah A, 6. A <t .A, TOOpeMa
3 A h B t\ B h A ~ A = B, ~. A C B * A h B,
_"lJiQ
4 A h B t\B h C * A h C, 8. A C Bt\B C C * ACC.

IIapTHTHBHH cicyn .n;aTOr CKyrra S, y 03Hau;H P 5'1, jeCTe CI>.JII CBH:X H>eroBKX
.:::em~mn
no.n;cKyrroBa. }J;aKJie, Pl S) ={X I X h S}.
=x} . --
...ilf
IlpHMep2.
O.n;pe,n;HMo P({l,3,5}).
Je,n;HOqJiami no,n;CKyrrOBH o.n; {l,3,5} cy {l }, {3} u {5}. ,:::{Bo'IJiaHJ1 IIOJJ;CK}"IIOBJ! o;:i: {l,3,5}
cy {1,3}. {1,5} K {3,5}. KottatIBo, 0 h {l,3,5} u {l ,3,5} h {l ,3,5}, na JI.Memo ~a j e
P ( {l,3,5}) = {0,{l},{3},{5},{l,3},{l ,5},{3,5},{ l ,3,5}}.

23
 IIpeceK CKynoBa A H B, y 03Hal.{H A n B, ,n;eqnrn1nneMO ca
An B={x Ix EA Ax EB}.
IIPECEK Ymtjy Ch.')'IIOBa A n B, y 03Hau;11 A U B, ,n;eqmmnneMo ca
•-1 B AU B={x Ix E AVx EB} .
Pa3J1JIKf Ch.-yIIOBa A tt B, y 03Hau;H A \ B, ,n;eqmHttIIIeMo ca
A B={xjxEAAxftB}.
CKfIIOBH AH B cy AJltjyHKTHH aKO je A n B =0.

YHHJA
• -i U B IlpKMep 3.
HeKa jeA = {l,2,3,4,6}, B = {3,4,7,8,9} H C={4,5,6,8,9,10}.
Oµpe;urno (AU B) \ (B n C).
Au B={l,2,3,4,6,7,8,9}, B n C={4,8,9}, (Au B) \ (B n C)={l,2,3,6,7}

AU
PA3/UIKA A
.-1. B

tD B\.-1. •
u; 1
3a aTaK
KopHcTetrn: CKYIIOBHe orrepal.{Hje, OIIJfillf oceHqeHe ,n;enoBe BeHOBHX ,n;HjarpaMa.

2 4) 5) 6)

KO~ fl11IE:\!EHT Ch'YIIA

@® ®®@ c c c c c c

3a~aTa"'

AKo je A farno KOjH CKJII, o,n;pe,D;H A n 0, A u 0, A \ 0, 0 \ A.

AKo je A ~ S, oH,n;a ce pa3llfl<a S \ A Ha3HBa KOMIDieMeHT cKyna A y o,n;Hocy Ha

CKJII s. A.Ko je jaCHo 0 KOM CKJIIY sje peq, OH,D;a ce KOMrrneMeHT rro,n;cKyna A (O,D; S)
03HaqaBa ca Ac.
A. U.n·=S
A(' ,-i..·=Z
(.-l." =.-J.
)J;11peKTHO 113 .o;e<i>11H11u;11je cKyrrOBHHJtx onepa.I.{Hja AOb11ja..'1:0:
xEAUB~xEAVxEB,
= B. axo je 3a CBaKo x
.n.
x EA n B ~ x EA Ax EB, Ta'llia eKBKBai,ernrnja:
xEA \ B~xEAA•xEB. x Erie x EB.
IIp11MeHoM OBHX eKBHBaneHu;Hja CKYIIOBHH HAeHTHTeTH ce cBo,ue Ha TaYTonon1je.

1
IlpHMep4.
H,!IeunrreTe Kojn ce
)J;oK(l)K11MO Aa je 3a cBe cKyrroBe A, B 11 C Ta'llia jeAHaKOCT o.:moce Ha HeKa IJ>H
A\ (BU C)=(A \ B) n (A C). npon3BOlbHa cxyna
)J;a bl1CMO AOKa3anH OBaj cKyrrOBHH Hp;eHnfTeT, )J;OBOlbHO je JIOKa3aTI1 na je 3a CBa.KO x Moxe~m rrpoBepaBarn
TaqHa eKBl1BaneHu;Hja cegqelbeM. rnmrmor
E B U C ~ x E (A \ B) n (A \ C.. rprupK"IXor npax.a3a
HeKa TJ>H CK"'Ila
IIpeMa .o;e<i>11H11u;11jaMa cKynOBHHX oneparµtja, K.\fCU!O ;i;a je

~
E _r1 B v ~ x E A A • (x E B U C)
~ E _A-, E.JVxE C)
Kao 11
x E (A\ B) n (A\ C) ~ x EA\ BAx EA\ C c
~ (x E AA•x E B)A(x E AA•x EC).
)J;aKne, Tpe5a p;oKa3aTH p;a je 3a cBaxo x rnqHa eKBHBaneHu;11ja
x E . A~ x E 3 .r E C ~ x E 11. A •x E B) A (x EA fl. •XE C).
A . (EU C)
HeKaje

@
p: x E A, q: x E B, r: x E C.
IIocneAlha eKBHBaneHu;Hja, y3 YBep;eHe 03HaKe, nocraje
p -, '1 • ~ pA-.q)A(pA•r~ .
OcTaBlbaMO KopHCHHKY oBor )'l,16eHKKa p;a p;OK(l)Ke .ua je oBa <i>opM)7la rayro;iornja.
T11Me he p;oKa3 p;aTor 11.p;eHTHTera 811r11 3aBpmeH. + c c
IlpHMepS.
HeKa cy A 11 B npoH3BOlhHH nop;cKynOBJi op; S. )J;OKa_)f(JfilO ]le Mopra.HoBy j e.::maxocr
(An B)' =N U B'.
IIp11MeTHMO p;a H3 A, B ~ s cnep;H p;a je A n B ~ S, Kao
H ;i;a je peq 0 KOMIL"IeMeHTIIMa
~ '--./
y op;Hocy Ha cKyrr S. YIMajyhH Ha YMY .o;e<i>HHJlu;Hjy KOMnne~ieHTa, ;tOBOlhHO _ie ;tOKa3an1
s
p;a je 3a CBaKO x J13 Ta'IHa eKBHBaneHu;Hja x E (A n B . ~ x E A' u B', 0.!IHOCHO
c /c
•XE An B ~ x E NVx EB', rj.•(x E Afl.x EB)~ •x E AV•x EB. (,.
AKo CTaBHMO p;a je p: x E A, q: x E B, nocnep;J:ba eKBHBane1m:uj a nocraie

~
•(p A q) ~ •P V •q. 0Ba qiopMY71a jecre rayrnnornja ~II03Hara xao J;e ~fopra.HoB
3aKoH), op;aKne cnep;M p;a je Tp(l)KeHa jep;ttaxocr Taq}fa.. +

3a:-.aTaK
"---../
c
)J;OK(l)KH p;a cy 3a bMno Koje CKYIIOBe A, B H C Ta'!He je!Ulaxocru:
(A\ B) \ C=A \(BU C), [(pA •q) A• r ~ pA•(qVr)J
A\ (B \ C) =(A\ B) U (An C). [pA•(qA • r) ~ (pA• q) V(p Ar)]

25 ~
 -------- ---- - ------

A Ypel)eHH nap. ,il;eKapToB npoH3BO)J;

YpeljeBJI nap (a,b) je .u;BO'IJiaIDI Hl13 'Ilfj11 je rrpB11 'lliaH (rrpBa Koop,[{11HaTa) a 11
'lltju je ;i:p)Tif 'IJiaH (APyra Koop}:{HHaTa) b. 3a ypel)eHe rrapoBe BaJKH
(a,b) =(c,d) ~a =c/\ b =d.

Pa3'"IJ ;:i;BO'L"IaIDi J];eKaprns rrpoH3BO.J; CK}'IlOBa A 11 B, y 03Har.µf AxB, jecTe CK)'II 'rnj11 cy eJieMeHTH
crcyn o;i ype!>eHor rrapa. ypel)eHH napoBH 'Ilija npBa KoopwrnaTa rrpl1Ila,[{a CK)'Ila A, a Apyra KOOPAHHaTa
{l.2} =<!,l} CK)'IIY B, O,[{HOCHO,
(1,2 = 2,1) AxB={(a,b) I a E A/\b EB}.

B AxB
_ _ _ __

(a,: ) (b,l ) (c, l ) IlpHMep l.

., I I I I HeKa je A = { 1,2} H B = { 0, 1,2}. 0ApeAHMO cKynoBe AxB 11 BxA:

AxB = { (l,0),(1,l),(l,2),(2,0),(2,l),(2,2) };
(a;:) (bl2) (c.2)
. I .
BxA = {(O,l),(1,l),(2,l),(0,2),(1,2),(2,2)}.
~ CKynOBJ.I AxB n BxA cy pa3IDf'IJfm H HHKJIY3HjcKH tteynopeAHBH, Tj .
.-\~ AxB ~BxA 11BxA ~AxB .
IlpKMenrno Jf .£\a je
(AxB) n (BxA) = { (1,1),(2,2)}.
BxA
Ey;lyb..H ,'.la npa3a.H CKyn HeMa eneMeHTe, HHje Moryhe <j>opM11pam ypel)ette rrapoBe
(:,c) 2,c)
ca KoopwmaTaMa 113 rrpa3Hor cKyna. 0,[{aB,[{e cneAH ,[{a cy 3a CBaKH cKyn A TaqHe
je,[{HaKOCT11
0xA=Ax0=0. •

.. .
CCD
B
")
3a;:i;aTaR
HeKa je A= {l,2,3} 11 B = {1,2}. 0APeAJ1:
(AxA) n (BxA); 2 (BxA) \ (AxB); 3 (A \ B)x(A n B).

y ·~ JR
)J.eKapTOB npoH3BO~ CKynOBa ce YBOAH no y3opy
Ha rrpaBoyrJIH KOOpAJIBaTIDi CHCTeM (Koj11 ce
I ...
_,
E
...-
Ha3JIBa H )J.eKapTOB KOOpA.J1HaTH.l1 CHCTeM). A(l 2)

,
AKo Koop~aTHe oce rrpaBoyrnor .I.

KoopwmaTHOf CJICTeMa CXBaTIIMO Kao rpa<j>JiqKe D ~

np.m<.a3e CKyna peammx 8pojaBa R Ta,[{a ce

~

-2 - 0 x
paBa.H y Kojy je IIOCTaBJbeH KOOpA.J1HaTH11 CJ1CTeM J.
'
'
MO)l(e CXBaTJ1TJ1 Kao )J.eKapTOB IIpOH3BOA JRxR
3<mcra, Ta'IK.e paBIDi 11,[{eHT11<j>ffKYjeMo ca £

ypel)emIM rrapoBHMa peaJIHHX 8pojeBa.

c B(2 -2)
-J

26
 E
'HMep2.
MMO ,n;a je 3a me cKynoBe A, B M C Ta'Il!a jeAJiaKOCT
{l ,e) (2,e)
Ax(B U C) = (AxB) U (AxC). e
:J>HO je ,!l;OKa3aTM ,n;a 3a CBaKO x My Ba)KJ.f eKBJIBaJie~a c Ic1Jn cd1)
x,.1 E A B l..J C ~ (x,y E A .B· U -.4. .C .
eHOM ,n;eqmmn_\Mje ,[J;eKapToBor npmrnBo,n;a M y1rn:je MM~m
x,y)EAxBUC ~xEAAyEBUC
~ x E .~. I •• : E B - E C)
B
(x,y) E (AxB) U (AxC) ~ (x,y) E AxBV (x,y) E AxC
~ (x E AAy E B)V .x E AAy EC).
CTaBMMO ,n;a je
p: x E A, q: y E B, r: y E C,
a TaYTOJIOflfjH p A (q v r) ~ (p A q) v (p Ar) (,n;OKa)l(J.fTe JW je OBa cl>opM}'lla 3aJfCTa
OJIOrHja) 3aKJbyqyjeMO ,n;a je ,n;arn CKyrrOBHa je,n;HaKOCT Ta'IHa . •

p;aTaK

_ ;::::.;...ll(lf ,n;a je 3a me cKyrroBe A, BM c Ta'Il!a jeAJiaKOCT Ax(B n C) =(AxB) n (AxC).

Ypel)ena TpojKa (a,b,c) je Tpo'l7Irurn HM3 'Ilfjn je rrpBu 'IJiaH a, ~yrn q;1aH b n
TpehH "lJiaH c. 3a ypeljeHe rpojKe BIDKH
(a 1,a2,a3 ) =(b 1,b2,b3) ~ a 1 =b1 Aa1 =b1 Aa3 = b3•
Cnwrno ce .n;ecl>murnIY ypeljeHe 'leTBopKe, ypeljeHe ueTopKe nr.:1.

y 03HaI.{Jt AxBxC, jecre Ch.JII 'Iltju cy

,[J;eKapTOB npoM3Bo,n; CKyrrOBa A, B M C, µeqmmurn!::i

eJieMeHTH ypeljeHe TpojKe 'Ilfja npBa KoopwmaTa uplil~a CKyna A, :ipyra

Koop,n;MHaTa CKyrry B, a rpelia Koop.mrnarn CK}'IIY C, OllHOCHO,
CKJIIOBH .-b<..-l,
AxBxC={(a,b,c) I a E AAb E BAc EC}.
Ax.AxA, ITT:I. Ha3Jraajy
Cn11qtto ce .n;ecl>11HMrne ,IJ;eKaprnB upon3Bo,n; B1rme o;r -rpn CKJ'll<l-
--- ---- ------
ce _ilexaproBM creneHH
' cxy:rra A K .,-ecro ce
..... xJR o&."I~jype.aoM
fipHMep3. .-\!, A3 JIT:L

·~~o j e A= {a,b}, ott,n;a je

A.xAxA = { (a,a,a),(a,a,b ),(a,b,a),(a,b,b ),( b,a,a),(b,a,b ),(b,b,a),(b,b,b)i . +
3ap;aTaK
JR
x AKo je A= {a,b,c}, B = {O,l}, C = {l,2}, o,qpe,n;M:
• AxBxC; 2 AxBxB; 3 BxBxB;
"" (A xBxC) n (AxCxB); 5_ (AxBxC) n (BxAxC).

3ap;aTaK
AKo je A= {l,2,3}, B = {a,b,c,d} H C= {O,l,2,3}, o.o;pe,::i;H c5poj ei:eMeHara CK}TIOBa:
1 AxBxC; 2 AxAxA; 3. BxBxC.

27 ~
 - ~---

A Euuapue perra:q11je
Pe,TarnrjaMa ycrrocraB;i,a.-..m Be3e H3.Mel)y o8jeKaTa (6pojeBa, reoMeTpHjcKmc q)Jl[rypa HT.n;.
Koje IIpO.f'laBaMO.

fomapHa pe."Ia.IVlja acyna A je forno Koj11 nop;cKyII )J;eKapToBor rrp o:H3Bo.n;a AxA.

Yoblf'laje1m je :ra ce
pe.-iamtje oaHatraaajy
-------
YaJ"'Illll cnoBnMa rpqxor
HeKa je A= { a,b,c} 11 p no.n:cKyII op; AxA p;aT ca
a.""Icpac5eTa.
p = {(a,a),(a,b),(a,c),(b,b),(c,a)}.
,/J;aKJie, p je jep;Ha 5:HHapHa peJiaJ.\11ja CKyIIa A. 0By pen~11jy CJI:HKOB:HT:Hje MO)f(eMo
npmca3arn Ha p;Ba HaqHHa: rpa¢oM 11 TabJIJ11.\0M. BepyjeMo .n;a cy Hape.n;He CJIHKe
,n;oBOJbHe p;a ce yoq:Jll KaKo ce ¢opM11pa Ta5JI:HJ.\a, OAHOCHO rpa¢ penaqHje.

a,
~(B b) e
a
II a
T
b
T
c
T
: IIpw1rn:KOM cpopMwpalba
rpacpa penaQwje HeMa rroTpec5e
HaBOAHTH ypeljeHe rrapoBe. Mw
(c,
~,,

I b .l T .l CMO HX HaBo.n;wnw caMo .n;a 5wcMo

c
I c T .l .l
• oc5jacHHnH 3Haqelhe cTpeJIHQa.

AKo je p aeKa bHHapaa pen~Hja cKyna A, Tj. aKo je p k AxA, yofo.1qajeHo je p;a ce
~xecro (x,y) E p mmre x p y 11 q:HTa ,,:HKC je y pen~11jH po ca 11nc11noH': YMeCTO
(x,y) ~ p IDfCalleMO xp y (p je npeqpTaHO CJIOBO po).
TaKol)e, y aacraBJcy hel'.m fornapHe pemu~Hje 3BaTH Kpabe penau,ujaMa.

IlpHMep2.

Tafoume u rpacpoBe
peilaIIJfja cpopmi:p~m
~O y Cty'Iajy ~a cy Te
pe.i"IaIIHje Ha KOHa:ciffiBf
~)IlOBHMa.
Pen~tje ~ H < Mel)y peaJIHJiM 8pojem1Ma Ba)f(HH cy rrp1.rnepH penaq11ja Ha
(8eCKOHaqaoM) CKJIIY ~. 08ojeIDl p;eJIOBJll KOOpp;:HHaTHHX paBHJ1, CXBa!iemt: Kao
IlO,ll;CKyIIOBJf OA -::xR, 3anpaBO cy rpa¢WIKJ1 npl1Ka3J1 OBHX penaq11ja. I1p11MeTJ1Te .n;a
Ha cmrrµt p;one }:\ecHo Ta'Il<e ca ,,11cnpeKH.n;aHe JI:HH11je" mt:cy )'KlbyqeHe y o.n;roBapajyhy
ObJiaCT.

•
28
 fornapHa pena1v,1ja p cicyna A je:
• pecpJieKCHBHa aKo je x p x 3a cBaKo x Jll3 A;
• HpecprreKCHBHa aKo 3a cBe x H3 A HMje x p x;
• CHMeTpH11Ha aKo je 3a CBe x Hy Jll3 A yaqHa JL'>mmfl<aa;nja x p y => y p x;
• aHTHCHMeTpH'IHa aKo je 3a cBe x Hy H3 A Ta'Illa J1MlIJIJtKau;J1ja ,neqmml.Wf b
xpyAypx=>x=y;
• JIHHeapHa aKo je 3a CBe x J11 y H3 A Ta'Illa wicjyma.\J1ja x p y Vy p x;
• TpaH3HTHBHa aKo je 3a cBe x, y J11 z. 113 A Ta'Illa 1n.1nJrnKaI.V1ja
x p y A y p z => x p z.
·---~

IlpHMep 3.
J1cm1TajMo Koje O,ll; oco8J11Ha HaBe)l;eIDtX y rrpeTXo)l;Hoj )l;eqmmn:prju rum peJia.QJrja p
cKyna A= {a,b,c} H3 rrpHMepa 1. J1crrocTaBHlie ce )l;a oBa penaa;nja HeMa mrje}lH)' op;
IIOMeHyna OCObJllHa. ~
(~ ~\..
PenaQHja p HHje peqlJieKCHBHa, jep HHje TaqHo )l;a cy CBH eneMeHrn: cKyna A y penaQ11j11 c
ca coboM: a p a, b p b J11 c p c.
PenaQHja p HHje 11peqmeKCHBHa, jep HHje Ta'Illo )l;a CBH eneMeHTH cKyrra A HHcy y
penaQHjH ca coboM: a p a, b p b H c p c.
)J;a penaQHja p HHje HH CHMe-rpH'Illa HM aHTHCHMeTpM'llia, rroKasyjy Hape:uie .J;Be nbene
y Koj11Ma cy )l;eTalbHO HCilHTaHe CBe MOryilHOCTJ1.

x x x x I l'. i xel'. ; l'.ex X=J.' xe l'. Al'. ex=>X= l'_

a a T T T a I a I T I T T T
I ! i
a b T ..L ..L
II a b T ..L ..L T
I

a c T T I T a c T I T ..L .1
;
b a ..L T T I b I a • .1 ! T ..L T

-Y
b b T • T T I b I b I T
I
I T ~' T I
I
T
b c ..L ..L I T b I c 1:
..L .1 .1 II T
t
c a T T T I c a T T .1 .1
c b ..L ..L T I c I ' b ..L .1 I .1 T
c c ..L ..L T I c I c • ..L f ..L T T
'
J1aKo cy rrpeTxop;He Tabene BeoMa HH<J>op~rnnmHe, EhUXOBO <J>opMl!paH>e :\IOJKe ,!la
rrpe,ll;CTaBJba 3aMopaH rrocao aKo je cKyn KOHaqaa u HMa Belill bpoj eneMeHaTa, ;::i:oK y
cnyqajeBHMa becKoHaqHHX cKynoBa HHje HH Morrhe ¢op:\mpan1 osa.KBe rabe.ae.
IloKyrnajMo )l;a OTKpHjeMo be3 Tabena )l;a JIH je penaa;Jrja p mrneapHa u ~a m1 j e
TpaH3J1TJ1BHa.

AKO II(l)Klby ycMepHMO Ha ,!1;e<J>1rnHQHjy penaQHje p, O,ll;HOCHO Ra IbeH rpa<J>, bp30 he:\IO
b pc 11 c p b, Ti. - lb pc\ c p b).
yoq11TH )l;a penaa;Hja p HHje JIJraeapaa, jep je, Ha rrpHMep,
)J;a penaQHja p HMje -rpaH3HTIIBRa, cnew1 H3 qJ.flbeHHQa: c p a, a p b :1 c p b, Ti. Jl3
qm1>eHHQe )l;a Hlije Ta'Illa JlMIIJIJIKaa;Jfja c p a A a p b => cp b. +

29
 ------- - -- - - - -------- -------------

E Pena~je nopeTKa H eKBJIBarreH~Hje

HeK.a je p pe;ramtja CKJIIa A. Penan;:Mja p je perran;Hja nopeTKa (ypel)efbe) aKo je

peqmeKCJIBHa, aHTlfCJ.IMeTpI1'IHa M 'YpaH3MTHBHa.

i.......--

IlpBKep 1.
Y Hape)lHoj -rabem1 cy mrne.n;eee TPH BaJKHe penan;:11je rropeTKa.

Penamrja ~ na CK}'Il}' ? Penan;:Mja I (.n;eJhHBOCTM) Ha V1HKJIY3Mja k Mel)y CKyrrOBMMa

(3a CBe x, , z n3 ) cKyrry N (3a cBe n, m, k M3 N) (3a CBe cKyrroBe A, B, C)
AkA
$ x => x= n m/\m n=>n=m A k B/\B k A=> A =B
n m/\m k => n k A k B/\B k C =>A k C

IlpnMenrno .n;a je penan;:Jrja $ ea CKyrry lR JIMHeapHa, jep je x $ y MJIM y $ x 3a bMJIO Koja

p;Ba 8poja x n y.
PenaI{Jtja I (.n;CJbJIBOCrn) Ha CI<yrry N Haje JIMHeapHa, jep, Ha rrpMMep, 2 r3 Ji 3 r 2.
J1mrny3Hja TaKol)e IDfje mrneapHa, jep, Ha rrpKMep,{l,2,3} <J, {2,3,4} M {2,3,4} <J, {l,2,3}. +

3a;J;aiaK
)J.a JDf je penan;:Mja cicyrra A= {a,b,c,d} rrpHKa3atta rpacl>oM Ha
cmf:ql1 ,qeCHo penan;:Mja nopeTKa?
,L:{a JDf je OBa perran;:Mja mrneapHa?

Perran;:Mja p je penan;:Mja JIHHeapHor nopeTKa (n11HeapHo ypel)eH>e) aKo je

peqmeKCHBHa, aHTMCMMeTpl1'!Ha, JIJiHeapHa M TpaH3MTHBHa.
Pena.iµrja p je perran;:Mja cTporor nopeTKa (cTporo ypel)eH>e) aKo je Hpecl>neKCMBHa
H TpaH3MTMBHa.
Peaawrja $ Ha cxyrry ? L--
je mrneapHo ypel)eH>e.
IlpHMep2.
CBaKoj penan;:nj11 nopeTKa p HeKor cKyrra A o.n;roBapa je.n;Ha penan;:Mja cTporor rropeTKa
a (TaKol)e Ha A) TaKBa .n;a cy 3a cBe x My H3 A rnqHe eKBMBaJieHn;:ttje:
x p y @ x a y v x = y, O):l;HOCHO, x a y @ x p y /\ x =/:- y.
TaKo penan;:MjH $ Ha CKYJlY JR op;roBapa penan;:11ja <, jep je 3a CBaKo x, y M3 JR:
x $y @x<yVx=y, O):l;HOCHO, x <y@ x $y/\x=1:-y.
C.1IWIH0 TOMe, IDIKJIY3HjH k op;roBapa CTpora MHKJIY3Hja. 3a cBe CKyrroBe A MB TaqHe
cy eKBJmarre~je
A k B @ A C B VA =B, O):l;HOCHO, A C B @ A k B /\A=!:- B. +

30
 ---- -··----

Perra.Q11ja p je pena1µ1ja eKBHBanemµrje aKO je pe¢rreKCHBHa,

~ µeif>nuuUHja
CHMeTJ>WIHa 11 TJ>aH3MTIIBHa.

IIpHMep3.
Ha Hape,n;Hoj CJIM.QH rrpHKa3aH je rpa¢ je,D;He perra.Q11je eKBHBanemµtje CK}'Ila
S = {a,b,c,d,eJ}.

H 11je TernKo yoq11T11 ,n;a je CK}'Il S OBOM perra.QMjoM 113,n;eJbeH 0 0•

(l;.~ '
Ha TPH rro,n;cKyrra KOjH cy Mel)ycobHO ,D;Mcj)'HlCTIDI TaKO ,n;a
j e CBaKH erreMeHT 811rro KOr IIO,lJ;CK)'Ila IIOBe3aH ca bHJIO
KOjHM erreMeHTOM 113 HCTOf IIO,lJ;CKyrra (HapaBHO H ca caMnM \\,'I• j)
coboM). CBaKM o,n; OBHX no,n;CicyrroBa Ha3HBa ce KJiaca
eKB11Barremi;11je.
lloja
IIpeI.J;H3H11je, KJiace eKB11BaJieH.QMje cy rro,n;cKyrroB11: {a,b,c}, {d} 11 {eJ}. +
JeAJiaKOCT ( = )
•• J1crrocTaBJba ce ,n;a CBaKa perraQMja eKBHBaJieH.QMj e HeKor cKyrra ,n;err11 Taj cKyrr Ha
Meljyco8Ho ,n;11cjyttKTHe Henpa3He rro,n;cKyrroBe qlfja j e ynHj a j e,D;HaKa CKyily Ha KOMe j e
je TJ1IDf'IaH
rrpHMep pemuµrje
perraQ11ja ,n;e¢11H11caHa. CBaKM o,n; Till no.z:i;cKyrroBa Ha3KBa ce xnaca eKBKBanemµrje eKB1manem.urje.
yoqeHe perraQ11je.

IIpHMep4.
0 PerraQ11ja p cKyrra .Qemrx 8pojeBa Z ,n;e¢uHMcana j e Ha cne~elrn: Ha'IKH:
I1pmra3 pen:aunje
·e:.uraxocn1 Mel)y
x p y aKKo je x -y _::\eJbJIB ca 2. peaamrn 6pojeBIDt:a
,[J;oKa)KHMO ,n;a je p penaQ11ja eKBHBaJieH.QMje.
~ ~
Pe<fmeKCUBHocm. KaKo je 3a CBaKM .Qeo 8poj x pa3mfKa x -x j eAJiaKa HYJU1, na j e TIIMe 11
rr /.
,n;elb11Ba ca 2, crre,D;M ,n;a je x p x 3a CBaKH .Qeo 5poj x.

CuMeiUput-tHocm. IIpernocTaBHMO ,n;a cy x Hy .QeJIM 8poj eB11 TaKBH ,n;a j e x p y . Ta,n;a j e

it / x
o o ~ o o) ""'.(
a x-y p;elbHBO ca 2. MeljyTHM Tap;a je 11 y-x p;elbHBO ca 2 (j ep j e y - x =-(x- y)) , rra je TIL.'de -2 - 1 10 1 2 x-
HY p x.
/ -~
TpaH3UiUU8Hocm. IIpernocTaBHMO p;a cy x, y Hz n;em1 8poj eBu TaKBH p;a j e x p y 11 y p z.
Ta,n;a cy x-y 11 y-z ,n;eJbHBH ca 2. KaKo je x-z= (x- y) + (x- z ), 3a1Gh)-qyjeMo ,n;a je x-z
,n;eJbHBO ca 2, Tj. x p z.
fpa<J> je:maxocrn cKyna
:1<a "--i. = 1a,!7,c,d}

~~~~~
0 . 0 . 0 •. 0 . 0 .
r9_'-\
c

~ -B8~ 0
e CB·
CKyrr Z je OBOM peJiaQHjoM nogelbeH Ha ]{Ba ;::i;ncj~'THa no;:iacyna: aqn Henapma:
Qemuc 8pojeBa { ..., -5, -3, -1,1,3,5, ... } u cxyn napmcx ne-IKX 8poj eBa { ... -4, -2,0,2,4,6 --l· + 8
31 I
 A
<l>)'H.KI{Jfje cy je~a o.n; HajBa_)f(HMjmc Be3a J13Mel)y MaTeMaTMKe J1 CBeTa OKO Hae.
IlO,\IOilY IMfX MO,ll;emt:paMo J1 npaTMMO pa.n; MexaHJ1qKHJC, bMOJIOIIIKHJC J1 pa3HHJC .n;pyrttx
CHCTeMa.
11HryJITHBHO, cpymavrjaMa ce ycnOCTaBlbajy Be3e H3Mel)y eJieMeHaTa ,ll;Ba CKyna TaKO
IIITO ce CBaKOM eJieMeHTY je.n;1rnr cKyna rrptt.n;p)')Kyje TaqHo je.n;aH eneMeHT .n;pyror cKyna.

IlpKMep 1.

Ha Hape~ cmt:KaMa rrpHKasaHo je jeww IIpH,ll;p)')KMBalbe Koje cBaKoM eneMeHTY

CKJIIa A= {a,b,c,d} .n;o,z:i;elbyje Taqiio je.n;att eneMeHT cKyrra B = {l,2,3}. ,ll;pyrHM peq11:Ma,
,z:i;ecpHHHCaHa je je)l;Ha cpyttKU;Hja H3 A y B.

A AxB

AClIIj:>
YoqeHy cpyttK~Hjy CXBaTaMO Kao CKyn
J= {(a,l),(b,2),(c,2),(d,3)}. +

CKynfje <J>y111a:i;Hja M3 A y B, y 03Ha~11:f: A~ B, aKo B(l)l(e cne,z:i;etrn ycnoBH:

1 j<;;, AxB11:
,neqmmi.1.1uja 2. 3a CBaKo x H3 A rrocTojH TaqflO je.n;aH eneMeHT y M3 B TaKaB .n;a (x,y) E f
AKo f: A ~ B, CKJII A ce Ha3HBa µ;oMeH HJIH obnacT µ;e<)>u:Hu:caHocTu:, a cKyn B
KO}J;OMeH J1ill[ obJiaCT Bpeµ;:HOCTH cpyttKU;Mje f
A L-

IJpHMep2.
HeKa je A= {a,b,c,d} H B ={l,2,3} (Kao y rrpeTxo,z:i;HoM rrpttMepy).

CKJII g= {(a,l),(b,2),(d,2)} HHje cpyttKU;Hja H3 A y B, jep eneMeHT c H3 A Httje rrpBa

KOOp,Il;HHaTa HHje)l;Hor rrapa J13 g, Tj. eJieMeHTY c HHje rrptt,z:i;py)KeH HMje,z:i;aH eneMeHT J13
B.

CKyn h = {(a,l),(b,2),(c,1),(c,2),(d,3)} Httje cpyttKU;ttja H3 A y B, jep p;Ba pa3JIJ1qurn

napa H3 h MMajy HCTY rrpBy Koopp;irnaTy c, Tj. eneMeHTy c HHje rrpH,z:i;py)KeH caMo je.n;aH
eneMeHT H3 B.

CKyrIOBM e= {(a,l),(b,l),(c,l),(d,2)} J1 s = {(a,3),(b,2),(c,l),(d,2)} jecy cpyttKU;Hje

tt3 A y B. +

32
 AKo f A ~ B, )'MeCTO (x,y) E f murreMo fix) = y, a rroHeKa;a;a :u x -f y.

I
AKo
IlpHMep3.
jef {a,b,c,d} ~ {l,2,3} ¢y1uai;:uja :113 npHMepa l, oH,qaje
j{a) = 1,j{b) =2,j{c) =2,j{d) =3,
&
rrp:11 'IeM)' cy OBe je;a;ttaKOCTH ,qpyra'Ilfje 3arrncaH:11 o;a;ttoc:11
(a,l) E f, (b,2) E f, (c,2) E f, (d,3) E f
Pa;a;:11 8oJbe rrperrre;a;HOCTH Kop:ucTHMO H rne;a;etrn 3arr:11c:

f=(a c b d).
1223
0BaKaB 3arr:11c je rroro;a;aH 3a ;a;e¢JffiJ1caH>e ¢~ja J13Mel)y ;a;Ba KOHaqJia cxyna ca
MaJIHM 8pojeM eJieMeHaTa. +
' flpHMep4.
Ka;a;a cy y Ill1TaH>Y ¢YHKl..l;J1je J13Mel)y KOHa'IHHX CK}'IIOBa ca "BeJIHKJru" 8pojeM
eJieMeHaTa HJIH 8ecKOHa'IHJ1X CK}'IIOBa, He MO)l(eMO HX ;a;e¢HHHCaTJ1 Kao y rrpeTXOAHJfM
rrpttMepttMa. Y oBaKBHM CJI}"IajeBHMa ¢YHKr.i;Hje ce ttajqernne 3a;a;ajy HaBol)eH>eM
rrpaBHJia no KOMe ce eneMeHTHMa je;a;irnr cKyrra ;a;o;a;eJbyjy eJieMeHTH ;a;pyror cKyrra.

BeoMa Ba)l(He ¢YHKr.i;Hje Mel)y cKyrroBHMa 8pojeBa rrpe;a;crnBJbajy otte Koje cy

;a;e¢ttHHCaHe HeKHM H3pa30M ca je;a;ttoM rrpoMeHJbHBOM. Ha rrpHMep, H3pa30M 2x + 1
;a;e¢HHHCaHa je ¢YHKl..l;Hja f JR --+ JR Koja CBaKOM peaJIHOM 8pojy x npH,qp}')l(Yje
o;a;roBapajyny Bpe;a;ttocT 2x + 1:
f f f f
3 - 7; 2,5 - 6; 0 - l; -1 - -1, ...
Je;a;HoCTaBHO, Ka)l(eMo ;a;a je ¢YHKl..l;l1ja f :R --+ ~ ;a;e¢nmicaHa ca
j{x)=2x+l.
CacBHM je rrpttpo;a;Ho ;a;a OBY ¢YHKr.i;Hjy rpa¢J1'IKJf npm<:IDKeMo y npaBoyrnoM
Koop;a;HHaTHOM CHCTeM)'. •

f
JR JR
Rx~
YI ;,h =2xT I

:/
3 3 l (l,3)

2 2

1 1 1,. (0,1)

0 --<
11t'.'laH 01 1 2 3 x
-1 -1

-2 -2
(-2 ,-3)
-39 - - - - - - -9-3 I • -3

33
1
 ilpJ1Mep 5.
IloCdarpaj~IO ;we .pyai<:qMje, f: {a,b,c,d} -+ {1,2,3} Hg: { 1,2,3} -+ {t,u, v, w}, p;aTe ca
t=(a b Cd)
1122
Hg=( 1 2
tvw
31·
Ilpm1ern.Mo :4a je ;i;oMeH cpyrua:v.1je g HCTH Kao Kop;oMeH cpy1ua~.aje f
KoMII03lmJi° a
.Je<P1mmrntMo HOB)' cp~y h: {a,b,c,d} -+ {t,u,v,w} ca
~e <!>ymanrje je
h(x) =g(f(x)), x E {a,b,c,d}.
:te$mrnca.aa c.aMO aKo je Ta;iaje
;rOMeB je::me $yma:m ·e h(a) = g(f(a)) = g(l) = t, h(b) =g(f(b)) =g(l) =t,
e:tlUK Ko:tmi:eHJ ;1pyre h(c) =g(f(c)) =g(2) =v, h(d) =g(f{d)) =g(2) =V.
cpymaurje. jlaKJie,

ITp11Menrre ;:race h =(ab c

ttvv
d)·
KOMI103UIOlja j" g
cpym::mrja H3 rrp1rnepa 1. A f g c A c
He MO)l(e .:ieqnnmcanL

<l>ymcu:ttja h HCl3JIBa ce KOMII03HI.V·fja cp~Hja f Hg. •

KoMH03HIJ;:uja cpym<:qaja f: A -+ B Hg: B -+ C je cp)'H~Hja h: A -+ C, .n;ecpHHHCaHa ca

eqmmum h(x) =g(f(x)).
~a h ce 03HaqaBa ca g o f )J;aKJie, (g o j) (x) = g(j(x)).

IlpHMep 6.

<Pyma.\11je f ~ -+ IR. Hg: IR -+ IR .n;ecp.aHHCaHe cy ca

fix) =-2x- l Hg(x) =3x+ 1.
Op; OBHX cp)'H~Hja Mory ce .n;ecpHHHcarn pa3He KOMTI03HQHje, Kao Ha rrpHMep,f o g: IR ~ ?
EKCIL"DIIIJITHO (ilaT.
go f IR -+ IR,f of IR-+ JR, go g: IR -+ R O.n;pep;HMo H3pa3e Koje eKcrnn1QHTHO o.n;pel)y;:-
explidtus) 3Ha'IH jarno, oBe cp)'HKQHje.
He;:i;BOGiltCileHO, (j o g)(x) =fig(x)) =fi3x + 1) =-2(3x + 1) -1 =--Ox-3
ornopeHo. (go j)(x) =g(f(x)) =g(-2x- l) =3(-2x-l) + 1 =--Ox-2
(j o j)(x) = j(f{x)) = fi-2x- l) =-2(-2x- l) -1=4.x+1
(go g)(x) =g(g(x)) =g(3x+ 1) =3(3x+ 1) + 1 =9x+4 +

~Hjef? ·~ ::.l 11g: R -+ IR .n;ecpHHHcaHe cy ca fix) =x-1.ag(x)=1-x.

Op;pep;M:j o g, go f,f o f,g o g, (j o j) of
I
34
 \':\~ ~

<l>)7HKL\J'fja f A -+ B je:
;::e¢HBJIUl!Ja
• l-I-<l>y1uo~Hja (<nnaj ,,jep;aH jep;att ¢YHKI.\»ja"), aKo je 3a cBaKo xi' x 2 H3 A Ta'llia
l1MIIJIJ1KaQHja
x1 :t:x2 ~fix) :f: fix),
O)J;HOCHO, l1MIIJIJ1KaQ11ja (Koja je IIO 3aKOHY KOHTpaII03Hlll1je eKBHB3.JJ.eHTHa 3axoH KOliTpaII03JlUHje
npeTXOp;Hoj) (..,q => -p ~ p => q
fix1) = fix2) ~ x 1=x1;
Ha-<l>YHKD;Hja, aKO 3a CBaKO y H3 B IIOCTOjH x H3 A Ta.KO L{a je fix' = y;
OHjeKD;Hja, aKo je 1-1-<i>YHKI.\Hja H tta-¢YHKI.\Hja.
1-1
A HHje 1-1
AKo je f: A -+ B 1-1-<i>YHKI.\Hja, IIHilleMo f: A -+ B, aKo je Ha-¢)'HKI.\Hja rnrmeMo
Ka 1-1
f: A -+ B, a aKo je 811jeKI.\»ja, IIHilleMo f: A -;;: B.

1IpHMep7.

,ll;OK<UKHMO p;a je <l>YHKI.\Hja f: IR. -+ IR. p;e¢HHJ1CaHa ca

fix)=-2x+l A Hlilje 1-1
811jeKQ11ja.
,ll;OK<UKHMO npBO p;a je f 1-1-<i>YHKI.\"ja. HeKa cy xi " x2 peaJIHl1 opojeBH TaKBl1 p;a je
fix 1) =fix). Tap;a je, npeMa p;e¢11HHQ»j11 ¢YHKI.\»je f, b---4 . r
-2xl + 1=-2x2+ 1,
op;aKJie np11MeHOM II03HaTHX csojcTaBa ca811palha H MHO)l(eiba peaJ1Hu:x opojeBa c
3aKJbyqyjeMo p;a je x 1 =x2.
,ll;oK<UKHMO p;a je f tta-¢YHKI.\l1ja. HeKa je y rrpoH3BOJbaH peanatt 8poj. Tpeoa npottahtt
Opoj X TaKaB p;a je fix)= y. IloHOBO npeMa p;e¢HHHQJfjlf ¢)'HK:qHje j HMaMO J).a je
-2x + 1 = y, op;aKJie cnep;» p;a je A B

X=y-1
-2
Tap;ajefix) =-2x+ 1 =-2(Y_~ )+1 =y.
1
•

I~ I~
AKo f: A -;;: B, ottp;a nocTOjH 811jeKI.\1tja g: B-;;: .A. TaKBa .ua je
j{g(y)) = y, 3a cBaKo y 113 B

yjy " g(fi.x)) =X, 3a CBaKO x H3 .A..

<l>)7HKQ11ja g H3 npeTXop;He TeopeMe HaJJIBa ce 1msep3Ha <l>ymmuja ¢ymamje f u

oOeJie)f(aBa ce ca J-'.

IIpHMep8.

Y npeTxop;HoM np11Mepy CMO noKa3aJJ.Jt na je ¢ymcuuj a f: ~ -+ ~ naTa ca

fix) =-2x + 1 811jeKI.\1tja. Y p;oKaJY L{a je f Ha-¢puau1ja o.:q>e!ULlll CMO, 3anpaBo,
HHBep3tty ¢YHKI.\Hjy !:< -+ ~- Osa ¢ymcu11ja j e ne¢HHHcatta ca J-1(x) =- x - l .
J-1:
IlposepHTe p;a JIH cy 3a csaKo x »3 ::C Ta'IBe je~HaKOCTil
flJ- 1(x)) =x u J-1(f{x)) =x. +
35
 A
KaMfomarnpHKa je MaTe~ranr'IKa WK~a Kaja ce yrmrnHaM 8aBl1 KaHa'IHl1M
~ CK)'IlaBHMa l1 rrpofo1eMH.."'da op;pel)i.rnaIDa 8paja eneMeHaTa TaKBHX cKynaBa. Ilp11 TaMe,
0 BeaMa qeCTa Hl1je Maryhe an<pJffJi 8paj eJieMeHaTa HeKar KaHa'IHar CKyna ,o;11peKTHl1M

0 D rrpe8pajaBalheM, Ben ce naceJKe 3a HeKHM p;pyrHM TeXIDl:KaMa. Cna8a,o;H11je peqeHa,

npe8pajaBalhe ce He a8aBJha 8pajaH>eM, Ben pa3MMIIIJhaibeM, IIITa heMa mrycTpaBaTl1
0 HapeWIJ™ rrpHMepHMa.

G IlpHMep 1.
~ Oµ;pe;nrua Opaj eiieMeHaTa CK)'Ila A •mj11 cy eJieMeHTl1 CBl1 ,o;BaIJ,mppeHl1 8pajeBl1

0 3armcaHH naMahy HenapH11X IJ,11¢apa: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9.

CK)7II A je a<rnTJiegHa KaHaqaH. JtlrraK, 811na 811 BeaMa ttarraptta HaBeCTl1 CBe lheraBe
0 G eneMeHTe u rrpe8pojaTI1 HX (rrarne,o;ajTe CJ111KJ Ha Maprntt11). IlaCTyn11heMa Ha ,o;pyr11

0 Ha'Ilm.

G CBaKH ,[\Bal.l,11¢peH opaj je 3anpaBa je,o;aH ,[\BaqJiaHJ1 Hl13 IJ,l1¢apa. CBaKl1 eneMeHT
CKJIIa S ,n;afarjaMo ¢apMMpajyl'rn: H1if3 a,o; ,o;Be IJ,l1¢pe, 811pajyh11 IJ,11¢pe l13 {l,3,5,7,9}.
~ 3a rrpso ~IeCTa (cneBa) 11.MaMa neT MaryhHaCTJ1, a 3a CBaKy a,o; THX neT MaryhHaCTl1
0 nacroju no neT MoryliHacTJ1 3a p;pyry IJ,11¢py. ,Il;aKJie, cKyn S l1Ma 25 eneMettaTa.
J1CIIOCTaBJha ce ):\a 8paj eJieMeHaTa CK)'Ila A HJ1je MHara BeJIJ1KJ1 l1 ,o;a CMa MOfJIJ1 CBe ,o;a
~ 0 l1X rrpe8pajHMa cncTeMaTJ1qttHM 3alll1:Cl1BalheM. Mel)yTHM, Ha aBaj HaqMH npaKTJ1qHa

0 mrje 1'mryhe a.n;pep;wrn, Ha np11Mep, 8paj CBMX ce,o;MoIJ,11¢peHMX 8pojesa 3anMcaHMX

1P1¢pa.Ma 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. Pa3Ml1IIIJhajyha Kao y cnyqajy ,o;BaIJ,11¢peHMX 5pojesa, 8p3a
[2J AOJia3J.fMa .n;o pe3ynTaTa: ce,o;MaIJ,11¢pettl1X 8pajeBa 3an11caHMX naMahy IJ,M¢apa l, 3, 5,
7, 9 YKJIIHO Jh'>fa 57 =78 125 . •
CD
-0 IlpHMep2.

D 0 HeKa je B CK)'II CBHX IleTa!p1¢peHJ1X 8pajeBa y KOjl1Ma ce IJ,l1¢pe He naHaBJhajy. 0Bara

[?] IIJTil HeMa arpaHWieiba Koje n;11¢pe ce Mory najaBJbl1BaTl1, IIITa 3HaqJ1 ,o;a cy ,o;o3BOJbeHc
CBe l.l,11¢pe ,o;eKa;utor cHcTeMa: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. AKa 3aMMCJIMMa neTaIJ,M¢peHe
G 8pajese Kao rreTO'lllaHe H1if3aBe IJ,l1¢apa, ,o;ana3l1Ma ,o;a cne,n;el'rn:x 3aKJbyqaKa:
• Ha rrpBa MeCTa (cneBa) MOJKeMa naCTaBl1Tl1 bl1JIO Kajy n;11¢py pa3JIJ1qJ1TY a,o; Hylle,
GJ IIITO 3Ha'llf ,o;a HMaMa ,o;eBeT MaryhttaCTl1,

0 • Ha p;pyra MeCTa MOJKeMa nacTaBl1Tl1 0l1Jia Kojy a,o; IJ,H¢apa, aCHM aHe Kaja je
nacTaBJheHa Ha npBO MeCTa, IIITa 3HaqJ1 ,o;a naHaBO HMaMa ,o;eBeT MaryhHaCTl1,
0 0 • Ha Tpebe MeCTa, HaKaH l130apa rrpBe ,IJ;Be l.l,11¢pe, MaJKeMa yn11caTJ1 je,o;Hy a,o; acaM

[2J npeocTaJIMX IJ,M¢apa,

• Ha qernprn Mecrn, HaKoH l138apa npBe TPl1 IJ,l1¢pe, yn11cyjeMa je,o;Hy o,o; npeacTamn:
G ce,o;aM IJ,l1¢apa,
• J1 Ha Kpajy, Ha rreTO MeCTa, HaKaH H38apa npBe qeTl1Pl1 IJ,l1¢pe, ynMcyjeMa je,o;Hy a,D.
rrpeacTaJIJ1X rnecT IJ,11¢apa.
,Il;aKJie, CK)'II B KMa 9 · 9 · 8 · 7 · 6 =27. 216 eneMeHaTa. +

3a;:i;aTaK
Kalll1Ka HMa meCTOD;l1:¢peHHX 5pojeBa y Kajl1Ma ce IJ,l1¢pe He naHaBJhajy?

36
 . ~-·

·. ··.\'11(

IlpHMep 3.
Ha IIIaxOBCKOM TYPHHPY je yqecTBOBano neT uuuttcra: Depa, MHKa, Jla3a, CMM:a u An:a.. A
Kom1Ko rrapTHja je YKYTIHO op,wrpatto, aKo ce HrpaJio no rn:cre~ry CBaKO ca CBa.KJt:M?
CBaKH o,n; rreT yqecHHKa Typttwpa je O.n;Hrpao ca rrpeocTamfM TaKMJ.PiapJn.rn rro jeAHY TI~ : < AC
rraprn:jy, O,Il;HOCHO, YKyrrHO qeTHpH rrapTHje. Mel)yrHM, yi<ymm opoj o,z:vrrpaHHX
rrapTwja je ,n;Ba rryTa MalhH o,n; 8poja 5 · 4, jep cy CBaKa wia Ta.KMJl'lapa 0µ;1rrpam1 Taqno
rro je,n;tty rrapTHjy.
)J;aKJie, o,n;ttrpatto je YKYTIHO 10 MeqeBa.. + ~1 ,1

3a;:i;aTaK
1) KOJIHKO ,n;y)KH o8pa3yje ce,n;aM Tat.Ia.Ka Meljy Kojmia He rrocrnje TJ>H Koje rrpKIIa~ajy
je,n;ttoj rrp aBoj?
2) Ha KOJIHKO Hat.IHHa ce o,n; 20 yqeHHKa je,n;ttor op;elbe11>a MO)Ke K3a8pan1 }J;BO'Ulatta
,n;erreraQHja?
3) Korr11Ko 11Ma ,n;BoqnaHHX rro,n;CKynoBa cKyrra Koj1111Ma 100 erreMeHaTa?

rreHMep4.
KorrHKO cKyn o,n; 100 erreMeHaTa HMa rreTot.IJiaH11x rro,n;cKyrroBa?
Epoj rreTot.IJiaHMX HH30Ba Mel)yco8Ho pa3JIM'IMTI1X erreMeHaTa ,n;aTor cKyrra o,n;pel)yjeMo
pa3MHIIIJbajytrn Kao y rrpHMepy 2 - HMa I1X 100 · 99 · 98 · 97 · 96 = 9 034 502 400.
IleTOt.IJiaHHX rro,n;cKyrroBa MMa 3HaTHO Malhe Hero neTO'UlaHI1X HJ130Ba. Hwje TeIIIKO
3aKJb)"IMTJ1 ,n;a o,n; CBaKOr neTO'Ulattor no,n;cKJila p;aTor CKJIIa MO)Ke~10 cpopmtpaTH
5 · 4 · 3 · 2 · 1 = 120 pa3JI.11'IBTI1X IIeTOt.{JlaHJIX HJ1.30Ba y KojnMa ce eneMeHTJ! He
" rrottaBJbajy. 3aKJbyqyjeMo ,n;a rreTO'UlaIDf.X HH30Ba pa3JIJf'Umcx eJieMeHaTa .:i,aror CKyila
J1Ma 120 rryTa BHIIIe Hero rreTO'UlaHHX IIOACKJIIOBa OBOf CI<yIIa..
)J;aKrre, rreTot.IJiaHHX rrop;cKyrroBa CI<yna op; 100 eneMeHaTa JIMa
9 034 502 400: 120 =75 287 520 . •

3a11;aTaK
Korr11Ko 11Ma ce,n;MO'UlaHMX rro,n;CK:yrroBa CKyrr KOjH ~'1a 39 eneMeeara?

,IJ;HpHXJieOB npHH~

~
)J;HpJ1XJ1eOB npHHQHII je BeOMa KOpHCHO TBpljelbe 'Dlja j e q.mp MJ'.'Iarvrja cacBJrn
je,n;HocTaBHa: aKo n · m + 1 npe~ern Tpeoa pacrrope;nmr y n Kyntja, omra ce
HajMalhe y je,n;ttoj Kyrttj H Mopa HaJia3HTI1 Sap m +l rrpem.reT.
Hajje,n;uoCTaBHKje noCJie,n;HQe cy:
" y CKyrry o,n; TPH npttpOWia opoj a oap ,n;Ba cy .HCTe n apHOCTH;
" y CBaKOj rpyrrK OA jep;attaecT OCOOa lhI1X meCT !>IOpajy foITH JICTOf IIOila n ca.

3ap;aTaK.

AKo y IUKOJIK HMa 735 yqeeHJCa, OHAa ttajMalhe TPH yqemtKa CJJ.a.Be pol)enmrn ncror
j ,n;aua. 3amrn?

37
 KBa.HrmfmxaTopu, nope.rr rroruqxux Be3HJfKa, urpajy BaJKHY ynory rrp11n11KoM
.popM}'llamrje -;BpljeH>a Koja ce op;Hoce Ha crynoBe, rrocec5Ho KaAa je peq o
beCKOHa'IHJrn CK}IIOBKMa

YHIIBep3a.""IHOM KBaHTIHpuxarnpy OAJ'OBapa peq ,,CBaKU" (c511no Koju,

rrpon3Bo;i,aa). Ymmep3aJIHU KBattTHcpl1KaTop ce oc5eJie)l(aBa c11Mc5onoM V
(obpHJTO A).
£r3HCie~aJIIIOM KBaHTIIc}>mcaTOpy OAJ'OBapa peq ,,IIOCTOj11" (HeKU, 5ap jeAaH).
£r3ucTe~jaJIHU KBaHnt:cpm<aTOp ce oc5eJie)l(aBa rnMbonoM 3 (obpHyTO E).

Ynorpec5y KBaHrncpl1KaTOpa Hajrrpe heMo J1JIYCTpoBaT11 pa3MaTpajyh11 peqeHmW Koje

HJIC}" MaTeMaTWIKe IIpHpOAe.

Ilpniep I.
IlocMarpajMo bUHaptty pen~jy ,,Bone·rn" Ha CKJIIY CBHX JbYAH - 03Haq11Mo je ca V.
Axo cy x Ji y HeKe ococ5e, OHAa V(x,y) 3HaqJ1 ,,X BOJIJ1 y':

3ammrn:Mo peqeHIDzy: AKo MuKa aonu Majy, 011.ga u Maja aonu MuKy, yrroTpeboM
nornqxux orrepal.\Hja
V(M11Ka, Maja) => V(Maja, M11Ka).
PeqeHHIW KojoM ce TBPAH Aa CBaKa oco5a Y3Bpaha JbybaB ococ511 Koja je BOJIJ1 MO)l(eMo
l13pa3l1TJ1 jeAHOCTaBHO IIOMohy yttl1Bep3aJIHOI' KBaHT11cp11KaTopa
(Vx)(Vy)(V(x,y) => V(y,x)).
y peqeHJ.fI\Jl ,,Maja BOJIYl HeKora" Kp11je ce er3l1CTeHI~J1jaJIHJ1 KBaHT11cp11KaTop: ,,IIOCTO
eeKo Kora Maja BOJIYl': op;Hoceo
(3x) V(Maja,x).
HaBOAJL'AO jom HeKOJlJ!lKO rrpHMepa:
CBaKO BOJIYl HeKora - (Vx)(3y) V(x,y);
HeKo BOJIYl CBaKora - (3x)(Vy) V(x,y);
HeKo He BOJIYl HHKora - (3x)(Vy)--, V(x,y);
CBaKO ee BOJIYl HeKora - (Vx)(3y)--, V(x,y). +

3aii;aTa

IlopeA peJiaJ.\Hje v 113 11peTXOAHOI' 11p11Mepa IIOCMaTpajMo jorn ABe ococ511He 1bYAl1:
,,fot:Tii M)7IllKOr 11ona" 11 ,,c511T11)l(eHcKor11ona': HeKa M(x) 3Haq11 ,,x je MYIIIKor 11ona", a
Z(x) 3Haq11 ,,x je )l(eHcKor 11ona': IlpeBeAHTe Ha cp11cK11 je3HK 3a1111ce:
_ (Vx)(M(x) => (3y)(Z(y) A V(x,y)));
2 (3x)(Z(x) A (Vy)(M(y) => V(y,x)));
3 (3x)(Z(x) A (Vy)(M(y) => --., V(x,y)));
'±J (3x)(M(x) A (Vy)(Z(y) => V(x,y))).

38
 .., ..- ...
-~;:::....··~

-
-,

:.; -.liill..,11,
1111
:I

Jlfaa KBaHTHcpHKaTopa o5aBe3HO cne,n;w rrpoMeHJbHBa Kaja Y3HMa Bpe,n;HOCTH H3 HeKor,

yrnaBHOM, yttanpe,n; 3a,n;aTOr cKyna. l..JecTO ce y cpopMynaMa wcTwre H Taj cKyn, Tj.
KOpHCTe ce TaK03BaHJ1 orpaHJ.fqeHH KBaHTHcpHKaTopw:

lf
Vx E A - ,,3a cBaKH eJieMeHT x cKyna A"

3x E A - ,,rrocTOjH eneMeHT x CKyna A~

A
IIpnMep2.
). IlpeBe,D;HMO HeKOJIHKO MaTeMaTJ.flIKMX TBp,ll;H>H Ha je3Jfl( cpopl'.ryna rrpm!eHOM
KBaHTHcpHKaTopa.

38wp 8wno Kor npwpo,n;Hor 8poja H ttyne je,n;HaK je TOM 8pojy:

(Vx E N)(x+O=x).
KBa,n;paT rnaKor peaJIHor 5poja je HeHeraTHBaH:
(Vx E JR)(.x2 ~ O).
Je,n;HaqwHa x2-6x + 5 = 0 HMa pernelba y cKyny u;enwx 8pojeBa:
(3x E Z)(.x2-6x+5 =0).
Je,n;HaqwHa x2 = 2 HeMa pernelba y cKyny pau;woHaJIHHX 8pojeBa:
•(3x E Q)(.x2 = 2).
He nocTOjH peaJiaH 8poj KOjH je Betrn o,n; CBKX ocTaJIKX peaJIHKX 8pojeBa:
-,(3x E JR)(Vy E JR)(y < x). •

IlpHMeTHMO ,n;a ce orpaH}fqeHJ!I KBaHTHcpKKaTopH Mory eJIJ1MJ1HJ1Cant CJieAeIDL\i

0 eKBHBaJieHu;wjaMa:
(Vx E A)F ~ Vx(x EA=> F) H (3x E A)F ~ 3x(x E AAF),
npw qeMy je F HeKa rrpoH3BOJbHa cpopM)'Jla.

Be3e Me9y KBaHTHcpHKaTopm.rn ,n;ajy TaK03BaHJI ,Ue MopraHOBH 3aKOHlf:

-,(Vx)F ~ (3x)• F w -,(3x)F ~ (Vx)• F.

IIpnMep3.
IlpeMa ,Ue MoprattOBHM 3aKOHHMa 3a KBaHTHcpmraTope, Herarµtja peqemme ,,CBaKO
BOJIH HeKora" je ,,HeKO He BOJIJ!I HHKOra":
-,(Vx)(3y) V(x,y) ~ (3x)(Vy)• V(x,y).

~",a TaKo9e, npeMa HCTHM 3aKOHHMa, peqeHmi;a ,,Jep;Ha'Ilma x2 = 2 HeMa pemeJha y cxyrry
pau;woHaJIHKX 8pojeBa" jecTe eKBHBaJieTHa peqeHYfl.l;K ,,3a csaim pammHCL"laH c5poj x je
.x2;t:2":
-,(3x E Q)(x2=2) ~ (Vx E Q)x2=2.

PeqeHHu;a ,,He IIOCTOjH peaJiaH 8poj KOjH je Betrn o,n; CBHX OCTCLTIIX pea;nmx 8poieBa·
wcTo TBP,n;H IIITO H peqemui;a _,, O,n; cBaKor peJIHor 8poja nocToj~1 sebn c5pot:
-,(3x E IR)(Vy E ::i)(y < x) ~ (Vx E JR)(3y E R)(x ~ y. +

39
 HnycrpyjMo, ea 1q>ajy, seo~rn 8m1CJ<y Besy H3Mel)y OCHOBHHX ocoforna cKynoBa H
iIOilf'iKUX 3a.KOHa.

IlpK11ep4.
Ilol)n:MO OI.J; rrpenIOCTIIBKH:
1 HeKH rrpocpecopH cy MaTeMaTwiapH.
~ Csu MaTeMaTWiapJt cy AObpH JbYAJf:.
Koja o;:i. rne;::retrn:x peqeirn:qa je HCIIpaBaH 3aKJbyqaK oBe ,n;Be rrpeTIIOCTaBKe?
A) CBJ1 rrpocpecopH cy AObpH JbYAJf:.
E) HeIOI rrpocpecopH cy AObpu lbJAH.
B) HeKH rrpocpecopH HHCY AObpH JbYAff.
IIpuMeTHMo Hajrrpe Aa ce AaTe rrpernocTaBKe o,n;Hoce Ha TPff BpcTe lhy,n;ff:
• rrpocpecope - 03Haqlf:Mo ca P CKyn rrpocpecopa,
MaTeMaTWiape - 03HatfHMo ca M cKyn MaTeMaTffqapa,
• AObpe lbJAe - 03Ha'IHMo ca D cKyn AObpmc lbJAff,
ff ;:i;a, Y3 OBe 03HaKe, rrpernocTaBKe K~ ,n;a je p n M 7-0 ff ,n;a je M ~ D.
IlocToje ca.Mo ABa Moryha OAffOCa CKynOBa P, M ff D ff OHff cy rrpffKa3aHff cne,n;etmM
BeHOBHM AJijarpa.MHMa.

IlpecpopMYJIHIIIBMO peqe~e A), E) ff B) Ha je3ffK cKynoBa:

A) P ~ D (CBff rrpocpecopff cy ,n;o8pff lbJAff.)
E) P n D 7-0 (HeKH rrpocpecopff cy AObpff lhY,Il;ff.)
B) P \ D 7- 0 (HeKH rrpocpecopff Hffcy ,n;o8pff lb JAff.)
Y3~1Majylrn y ofoHp rrpeTXOAffe CJIJ1Ke, 3aKJbyqyjeMO ,n;a je,n;ffHO p n D 7-0 Mopa bffTff
JfCrryH>eHO.
,UaKJie, HcrrpasaH 3aKJbyqaK AaTHX rrpeTrrocTaBKff je peqettm.w E).

HeKo he MO)l(,Il;a rrpoTecrnoBaTff 3bor yse,n;ettmc rrpeTrrocTaBKff rnp,n;ehff ,n;a OHe HffCY
Taqee. Mel)yrHM, MK OBOM rrpmrnKOM He ,n;ffcKyTyjeMo o ffCTffHffTOCTff rrpeTrrocTaBKff,
Ben 0 HCIIpaBHOCTff 3aKJbyql1Balba.

HaBOAJf.MO jom ABa IIpffMepa 3aKJbyq>1Balha no ffCTffM rrpffHD;ffITffMa.

llpeiUuociUaBKa: HeKff rrapanenorpaMff cy KBap;paTff.

IIpeiUuociUaBKa: CBff KBa,n;paTff ffMajy je,n;HaKe AHjaroHaJie.
3aKJby11aK: HeKff rrapanenorpaMff ffMajy jeAHaKe ,n;ffjaroHane.

IIpeiUuociUaBKa: HeKff CJIOHOBff cy ITffHTBffHff.

IIpeiUuociUaBKa: CBff IIHHTBHHff neTe.
3aKlbJ1-tllK: HeKH CJIOHOBff neTe. +
40

"
- ~~--~~~~~~-
 '----

3ap;an;H
Jlon.PIKH Be3HJIIJ;lf

·~ :-pe,n;M 3a Koje cy je,n;Ho1v11cppeHe rrpHpo,n;He 8pojeBe x TaqHe crre,n;ene cpopMyrre:

A
r- S::7Ax>3; 2, x=1Vx2'.'.7; 3 •x2=4=:>•x=2;
. 2'.'.3<=>x>3; 5 x=1Vx=2<=>(x-l)(x-2)=0.

- cy MCKa3lll:
.'...!.aTlf
p: Teno je 3,n;paBo; q: ,!J;yx je 3,n;paB.
Harrm1rn peqemuw Koja o.n;roBapa lllCKa3y p ::::> q.
- O,n;pe,n;lll rromqKy CTPYKTYPY peqeH~e JI.a 5u gyx 5uo 39pa8, goBOJbHO je ga iUeno
....; 5yge 39pa80. ~
I
p q r I F
J1cKa3He <}>opMyrre. TayT011on1je T T T
T ; T l. ! T
3 <l>opMMpaj lllCTlllHlllTOCHe Ta8~e cpopM)71a lll o.n;pew1 Koj e cy Tayrorrornj e. T l.. T
p Aq ::::> p; 2) q ::::> pV q; 3 pAq ::::> (p <=> q); -1 pV•q ::::> • (pAq); T ..1 l.
C 'XP ::::> q) A (r ::::> q) ::::> q V •(p V r); 6 p V •q ::::> •(p A •r). .1 T T ! .1
4. O,;we,n;M 8ap je,n;Hy cpopM)71Y F qJl{ja je lllCTJffiHTOCHa Ta8IDfi\a ,n;aTa Ha Maprmm. .1 T ..l
.l .l T l ..l
5 ~ieTO,n;oM CBol)elha Ha arrcyp,n; ,n;oK3.)l(JI{ ,n;a cy crre,n;ene cpopM)71e Tayrnrromje. .l ' .l ..l I T
~ (pA•q * •r) * (pAr ::::> q); 2) ((p <=> q)A(r * s))A(pAr) * qVs.
r AKo cy A, B M C rrpolll3BOJbHe lllCKa3He cpopMyrre, ,n;oK<DKlll ,n;a cy crre,n;ene cpopMyrre
TayTorromje.
•(AAB) *•A V•B; 2 (A* B)A (B ::::> C) * (A::::> C). E
TayT011or11je H 3aKOHH 3aKJ1>yq1ma11>a
...,_ ,!J;arn je cpopMyrra (p * q) V r. Koja je o,n; crre,n;eillrx cpopM)'Jla JIOIWIKJ{ eKBJIBaJ"IeHTHa
,n;aTOj cpopMyrrlll:
1) (pA•q) * r; 2) p ::::> (•q * r); 3 p
8. Kojl!l cy o,n; crre,n;eillrx lllCKa3a rrorwna1 eKBirnaneHnrn HCKa3Y " nt
* (•r * q)?
BJ!Ol y rrpaBy mrn
A
caM ja rry,n;"?
A) AKo rn Tlll y rrpaBy, oH,n;a caM ja rry,n;;
B) AKo caM ja rry,n;, oH,n;a rn HMClll y rrpaBy;
B) Tl!l HlllClll y rrpaBy lll ja ID1CaM rry,n;;
r) AKo ja HlllCaM rry,n;, oH,n;a Clll rn y rrpaBy;
A. AKo ja HHCaM rry,n;, oH,n;a TH HlllClll y rrpaBy.
9. Pa3rOBapajy TPH ,n;pyra.
IIepa: ,,Jla30, aKo ,n;o8Hjem rreT lll3 MaTeMaTlllKe, ,n;o8Hnern H rreT lll3 cplt3JIKe."
MHKa: ,,Jla30, aKo ,n;o8Hjem neT Jt3 cpn3J1Ke, ,n;o8Hhern H rreT H3 MaTeMannce:'
Jla3a: ,,CBaKaKo he 8HTl!l Ta'ffia H3jaBa 8ap jemior o,n; Bae ,n;Boj m.~e."
,!J;a JIH je Jla3HHa lll3jaBa Ta'ffia?

10. ,!J;OK3.)l(JI{ ,n;a je 3a CBaKJ!l rrpHpOAaH 8poj n Ta'ffia JrunJIJ1KaI.J;Jllj a:

2
aKO je n napa.H 8poj, mma j e n napaH 8poj.
E
'1 1
 CKynoBH. OcHOBHe onepan;uje ca cKynoBHMa

l l . .UoK<DKJt .;:i;a cy 3a fom o Koj e CKJIIOBe A , B H C Ta'IHe jewiaKOCTH:

A l) A n B =B n A; ~ A u B =B u A;

6) An (B u C) = (A ~) u (An C);
3) A n (B n C) =(A n B) n C;
4) Au (B u C) = (Au B) u C; 5 Au (B n C) =(Au B) n (Au C);
"' Au (An B) =A;
8) A n (AU B) = A ~(A \ B) U B=A U B;
10 A\(B UC) = (A\ B) n (A \ C); ~ l A \ (A\B)=AnB.
l 2 HeKa cy A H B rrpoH3BOJbHJII IlOACKJIIOBH OA S. ,[(oK<DKHMO ,[(e MopraHoBy jeAHaKoC""
(A U B)' =A' n B'.
YuyiUciUBo. ITorneAaj npHMep 5. Ha cTpaHH 25.

Koj e cy OA cJieAenJIIX cpopMyna TaqHe 3a forno Koje cKynoBe A H B?

: A kB=> A n B =A; 2) An B =B =>A kB;
3 A k B => A \ B = 0 ; 1 A k B => B \A = 0;
5) A n B =0 =>A \ B =A; A n 0 =A=> A =0;
l) A \ 0=0 => A =0; AU B=0 => A=0AB=0.

Ypel)eHH nap. )];eKapTOB npoH3BO)J;

l . ,[(oK<DKJII Aa j e 3a bJIIJIO Koj e cKynose A, B H C TaqHa jeAHaKoCT

(A \ B) xC=(AxC) \ (BxC) .
l: Koj e cy OA cnegehJ!IX cpopMyna TaqHe 3a bHJIO Koje cKynoBe A H B?

E A k B => AxA k BxB;

2 A k B => AxA k AxB;
3 A n B =0 => (A xA ) n (BxB) =0.

BHHapHe perran;Hje

1..... Pena1.vrjy ::::; cKyna JR qecTo nocMaTpaMo H Ha HeKJ1M nogcKynoBHMa OA R

b
A • Hal.{pTaj rpacp H cpopMHpaj Tabnmw penaQHje::::; Ha cKyny A= {l,2,3}.
2 H~pTaj rpacp H cpopMHpaj TabJIMQY penaQHje < Ha cKyny A= { 1,2,3}.
17. Ha CKyny S = {a,b,c,d,e } AecpHHHCaHa je bMHapHa penaQHja a rpacpoM KojM je
rrpHKa3aH Ha MaprHHJ1.
_ Pen~Hjy a npeACTaBM Kao nogcKyn OA SxS Hasol)elheM lheHMX eneMeHaTa.
2 ,[(a Jrn j e penaQMja a pecpneKCMBHa, HpecpneKCHBHa, CJ1MeTpJ1IqHa,
aHTJIICJ1IMeTpJ1IqHa,JIJ1HeapHa,TpaH3JIITJIIBHa?
-
l..... I1pHK<DIG1: y Koop,z:µrnaTHOM CMCTeMY pen~Hje:?: H > cKyna R
• ··:_ ·1..,.. c - Bo. BHAM rrpMMep 2. Ha cTpaHH 28.

l S HaseAJ!I 8ap jeAaH npHMep cKyna H bMHapHe penaQMje Ha lheMy Koja je

TpaH3JIITJIIBHa, aJIJII HHje pecpneKCJIIBHa HJIITJII je CJIIMeTpJ1qHa.

2
 r
,,
.
..--

20. Ha rraprnnrnHoM cKyrry cKyrra rrpHpo,n;muc 8pojeBa P(N ) ,n;eqmHHCaHa je 8HHapHa

perraQHja p Ha crre,n;ehH HaqJ.1H:
A pBaKKoA n B=0.
,D;a JIJ.1 je perraQHja p peq)JieKCHBHa, Hpeq)JieKCHBHa, CliMeTpHqHa, aHTJ.1CJ1MeTpJ.1qHa,
JIJ.1HeapHa,TpaH3J.1TJ.1BHa?
E
PeJian;Hje nopeTKa H eKBHBaJieHn;Hje

OCT 21. O,n;pe,n;H 8ap je,n;aH rrernqrraH rro.n;cKyrr o,n; N Ha KOMe je pemU.\Hja ,n;eJbHBOCTH
JIHHeapHo ypel)elbe.

22. HajMalbMM 8pojeM CTperrHQa ,n;orryttHTH rpacp rrpHKa3aH Ha CID!I.{J.1 ,n;eCHo TaKO ,n;a OH
8y,n;e rpacp perraQHje eKBHBarreHQHje Ha CKyrry {a,b,c,d,e }, a 3aTHM o,n;pe,n;H KJiace Te
( •c
perraQHje.
0~e•
23. Ha cKyrry rrpHpo,n;HHX 8pojeBa N ,n;ecpHHHCaHa je bHHapHa perraQMja p ea crre,n;el:rn:
Haq11H:
mp n aKKO m + n je rrapaH 8poj.
,lJ;oKa:>KH ,n;a je p perraQHja eKBHBaJieHQHje.

24. Ha cKyrry QeJIHX 8pojeBa Z ,n;ecpHH11caHa je 811HapHa perraQHja p Ha crre,n;ehH HaqHH:

mp
n aKKo lml =lnl.
,lJ;oKa)l<J.1 ,n;a je p perra:QHja eKBHBaJieHQHje 11 o,n;pe,n;H KJiace eKBHBarreHQ11je.

<l>YJIKD;Hje
25. O,n;pe,n;H cBe cpyttKQHje J.13 cKyrra {1,2} y cKyn {l ,2,3} H cBe cpyttKQJfj e m { l,.2,3} y
{1,2}.

26. <l>yHKQHja 1: IR _.,,.

l) l(O); 2) .f(-1);
IR ,n;ecpHHHcatta je ca j(x) = O,Sx - 2. O,n;pe,n;H:
3 j(0,5); '! j(--0,5); 5 j(f()) ); 15 flft.3 )).
A
27. <l>yHKQHje f: {l,2,3,4} _.,,. {l,2,3} Hg: {l,2,3} _.,,. {l ,2,3} cy ,n;aTe ca

l = ( 1234) Hg= (123). O,n;pe,n;H KOMIT03HQHJe. g of, g o g.

2212 321

28. HaBe,n;H HeKa ,n;Ba cKyrra A H B H cpyttKQ11jy 113 A y B MJIH J.13 By A Koj a j e:
1) 1-1-<PyttKQHja H HHje Ha-<PyttKQHja; 2) HHje 1-1-<PyttKQHja, a j ecre ea-<Pye:Kqnj a.

29 <l>yHKQHjaf: {l,2,3,4} _.,,. {a,b,c,d} ,n;aTa j e cal=(

123 4
).
E
b cad
,D;a JIH je OB a cpyttKQHja 8HjeKQaja? AKo jecTe, o,n;pe,n;H

30. <l>yttKQHje f: IR _.,,. IR Hg: R _.,,. R cy p;ecpmrncatte ca

1-'.
B
l(x) =2x-1 Hg(x) =-3x+ 1.
1) ,lJ;oKa:>KH ,n;a cy l Hg 8ajeKIµtje " O;:qJe;:p11-1 u g -1•
2) O,n;pe,n;H l o g, ,n;oKa:>KH ,n;a je OBa KOMII03unuja forjeKQMj a H o,n;pe,n;n (j" g)-1•
1-
3) ,lJ;OKa:>KJ.1 je,u;rrnKOCT (j 0 g)-1 = g-1 0 1•

A.3
 EneMeHTH KOMbHHaTopHKe

31. l) Ha KOIDIKO Ha'llHa ce MO)l(e ff3a8parn: rnmppa (password) o,n; rreT 3HaKoBa Kojy
'Ilme ca.Mo Mana rnoBa eHrnecKe a8eu;e,n;e (lhHX 26) ff u;ffcppe ,n;eKa,n;Hor c11cTeMa
(IbHX 10) ? TipM TOMe IIIHcppe ce Mory cacTOjaTff ff Ca.MO o,n; CJIOBa ffJIJ1 caMO o,n;
8pojeBa, a 3H~ yttyrap IIIHcppe ce Mory rroHaBJhaTM.
~ Ha KOJIMKO HatfHHa ce MO)l(e ff3a8paTff IIIHcppa o,n; rreT 3HaKOBa TaKO ,n;a CBff 3Hau;J1
8y,n;y Mel)yco8Ho pa3nwrnrn?

32c Ha CJIMQM JieBo je IIpHKa3aHO rnecT rronyrrpaBHX ca 3aje,n;HJftIKJ1M rroqeTKOM.

KoJIHKO KOHBeKCHHX yrnoBa o,n;pel)yjy oBe rronyrrpaBe?

.:(~ Y rpy1rn o,n; 10 oco8a HaJia3e ce HffHa ff An;a. Ha KOJIMKO Haq11Ha ce Mory ff3a8paTM
qeTl1pff oco8e, rro,n; yrnoBOM ,n;a aKo je ff3a8paHa H11Ha Mopa 8ffTff M3a8paH 11 Au;a?

KBaHTH4>HKaTopH

3.,. Koj e cy o,n; cn e,n;ehKx cpopM)71a TatfHe?

B : (Vx E N)(3y E N)(x::::; y);

3) (Vx E Q)(3y E Q)(x · y= l);
5) {3x E Q)(x < O!\ .x2 =9);
2 (3x E Z )(3 · x=-2);
4) (Vx E R)(x > 0 ~ -x < O);
6) (3x E R )(x > 3!\3x-l =0).
35 )J,aTa j e cpopM)'Jla • (3x E R )(x < 1 !\x > 2). Kaja je o,n; cne,n;en11x cpopMyna
eKBMBaneHTHa ,n;aTOj cpopM)71ff?
~ (Vx E IR)(x > 1 !\x < 2); 2) (3x E R )(x ~ 1 V x::::; 2);
3) (Vx E R)(x ~ 1Vx::::;2); 4 \ (3x E R )(x < 1 V x > 2).

44
 PEAJIHJ1 EPOJEBJ1
eijy :Je~aJIHH 3anJ1CH 6pojeBa JI onepa.Q.Hje ca lhJrna ( 46)

A Ilep110,n;Hqm-1 H KOHaqHH ,n;eu;HMaJIHH 3armrn: 6pojeBa; ocHOBHe orrepau;Hje

ca ,n;eu;HMaJIHHM 6pojeBHMa; yrroTpe6a KaJIKynaTopa; OCHOBHa CBOjCTBa
orrepau;Hja ( 46)

.:::Ie.DJIBOCT npJ1p0,!1;HHX JI n;eJDIX 6pojeBa (52)

A JJ;eJI?HBOCT rrpHpo,n;Hmc 6pojeBa (52)

E EyKJIH,n;oB amopHTaM; pacTaBJbaJt.e rrpHpOAHHX 6pojeBa Ha rrpoCTe

qHHHou;e (53)

B EpojeBHe 6a3e (56)

CKfII pan;J10HaJIHHX 6pojeBa (58)

A IIepHo,n;HqHH ,n;eu;HMaJIHH 3amtCJI H pa3JIOMD;H; paqyH ca pasJIOMD;HMa (58)

CKfII peaJIHHX 6pojeBa (62)

A EecKoHaqHH ,n;eu;HMaJIHH 3arn101 H Hpau;HoHaJIHH 6pojeBH;

6pojeBHa rrpaBa (62)

E OcHOBHe oco6HHe orrepau;J1ja ca peaJIHHM 6pojem1Ma (66)

B Ilorne,n;Hu;e ornoBHHX ocoforna onepau;Hja H rropeTKa peaJIHHX 6poj eBa (67)

AncoJiyTHa Bpe,a;HocT peaJIHor 6poja (69)

A IIojaM arrconyTHe Bpe,qHOCTH (69)

E OrnoBHe oco6HHe arrconyTHe Bpe,qHOCTH (70)

Ilpu:6JIJ1:arne Bpe,n;HOCTif peaJIHHX 6pojeBa (71)

A IlpH6mo1rna Bpe,n;HOCT peaJIHor 6poja; rrpaBHJia 3aOKp)71ThH.BaH>a;

arrconyTHa H penanrnHa rpemKa; orrepau;Hje ca rrpH6m DKIDrn
Bpe,n;HOCTHMa (71)